expanding vision - space telescope science …...hubble is launched aboard space shuttle discovery....

SPACE TELESCOPE SCIENCE INSTITUTE | ANNUAL REPORT 03

E X P A N D I N G V I S I O N

O L U T I OT H E C O N T I N U I N G E V O L U T I O N O F T H E H U B B L E S P A C E T E L E S C O P EE V N

EVOLVINGT

h e y e a r 2 0 0 3 b e g a n w i t h the tragic loss of the space shuttle Columbia

and its crew of seven astronauts on February 1st. It ended with Hubble returning data

of unprecedented quality and size as a result of the instrument upgrades made by

Columbia’s crew on its last mission prior to the disaster, Servicing Mission 3B (SM3B).

In between, we saw the continued growth of new ideas to use Hubble to understand the

cosmos, stimulated by its evolution as the world’s only serviceable space telescope.

A l m o s t 6 0 % o f H u b b l e ’s o b s e r v i n g time in the current cycle uses the

Advanced Camera for Surveys, installed during SM3B in April 2002. The growth of interest

is only in part because ACS is new. The more important reasons are that Hubble can

uniquely resolve the small structures of galaxies in the early universe, as demonstrated

first with the Hubble Deep Field (HDF) observations in 1996, and that understanding galaxy

formation has moved to center stage in astronomy as a key problem to be solved. Four

major surveys of distant galaxies are complete or underway: the Great Observatories

Origins Deep Survey (GOODS), Galaxy Evolution from Morphologies and Sprectral Energy

Distributions (GEMS), Cosmic Evolution Survey, and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF).

These in turn were stimulated by the discoveries of the 1990s involving Hubble and the big

ground-based telescopes.


S T E V E N B E C K W I T H

E V O L U T I O N

EVOLVINGT h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e universe in the late 1990s also

carved out a unique new role for Hubble. Its ability to measure the magnitudes of distant

supernovae make it the telescope of choice for understanding the era when the universe

transitioned from slowing down to speeding up in its expansion. The Near Infrared Camera

and Multi-Object Spectrometer, restored to life by the astronauts during SM3B, is essential

for these observations and underscores our ability by means of servicing missions to adapt

Hubble to the important science of the day.

T h e n e w i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l e n t e r the hunt for extrasolar planetary systems with

a series of observations scheduled in Hubble’s Cycle 12 to search for occultations by

planets surrounding stars in the bulge of our Galaxy, a search for which Hubble is uniquely

suited. Discovered in the mid-1990s, extrasolar planetary systems have become a central

theme of modern astrophysical study as well as a motivation for the next generation of

space telescopes.

H u b b l e w a s d e s i g n e d f o r a n entirely different set of scientific problems than

those it is solving now. Most of the original problems were solved in Hubble’s first decade,

and it is now concentrating on the most important topics of today, none of which were

developed or even imagined during Hubble’s design. Yet Hubble is now a dominant force in

these new topics, in some cases uniquely so.

T h i s s u p p l e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m o n e area to another is characteristic of a

complete observatory, which is a general-purpose facility, not designed to answer a

specific scientific question but rather to investigate many. Hubble’s ability to improve its

instruments through servicing gives it added agility, allowing us to tailor its strengths to

the most important problems of the era. As science evolves, so too does Hubble, keeping it

on the cutting edge for decades. None of NASA’s other missions has been able to evolve so

adroitly as Hubble.

O f c o u r s e , t h i s c o n t i n u i n g e v o l u t i on makes the operations more complex

than would be those of a single-purpose facility. Over the course of 20 years, the Institute

will go through four generations of computing systems and software. It will create entirely

new architectures for its data delivery systems as the data rates increase by orders of

magnitude. It will produce new instrument handbooks, methods of calibration,

visualization and analysis tools, and even public outreach products as we move into the era

of IMAX and HDTV. But the incremental cost of these complex operations is repaid many

times over in the value returned to science.

T h e s t a f f a t t h e I n s t i t u t e i s p r o u d to be part of Hubble’s constant evolution,

exemplified so well by the successes of 2003. We hope you enjoy what you read in our

Annual Report, a mixture of fascinating science and the people and systems needed to bring

it to you. As you ponder the wonders of the cosmos brought to you by Hubble, think of the

great engineers at NASA who built the telescope, the courage of the astronauts who

improve it, and the hard work of the people at the Institute who will ensure it continues as

one of the most important facilities in the history of science.

P E R S P E C T I V E

5

1990 Hubble is launched aboard space shuttle Discovery.

After analyzing Hubble’s first pictures in June, astronomers discover that the telescope has “blurred vision,” caused by a slight distortion in the 2.4-meter primary mirror.

The telescope resolves a ring of material around Supernova 1987A.

90 1991 Hubble’s detection of blue straggler stars in the core of a globular star cluster supports the theory that they result from stellar collisions and mergers.

NEWS N E W S

“When we took you up on your ViewSpace offer, we did not know how good it was going to be for us,” wrote Judith James, planetarium director at the Brazosport Nature Center and Planetarium on the Texas gulf coast. “Dow Chemical Company came through with a generous donation for equipment large enough to do ViewSpace and an upgrade on our projection equipment in the dome.

We now have a high-end graphics computer and a 42-inch wall-mounted plasma screen in our lobby viewing area…. It’s been a real magnet for us.”

More information about ViewSpace and related projects is available at http://hubblesource.stsci.edu.

90 91 1992

People visit museums, science centers, and planetariums in search of connections to the universe beyond

their everyday experience. They expect science to be presented in a way that informs and entertains. They

tacitly assume that their local museum or planetarium has the curatorial resources necessary to keep

abreast of the latest developments in science—and to keep their exhibits and programs up-to-date.

In 2003, the Informal Science Education group in the Institute’s Office of Public Outreach worked to make

those assumptions a reality, at least in the realm of astronomy. We developed ViewSpace, an innovative

program that links the Institute to popular venues of public science education across the country. ViewSpace

uses the Internet and inexpensive hardware to deliver a continuous ‘feed’ of visually rich, astronomically-

themed story segments from Hubble and other space-science missions. At the venues, these segments are

presented in mini-theaters set up in astronomy exhibit halls and planetarium lobbies. Images, interpretive

text, digital animation, and evocative music combine to create low-cost experiences that many visitors find

simply mesmerizing.

Word about the availability of ViewSpace is spreading rapidly. In the first year, over 40 institutions—

in communities large and small—installed ViewSpace or committed to the program. Dozens more have

expressed interest. Current venues include Boston’s Museum of Science, the Cleveland Museum of

Natural History, the New York Hall of Science, Honolulu’s Bishop Museum, the Houston Museum of

Natural Science, and the National Air & Space Museum.

At the 2003 conference of the American Association of Museums, ViewSpace was awarded a Bronze

MUSE Award “in recognition of the highest standards of excellence in the use of media and technology for

interpretation and education in science.” One judge commented: “This was great. It was like seeing a sky

show on my PC. And while the images were spectacular, it wasn’t just about the images. The content was

great, too—interesting, clear, well-presented, and wonderfully illustrated with these great photos.”

The wider astronomical community has discovered that ViewSpace offers a fresh, appealing way to convey

its latest science results to audiences eager to receive them. We have collaborated with the Chandra, Spitzer,

and SOHO missions to create educational story segments and ongoing mission updates.

ViewSpace: Now Playing at a Planetarium Near You

N E W S

Hubble identifies nearby intergalactic clouds.

7

John Stoke

90 91 92 1993

In 2003, the Independent Detector Testing Laboratory (IDTL) completed a critical task for NASA, the

characterization of candidate near-infrared detector technologies for the James Webb Space Telescope.

On the basis of IDTL results, two Webb scientific instrument teams selected HgCdTe detectors made by

Rockwell Scientific Company.

The Institute and The Johns Hopkins University established the IDTL in 1999 to provide world-class testing

and development facilities for astronomical detectors and associated technology. The IDTL serves the

astronomical community with expertise, technical information, and facilities, and also provides training for

graduate students in detector technology.

The IDTL tests of near-infrared detectors for the Webb involved measuring first-order detector properties

such as read noise, dark current, persistence, and quantum efficiency. These were measured as functions of

environmental parameters (radiation exposure, thermal conditions, and operating modes) for two candidate

detector types. The tests were conducted using the same procedures, setups, dewars, light sources, targets,

electronics, acquisition software, analysis software, and staff. The completed Webb detector characterization

project obtained two terabytes of data over two years from six prototype detectors during 25 cool-downs.

The measured performance of the Rockwell detector is impressive, with dark current as low as 1.3 e- per

1000 seconds per pixel, the lowest ever measured for an array having a long wavelength sensitivity cutoff

at 5 µm. The read noise was low, <10 e- per frame averaged over eight non-destructive reads. All imaging

devices trap charge that can appear later while imaging another object. Rockwell devices showed a very low

‘persistence’ of ~ 0.03% total integrated charge over 2000 seconds after a saturating exposure to light.

The IDTL provided critical data used by the University of Arizona in their selection of the Rockwell detectors

for the Near Infrared Camera and by Goddard Space Flight Center and the European Space Agency in their

selection of the same detectors for the Near Infrared Spectrograph.

Figure 1: A prototype Webb detector, the Rockwell H2RG.

Donald Figer, Michael Regan, Bernard Rauscher

Independent Detector Testing Laboratory

N E W S

The first servicing mission takes place. Astronauts on the space shuttle Endeavour add a corrective optics system to fix the telescope’s spherical aberration.

Hubble discovers protoplanetary disks in the Orion Nebula.

9

Figure 1: The new Webb design, showing the 18-segment primary mirror and the five-layer sunshield. A large, deployable boom holds the optics and science instruments several meters above the sunshield to provide

thermal isolation from the warm shade and avionics (not shown).

To learn more about the Webb, visit http://www.stsci.edu/jwst.

90 91 92 93 1994

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has taken a major step toward reality as an affordable and achievable

observatory. In 2003, NASA and Northrop Grumman Space Technologies (NGST), the prime contractor,

completed the first design refinement since proposal selection. We expect several more redesign cycles before

the Critical Design Review in 2007, which will address finer levels of detail. This means that the ultimate

appearance of Webb will be close to the sleek look unveiled in the December 2003 Systems Requirements

Review (Figure 1).

Aficionados of Webb’s evolving appearance will notice the smaller number of segments in the deployable

primary mirror. Reducing the mirror area from 29 to 25 m2 and increasing the size of mirror segments from

1.0 to 1.3 m cut the number of segments in half, from 36 to 18. NASA and NGST agreed that fewer segments

should reduce the development risk and simplify optical adjustment during testing and operations. In

September 2003, a beryllium technology for manufacturing was chosen and construction of the first ‘flight-

like’ segments began.

The new Webb looks svelte. Its design is now cleaner as well as more realistic. Nevertheless, perhaps

inevitably, maturity has increased Webb’s weight. Even with the great lift capacity of the European Ariane

5, which will launch Webb to the second Sun-Earth Lagrange point in 2011, NASA is striving to retain

conservative mass reserves, which they anticipate will be needed to address issues later in the development

phase. To make up for the increased mass of the primary mirror and science instruments, the 2003 design

features a smaller, sculpted sunshield, a reduced fuel load for station keeping, and a five-year limit on

the cryogens for the mid-infrared instrument.

Appropriately for an observatory designed in ‘Space Park’—Manhattan Beach, California—some say the

Webb has the look of an interplanetary racing yacht. The multi-layered sunshade sports high-tech halyards,

stays, battens, booms, masts, and pulleys for its minutely choreographed deployment (Figure 2). Like a racing

craft, Webb will constantly trim its pointing to adjust to the slight, but persistent, pressure of sunlight. As

the eventual captains of the Webb, the Institute’s Science and Operations Center may need to ‘tack’ her by

judiciously scheduling observations to minimize the precious fuel consumed to readjust her attitude.

We look forward to a long and exciting scientific voyage of the Webb.

Hubble provides a detailed view of the Comet Shoemaker-Levy collision with Jupiter, offers definitive confirmation of the existence of supermassive black holes, reveals details of Pluto’s surface, and captures a close-up look at jets and disks in young stellar objects.

NASA releases Orion Nebula images that confirm the births of planets around newborn stars.

Figure 2: Another perspective of the new Webb, showing the sunward side of the spacecraft. The large booms, with attached spreader bars, extend and hold the multi-layered sunshield. The box-like structure on the sunward side contains the instrument computers, avionics, and station-keeping thrusters.

N E W S

Webb’s Sleek Design Refinement

11

Peter Stockman

90 91 92 93 941995 NASA releases Eagle Nebula images showing where stars are born.

Through the ‘eyes’ of Hubble, a brown dwarf star is seen clearly. An observation called the Hubble Deep Field allows astronomers to glimpse early galaxy formation.

PROFILESP R O F I L E S

Gerard (Jerry) Kriss is the lead of the

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)

Science Instrument Support Group in

the Instruments Division. Born in Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania, Jerry developed an interest

in amateur astronomy in junior high school.

While an undergraduate in physics at the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),

he became professionally interested in

astronomy through research with a group

flying high-energy X-ray detectors on high-

altitude balloons. This group launched a

52.6 million-cubic-foot balloon in 1975 that

set a world record for size, broken only two

years ago. Jerry’s work in graduate school

at MIT branched out into other wavelengths,

as he made optical observations of quasars

and active galaxies in support of the

newly launched Einstein X-ray Observatory.

Moving on to the University of Michigan as

a Michigan Fellow in 1982, Jerry studied

the mass and dynamics of clusters of

galaxies by using X-ray images from the

Einstein Observatory and optical spectra and

photometry obtained at the McGraw-Hill

Observatory of the University of Michigan.

With the end of his fellowship at Michigan, it

was time for another change in wavelengths.

Jerry moved to the Baltimore area in 1985

to work with Arthur Davidsen at The Johns

Hopkins University (JHU) on the Hopkins

Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT), a shuttle-

based far-ultraviolet observatory, and the

Faint Object Spectrograph, one of the first

instruments on board Hubble. For HUT’s

flight on the Astro-1 mission in 1990, Jerry

coordinated simultaneous observations

with ground-based and other space-based

observatories and helped to develop the data

reduction and analysis system. Following

Astro-1, Jerry moved up to the Project

Scientist position, to lead the refurbishment

of HUT for another shuttle flight. Using

improved silicon carbide coatings on the

primary mirror and the grating, the HUT

team nearly tripled the throughput of the

telescope. This enabled them to make the

first measurement of the opacity of ionized

helium in the high-redshift intergalactic

medium in 1995.

To capitalize on the observations of the

intergalactic helium with HUT, Jerry became

the Data Pipeline Scientist and the lead of

the Intergalactic Medium Working Group

for the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer

(FUSE) program at JHU. In 2001, Jerry

and the FUSE team resolved the forest of

absorption lines produced by ionized helium

in the intergalactic medium. By comparing

this to the absorption produced by neutral

hydrogen, the group was able to determine

that the radiation ionizing the helium was

from quasars rather than stars.

Jerry always had an interest in developing

instruments to make exciting new

observations, and so with the Cosmic Origins

Spectrograph and the Next Generation Space

Telescope beckoning from across the street,

he joined the Institute staff in 1998. Shortly

thereafter he became the group lead for

the Spectrographs Group in the Science

Instruments Support Division. Then, after 15

years of ultraviolet astronomy, he decided

it was time to change wavelengths again.

In the spring of 2000, Jerry took up infrared

astronomy in his current position with

JWST. His group’s task is to make the JWST

instruments powerful but easy to use and

simple to operate. With JWST, astronomers

should be able to find the first galaxies in

the universe and identify the era when the

light from the stars in those galaxies was

strong enough to ionize the hydrogen in

the intergalactic medium. The promise of

JWST is still in the distant future, however,

so Jerry continues to use FUSE, Hubble,

and the Chandra X-ray Observatory to study

outflows from active galactic nuclei and

further details of the helium absorption in

the intergalactic medium.

Jerry and his wife, Andrea, live in

Lutherville, Maryland, with their children

Jonathan, Katharine, and Alexander. When

not helping the children with their school

projects or homework, Jerry spends his

spare time working on the lawn and garden

and on home-improvement projects. The

shorter development time of these projects

compared to space experiments provides

a much-needed sense of immediate

satisfaction. Jerry also still enjoys showing

the wonders of the night sky to his family

and friends using the 6-inch reflecting

telescope he built in junior high.

J e r r y K r i s s

P R O F I L E S

90 91 92 93 94 95 1996

Melissa Russ heads the Mission Ground

Systems Engineering Branch in

the Engineering Software Services

Division. She also leads the Ground Segment

Systems Engineering Team for the James

Webb Space Telescope (JWST).

Born in Columbia, Pennsylvania, Melissa’s

childhood was filled with adventure because

her parents moved often, although they

stayed in the same region of Pennsylvania.

This allowed her to explore and experience

many different schools, friendships, and

environments, and set in motion Melissa’s

constant search for new opportunities and

challenges. Her interests in these early

years were mainly in math and science,

though she was active in school sports as

well. After graduating from Dallastown Area

High School in York County, Pennsylvania,

she set off to see the world, with her first

stop being a non-technical job in New

Jersey. Wanting new and more interesting

opportunities, Melissa moved back to south-

central Pennsylvania, where she worked

Hubble resolves the host galaxies of quasars.

NASA releases the “Deep Field” images in which Hubble peers back in time more than 10 billion years revealing at least 1,500 galaxies at various stages of development.

and attended Penn State for her bachelor’s

degree in Computer Science.

After completing her degree in just three

and a half years, Melissa worked for

a Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, computer

consulting company before moving to

Charlotte, North Carolina. In Charlotte, she

worked for Microsoft as a support engineer,

and later for a consulting firm specializing

in banking software. Seeking more advanced

career goals, she returned to college in 1994

to pursue her master’s degree in Computer

Science at Clemson University, in South

Carolina.

While meeting the challenge of graduate

school, in her spare time Melissa enjoyed

hiking in the mountains, attending various

collegiate sporting events, and meeting new

people. In fact, she met her best friend and

future husband, Jason, at Clemson. She

also participated in student life and was

elected President of the Graduate Student

Government.

After graduating, Melissa stayed at Clemson

and began her Ph.D. in Computer Science

with aspirations of becoming a college

professor. However, after a year of intense

effort, she felt it was time to apply the skills

she had gained in the classroom and on

the job. She took a position with a small

P R O F I L E SM e l i s s a R u s s

consulting firm, Korson-McGregor (KM).

In 1997, she found herself again in New

Jersey, working as the on-site manager for

KM at Lucent Technologies. Fortunately,

Jason, who was one year behind her in

the computer science master’s program,

graduated and also took a job in New Jersey.

At KM, Melissa was able to use her teaching

and technical skills to introduce software-

development professionals at Lucent and

other companies to new techniques in

object-oriented software design. She had

the opportunity to exercise her writing skills

through conference and journal papers

describing techniques developed at KM.

As KM grew, Melissa pulled Jason into the

company. Together, they worked with several

clients and made a good team.

In 1999 Melissa and Jason were transferred

to Columbia, Maryland, to work with a KM

client. They instantly loved it as it reminded

them of their hometowns. In early 2000, they

married and bought a house in Ellicott City.

Unfortunately, as the economy experienced

a downturn and the consulting business

consolidated, KM ceased operation in 2001,

and Melissa and Jason were both faced with

finding new jobs. Melissa found her new

home at the Institute, where she finds many

new, exciting, and interesting ideas and

challenges, to which she brings a wealth of

knowledge and skills.

Melissa’s branch is responsible for software

systems engineering support for ground

systems throughout the Institute. To provide

general systems engineering training and

education, Melissa instituted a Systems

Engineering Technical Seminar and set up

a small library of information pertinent to

the work of her branch. In addition to her

branch-head role, since October 2002 she

has led the team defining the high-level

requirements of the JWST ground system.

Her team is actively working to meet

important milestones in the upcoming year,

and Melissa is excited to help them achieve

their goals.

Outside of work, Melissa enjoys spending

time with her husband and her family—many

of whom live in nearby York, Pennsylvania—

and her two Norwegian Forest Cats, Colston

and Ashton. She is also active in her church

and enjoys singing with the choir. Some

readers may even have heard her singing

Christmas carols at the Institute.

15

Rick White grew up in Maryville,

Tennessee, in the shadow of the Great

Smoky Mountains. Like many of his

generation, his interest in astronomy grew

out of enthusiasm for the budding U.S. space

program. Rick was an undergraduate at the

University of Tennessee and received his

Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of

Wisconsin in 1978. After postdoctoral

positions at Columbia University and UCLA/

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,

Rick joined the staff of the Institute in

September, 1982. The total staff of the

Institute, then housed in Rowland and

Latrobe Halls on The Johns Hopkins

University (JHU) campus, was less than 40

people. More than twenty years later, he is

one of the Institute’s longest-serving

employees.

Rick has served in many functional roles. For

nine years he was the instrument scientist

for the High Speed Photometer, one of the

five original scientific instruments onboard

Hubble. With the discovery of the spherical

aberration of Hubble’s primary mirror in

June 1990, he began to devote much of his

time to the problems of Hubble image

restoration (deconvolution). Already familiar

with deconvolution methods from his

research in radio astronomy, he organized a

group of interested Institute astronomers

(the Deconvolution Working Group,

informally known as the ‘fuzzy folks’), which

determined that deconvolution could indeed

improve the aberrated Hubble images and

that many different methods could work. In

August 1990, Rick organized a workshop on

image restoration, with representation from

both the astronomical community and the

computer image-processing community. He

also participated in the first Hubble science

press conference at NASA headquarters on

August 13, 1990. The early science images of

the R136A cluster in the Large Magellanic

Cloud were crucial to maintaining support

for the Hubble project through this

challenging period.

Through 1994, Rick continued to work, both

formally and informally, on Hubble image

restoration. During this period he also

developed the HCOMPRESS image compression

algorithm used for the Digitized Sky Survey.

This software has been widely used in the

astronomical community, and its far-flung

uses include installation as the onboard

image-compression software on the Solar

and Heliospheric Observatory, now in orbit.

From 1995 through 1999, Rick served as

leader of the Science Software Group (now

Branch), which is responsible for developing

the calibration and data analysis software

used for calibrating Hubble data. In addition

to managing the activities of the group, Rick

worked with Perry Greenfield to develop

PYRAF, a replacement for the IRAF

command language, based on the widely

used PYTHON scripting language. From 2000

until mid-2003, Rick was the Science User

Systems Department head in the

Engineering and Software Services Division.

After completing a sabbatical with the

Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) science

team at JHU, Rick assumed his current

position as head of the Archive Branch. The

Hubble data archive is a vital and active area

of development at the Institute, both because

the archive is a valuable, long-term resource

for astronomy and because current ‘virtual

observatory’ activities are magnifying the

power and scope of archival research.

Rick continues an active research career and

has worked in a great variety of areas in

theoretical and observational astrophysics.

He has studied winds from massive stars,

the interstellar medium, supernova

remnants, galaxies, clusters, quasars, and

cosmology. He is part of a small team that

created the FIRST radio survey, which

covered half the northern sky using the

world’s best radio telescope, the Very Large

Array. As part of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey

high-redshift quasar team, he has observed

many of the most distant known objects in

the universe with the world’s largest optical

telescopes (the twin Keck 10-meter

telescopes in Hawaii). He is an expert on

methods of ‘data mining’ used in the

analysis of very large astronomical catalogs.

On the ACS team, he has contributed to

projects as diverse as searches for planets

around nearby stars and studies of

gravitational lensing by distant clusters of

galaxies.

Rick and his wife, Jean Engelke, met at the

Institute in 1982 and produced both the

Institute’s first wedding and its first baby.

Their son Travis is now a six foot six inch

high school senior, and their daughter Mia is

a sophomore in high school.

R i c k W h i t e

P R O F I L E S

SCIENCES C I E N C E E S S A Y S

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 1997 Astronauts install two new science instruments during Hubble’s second servicing mission.

Hubble identifies exotic populations of stars in globular clusters, sees the visible afterglow of a gamma-ray burst in a distant galaxy, and provides preliminary evidence for an accelerating universe from supernovae observations.

Giant elliptical and spiral galaxies are the dinosaurs of the

galaxy world. Massive and ancient, they may contain the

mass of a hundred billion Suns. Our own Milky Way galaxy

is on the lightweight side of this class, with about 50 billion

solar masses. Although dwarf galaxies outnumber such

giants by orders of magnitude, the behemoths account for

the lion’s share of stellar mass in the local universe.

And while dwarf galaxies exhibit vigorous star formation,

massive galaxies tend to be quiescent, having formed most

of their stars eight to ten billion years ago or more. Hubble

is now providing important new information about how and

when these gigantic objects were created.

One traditional idea, known as ‘monolithic dissipative

collapse,’ posits that each galaxy formed from a single vast

cloud of gas containing essentially all the final mass of the

system. As the gas cloud radiated its energy, it would have

collapsed and become very dense, creating the conditions

for a spectacular burst of star formation. Its fuel exhausted,

for the next eight to ten billion years the galaxy would have

changed in appearance only as its stars slowly faded and

reddened as they aged. This rather dull history is consistent

with many of the observed properties of nearby giant

galaxies. Nevertheless, the monolithic dissipative collapse

picture is not a comprehensive theory of galaxy formation,

for it does not explain why the progenitor gas clouds had

a particular mass, why they collapsed when they did, or

why we do not see this process happening around us today.

The most promising modern framework for

understanding galaxy formation is called ‘hierarchical

structure formation.’ It is based on the premise that most

of the mass in the universe is in the form of unseen ‘dark

matter,’ which fills all of space. According to this theory,

quantum fluctuations that occurred a fraction of a second

after the Big Bang created tiny ripples in this sea of dark

matter, which grew into sizable lumps through the influence

of gravity. The lumps of dark matter captured gas into their

gravitational potential, and this gas cooled, became dense,

and formed stars.

A fundamental prediction of the hierarchical structure

formation theory is that galaxies start out small and grow

larger through merging, as illustrated in the computer

simulation of Figure 1.

The ‘ultra-luminous infrared galaxies’ may provide

direct evidence of the process of hierarchical structure

formation. These galaxies are exceptions to the ‘dinosaur

rule’ of ‘large and quiet,’ for they are extremely massive and

are forming stars rapidly. Virtually all galaxies in this class

show evidence of interaction or merging, such as tidal tails,

distorted morphologies, and closer-than-average neighbors.

These objects are extremely rare today, but may have been

much more common in the past. Until now, they have been

difficult to study because most of their starlight is absorbed

by dust and re-radiated in the infrared part of the spectrum,

which is nearly impossible to investigate from the ground

because of the earth’s atmosphere.

We can directly test the theory of hierarchical structure

formation by searching for the ancestors of the giant

galaxies we see today. With large telescopes, we can detect

galaxies at such huge distances that their photons departed

billions of years ago to reach us now. We thus get a view of

Figure 1: The density of dark matter in a hierarchical universe, from a computer simulation by Andrey Kravtsov of the University of Chicago and Anatoly Klypin of New Mexico State University. Darker colors represent low-density regions, while lighter colors represent higher densities. The panels show the same region of the simulation at times 1.5, 2.1, 3.2, 5.7, and 13.5 billion years after the Big Bang, and the last panel corresponds to the present day. We selected a region of space that forms a group similar in size to the Local Group (in the last panel, the two large blobs correspond to objects similar to the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxy).

R A C H E L S O M E R V I L L E

When and How Were Massive Galaxies Formed?

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 1998 Hubble detects a shock wave of debris striking a ring of material around Supernova 1987A.

An observation using Hubble’s infrared camera provides the ‘deepest’ views yet of the universe.

S C I E N C EFigure 2: Three examples of very massive high-redshift galaxies. These objects were selected from the GOODS southern field and have stellar masses in excess of 100 billion solar masses. These galaxies have redshifts of 1 to 1.2, implying that we are viewing them as they appeared 7.7 to 8.4 billion years ago. The images are represented in actual color because they were created by combining images taken in the V, I, and z bandpasses. The red colors of these objects indicate that these galaxies contain either very old stars or large amounts of dust. (Courtesy of Leonidas Moustakas.)

how these galaxies appeared in the past. If today’s massive

galaxies were in place and already massive at early times,

as in the monolithic picture, we should see them easily to

look-back times of two-thirds the age of the universe or

more. If the hierarchical picture is correct, we should find

that galaxies were smaller in size and less massive in the

past. Also, we should see further evidence of the merging

process in action.

Hubble’s Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) provides

a unique tool for carrying out such tests of theory. The large

field of view of ACS makes it possible to survey a sizable

region of the sky at high spatial resolution, allowing us for

the first time to study many thousands of distant galaxies

in exquisite detail. By combining such imaging information

with colors and spectra obtained by ground-based telescopes,

we can measure the masses and ages of the galaxies and

determine the chemical compositions of their stars.

In 2003, two teams of astronomers, including the

author, used ACS to perform studies of galaxy evolution.

The Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey (GOODS)

obtained ACS images of two patches of the sky, each of

which is 32 times larger than the Hubble Deep Field. These

images are so sensitive that we have discovered some of

the most distant galaxies now known, viewed at a time

when the universe was less than one billion years old or 7%

its current age. We are also studying the GOODS fields in

many other wavelengths, from the X-ray, with the Chandra

telescope, to the infrared, with the newly launched Spitzer

Space Telescope. The Galaxy Evolution from Morphology

and Spectral Energy Distributions (GEMS) survey

combined ACS imaging of a larger field—the size of the

full moon and the largest contiguous area imaged so far

by Hubble—with distance and color data obtained from

ground-based telescopes to probe galaxies back to 43%

of the age of the universe.

We are using these new data to test the hierarchical

paradigm. Our computer simulations can predict the

properties that galaxies would be expected to have at

various times in cosmic history. We can compare and

contrast these predictions with those of the simple

monolithic picture and confront them with the data.

We have discovered galaxies in place only three to five

billion years after the Big Bang with masses in excess of

100 billion solar masses. Figure 2 shows examples. These

results demonstrate that over the past eight-or-so billion

years the total mass in stars contained in massive galaxies

has approximately doubled, which is consistent with the

predictions of the hierarchical models.

We have also learned that galaxy mergers were much

more common in the past than they are today, as expected in

the hierarchical picture. Figure 3 shows examples. However,

the hierarchical models do not produce enough massive

red galaxies at high redshift to match the observations,

probably because the model galaxies contain too many

young, blue stars. Also, if we push to still greater distances,

to look-back times of ten billion years, we observe more

very massive galaxies in place than the hierarchical model

predicts, though still fewer than we would expect in the

monolithic picture. It remains to be seen whether these

findings present a fundamental challenge for the model of

hierarchical structure formation, or whether we simply do

not yet fully understand the complicated processes of gas

cooling and star formation. There is no question, however,

that the data from projects like GOODS and GEMS are

proving invaluable for unraveling these puzzles.

Figure 3: Some spectacular examples of galaxy mergers at high redshift from the GEMS project. (Courtesy of John Caldwell.)

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N O L A N R . W A L B O R N

One of the most famous and enigmatic stars in the sky is the fabled Eta Carinae. It rose to prominence around 1840, when it suddenly became the apparently second brightest star, as described from South Africa by John Herschel . Deep in the southern hemisphere, it is located in the giant Carina Nebula, one of the regions nearest to us (about 8000 light years away) containing examples of the most massive stars (exceeding 100 times the mass of the Sun). Such stars have ‘short’ lifetimes of two or three million years (versus ten billion years for the Sun) and die in spectacular supernova explosions. Following its ‘Great Outburst,’ Eta Car declined to the limit of naked-eye visibility by 1870. Since then it has attracted the research attention of dozens (or likely, hundreds) of astronomers and the interest of nearly all. Yet the ultimate explanation of its impressive behavior still eludes us, even though efforts during the 20th century produced a number of significant advances. At the beginning of the 21st century, Eta Car has become the worthy subject

Hubble and the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer satellite (Figure 2), but the event did indeed occur! Eta Car is periodic, which is a vital diagnostic clue. Armed with this background of information, an international team (PI Kris Davidson, University of Minnesota) proposed intensive Hubble observations of Eta Car during the next event, in summer 2003, under the newly defined Hubble Treasury Program. Recommended by the HST Second Decade Committee, Hubble Treasury observing programs are envisioned as relatively large efforts producing extensive datasets of wide scientific interest, to serve as Hubble legacies. The raw data from Treasury projects are public immediately, and reduced data are available to the community expeditiously, together with supporting information and software, via a dedicated website. The Davidson et al. proposal was approved for 70 Hubble orbits during Cycles 11 through 13 but concentrated in Cycle 12, to cover the event. The principal instrument applied was the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph, with supporting imagery by the Advanced Camera for Surveys. Eta Car is an exceedingly complex object, both spatially and spectrally, with a rich spectrum of chemical ions and Doppler velocity structures. Moreover, the two kinds of structures interact: different, spatially resolved regions within the object exhibit distinct spectral features. Thus, the Hubble instruments offer unique and powerful capabilities for acquiring qualitatively new information—high spatial and spectral resolutions as well as access to the ultraviolet regions of the spectrum. Of course, the reduction of these intricate data is correspondingly complex, requiring time and even development of special techniques and programs to extract and interpret the information.

Figure 1: ‘Stretched’ Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 image of Eta Car in the light of singly ionized nitrogen plus continuum, showing both the discrete inner ‘Homunculus’ nebula and the fainter, ragged ‘Outer Shell.’ The deprojected major dimension of the Homunculus is about 50,000 Astronomical Units (the Sun-Earth distance, 150 million km), or somewhat less than one light-year. Typical expansion velocities in the Homunculus are 500 km/sec, while speeds up to four times higher are seen in parts of the Outer Shell. (Courtesy of Nathan Smith, Hubble Fellow at the University of Colorado, and Jon Morse, Arizona State University.)

of an intensive observing campaign, the target of a Hubble Treasury program. Eta Carinae is surrounded by intricate, rapidly expanding gaseous structures, most of which were ejected in the Great Outburst. The Argentine astronomer Enrique Gaviola called the brightest, inner ejecta the ‘Homunculus’ (‘little man’) because of their visual telescopic appearance. The colorful name has stuck, even though the Hubble Space Telescope has shown that the true structure consists of two opposed ‘fireballs’ along an inclined axis, with a perpendicular disk between them (Figure 1). The first infrared observations eliminated a suggestion that the Great Outburst might have been a supernova explosion by revealing that Eta Car’s luminous central star is still there. It is one of the brightest mid-infrared sources outside the Solar System because of the visual obscuration and reddening by dust formed in the surrounding ejecta. An important discovery was that the ejected material is rich in nitrogen but poor in carbon and oxygen, a signature of material that has been subjected to nuclear reactions inside a massive star; the implication is that Eta Car is ejecting processed material, so that while it is still alive, it is an aged object nearing the end of its lifetime. (That is as we see it, here; it is conceivable that news of its demise is already on the way across the intervening light-years!) Another crucial discovery, by the Brazilian astronomer Augusto Damineli in 1995, was that scattered reports of recurrent fading or disappearance of certain high-temperature features in Eta Car’s spectrum appeared to indicate a 5.5-year periodicity. He predicted that the next such event would occur on or about New Year 1998. Not all proposal reviewers were convinced, so only sparse coverage was obtained with

Hubble Treasury Program Investigates Mysterious Massive Star

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 1999 Hubble observations allow astronomers to measure the universe’s expansion rate with 10 percent accuracy.

Astronauts replace Hubble’s six gyroscopes during the third servicing mission.

90

S C I E N C E

Hubble successfully observed the 2003 event, producing the intended plethora of new data and detecting many remarkable temporal changes. Some results provide more detail for interpreting phenomena seen in earlier, less powerful data, while others reveal previously unknown effects. Figure 3 shows the disappearance during the event of two high-ionization ultraviolet emission lines formed in gas clouds near, but displaced from, the central star. Figure 4 displays the appearance of highly disturbed absorption features along the line of sight to the central star, as well as changes in the relative brightness of the central star and nearby nebulosity. A currently favored model, which these data may eventually help confirm (or refute!), holds that Eta Car comprises a binary system of two massive stars in a highly elliptical orbit with a 5.5-year period, and that the events correspond to periastron passages—when the two stars are nearest each other. Such massive stars produce copious ‘winds,’ continuously ejecting their outer layers with high velocities; in a binary system, these winds collide and, if sufficiently energetic, produce X-rays, more intensely as periastron approaches (Figure 2). The precipitous drop during the event would correspond to immersion of the secondary star and the wind-collision region into the very dense inner wind and perhaps a disk surrounding the primary star. As a result, the X-rays and ionizing radiation would be temporarily extinguished, accounting for several event phenomena.

Figure 4: Segments of echelle spectrograms from the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph showing the appearance during the 2003 event of enhanced, highly disturbed near-ultraviolet absorption by singly ionized iron and manganese along the line of sight to the central star. The sharp, vertical absorptions that don’t change between the two epochs are interstellar lines (near 2600 and 2606 Å), while the diffuse, tilted features are highly blue-shifted absorptions from those and other lines in the wind and circumstellar structures of Eta Car. The Eta Car features increased greatly in strength and extent during the event. Also, the central-star emission dimmed while nearby nebular structures, above and below it, brightened during the event. (Courtesy of Ted Gull, Goddard Space Flight Center, and the Eta Carinae Hubble Treasury Team.)

Figure 3: Small portions of Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph echelle high-resolution spectrograms showing the disappearance during the 2003 event of far-ultraviolet emission lines of doubly ionized silicon and iron, formed in gas clouds displaced from the central star (continuous horizontal band). The event began on June 29. (Courtesy of Ted Gull, Goddard Space Flight Center, and the Eta Carinae Hubble Treasury Team.)

Figure 2: Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer light curve of Eta Car over two cycles, through February 2, 2004. The previous and current cycles are shown in black, while the overlapping portion of the previous cycle is repeated in orange. The two minima are 5.5 years apart and last about three months. The 2003 event began on June 29. (Courtesy of Mike Corcoran, Goddard Space Flight Center.)

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A competing model holds that the events correspond to periodic ejections of dense shells by a single massive star. However, such regular events are unknown in any other such star, whereas close binaries with their strict periods are a frequent occurrence. Other variable colliding-wind systems are known (albeit none exactly like Eta Car). An interacting combination of the two models is also a possibility, i.e., the periastron passages somehow trigger shell ejections. Certainly the Great Outburst and a subsequent, smaller outburst around 1890 were mass ejections; it is not out of the question that they were more extreme versions of the periodic events. There are many more fascinating results in the Treasury data than can be described in this brief account. For example: progressive variations in hydrogen and helium line profiles preceding, during, and following the event; possibly related fadings of ultraviolet features in both the spectra and the images; and an apparent secular increase in the visual luminosity of the central star.

The Eta Car Treasury Program team now anticipates several interesting years of analyzing and interpreting this unprecedented dataset. The team expects that many other members of the specialist community will contribute to the effort. The data and supporting materials are becoming available at the University of Minnesota Treasury Program website (http://etacar.umn.edu/treasury). While we cannot guarantee that these data will lead to the ultimate model of Eta Car, we can promise they will bring us closer to that objective than we have ever been before!

June 22, 2003

July 5, 2003

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K E I T H N O L L

For the six decades following the discovery of Pluto, for all we knew, the Solar System beyond Neptune was the realm of that 1200-km ball of ice and miscellaneous itinerant comets, alone. Discoveries of the last dozen years have dramatically altered that view. We now have found almost a thousand objects 100 to 1000 kilometers in size orbiting at the frozen fringe of the Solar System. Further-more, we know that these objects are just the tip of a previously unsuspected iceberg: an estimated 100,000 objects larger than 100 km orbit in this ‘Kuiper Belt’ between roughly 38 and 50 AU from the sun. Twelve years after the discovery of 1992 QB1, the first Kuiper Belt Object (KBO) after Pluto, the orbits of hundreds of KBOs are now well determined. At least four distinct dynamical classes have emerged. The ‘classical’ KBOs are in low-inclination, low-eccentricity orbits between 41 and 50 AU. The ‘hot-classical’ KBOs are an overlapping, dynamically hotter group, characterized by a broader dispersion in inclination and possible differences in size and color. The ‘resonant’ KBOs are locked, like Pluto, in one of several mean-motion resonances with Neptune. While these resonant orbits are stable, they often lead to exaggerated inclinations. Finally, the ‘scattered disk’ KBOs have highly eccentric orbits and often large semi-major axes. Theoretical analysis of the dynamical structure of the Kuiper Belt produces a startling story of its evolutionary history. The objects in the Kuiper Belt today are remnants of a once more massive group of planetesimals—planetary building blocks—that formed near the primordial locations of Uranus and Neptune. The orbits of both these giant planets migrated outwards, as required by accretion and angular-momentum exchange with the disk. This migration cut short the further accretion of KBOs and collected these objects together by the mechanism of resonance sweeping.

Neptune pushed the nascent KBOs outward before it like a giant snowplow. Eventually, 99% of the original KBOs were scattered and lost. The Kuiper Belt we see today is made up of the tiny fraction of chance survivors. The Kuiper Belt is not only a repository for the history of the outer Solar System; it is also a point of connection with other planetary systems, for we find similar structures in various stages of completion circling other stars. This is further evidence that our Solar System is not a unique and isolated event but that planetary systems—and perhaps ‘earths’— are commonplace in the universe. With one exception, research on the Kuiper Belt will be based on telescope observations for the foreseeable future. The exception is the New Horizons mission, which, if launched in 2006, will spend 9.5 years in transit to Pluto for an encounter lasting just days. After that, with luck, the spacecraft may visit one or two more ‘normal’ KBOs. Meanwhile, physical studies of KBOs by telescope have proceeded apace, although the observations are challenging due to a typical brightness of 23rd visual magnitude. Astronomers have measured the colors of hundreds of KBOs and obtained spectra, light curves, and thermal emission for a handful. In the case of some rapid rotators, models of the light curve and thermal emission together have produced self-consistent estimates of size and albedo. As more and more powerful telescopes are brought to bear on KBOs, we can expect a useful taxonomy to emerge, as exists for the asteroids, which may or may not be correlated with the four-category taxonomy of KBO orbits. Perhaps the most startling and intriguing discovery about KBOs was made in 2001 by Christian Veillet and his collaborators at the Canada-France-Hawaii telescope. They were making routine follow-up observations of recently discovered KBOs, to refine the orbits. As they analyzed the

Beneficent Duplicity: Binaries at the Edge of the Solar System

observations of 1998 WW31, they found it could not be one object creeping against the background of stars but must be a pair! Rapid follow-up observations with Hubble quickly confirmed this object as a binary and eventually led to a determination of the binary orbit (Figure 1). This was the first of what has become a drumbeat of discovered binarity. By the end of 2003, we knew that 13 KBOs are gravitationally bound pairs, including, of course, Pluto itself. Although the possibility of binary KBOs had occurred to planetary astronomers, it is safe to say that none anticipated the types and numbers of binaries that have been found. KBO binaries are quite different from the asteroid-satellite systems that have recently been found in the main asteroid belt. The KBOs are true binaries with widely separated pairs of similar-mass objects. While this is partially an artifact of observing bias—the pairs that have been found are those that are easiest to find—nothing like the KBO binaries exists elsewhere in the Solar System. The number of them is another major surprise. The surveys with Hubble, the telescope of choice for these observations, find that at least 5% of KBOs have binary companions of equal brightness within a magnitude and are separated for at least part of their orbit by more than 0.1 arcsec. The total binary fraction may be significantly higher than this. The value of binaries in astronomy is documented by a long and fabled history. Beginning with Felix Savary’s measurement of the orbit of ξ U Ma in 1827, nineteenth century astronomers painstakingly recorded the relative motions of binary stellar systems over years and decades to determine their orbits. Then, as now, the primary motivation was to measure the otherwise inaccessible masses of the components via Kepler’s Third Law of planetary motion (as informed by Newton’s Law of Gravity). After a century of such binary star studies, astronomers knew the masses of

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 2000 Hubble celebrates a triumphant 10 years in space.

only about two dozen stars. Nevertheless, the sample was sufficient to enable Arthur Eddington to discover the mass-luminosity relation for stars, a fundamental building block of modern astrophysics. Using the same elementary physics, astronomers have since weighed myriad objects large and small, from the black hole at the center of the Galaxy to the distant and diminutive bodies in the Kuiper Belt. In the case of KBOs, most of which weigh in at a few thousandths the mass of Pluto, the measured masses open the way to understanding their composition, structure, formation, and collisional history. Based on just three years of study, we can conclude that KBO binaries are primordial. The binaries we observe cannot be produced by any conceivable mechanism in the current Kuiper Belt, and they must have formed at a time when the density of objects was hundreds of times greater

than it is today. Furthermore, the population of binaries we see today was determined by the odds of these loosely bound pairs surviving a sometimes-turbulent history. With better statistics, we can look for differences in the binary fractions of the four dynamical populations, which have experienced different numbers and kinds of scattering events in the 4.5 billion year history of the Solar System. The Hubble Space Telescope is the ideal tool for physical studies of KBOs, as it offers capabilities exquisitely matched to the observational problem. Indeed, Hubble discovered more than half of the known KBO binaries, even though ground-based observations of KBOs vastly outnumber Hubble observations. Most ground-based observations simply do not have the consistent sub-arcsec resolution needed to separate objects of 23rd to 25th visual magnitude separated by a few tenths of an arcsec or less.

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February 2002

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December 2001

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Figure 1: This composite image shows the relative positions of the two components of the 1998 WW31 binary, observed by Hubble on six separate dates in 2001 and 2002. The continuous curve shows the orbit inferred from these observations. The period is 574 days, and the orbit is surprisingly elongated, with an eccentricity of 0.82. The semi-major axis of orbit is 22,300 km, an amazingly large 150 to 200 times the estimated diameters of the two bodies. From the measured period and semi-major axis, we can estimate the system mass is 2.7 x 1018 kg, about 5000 times less than for the Pluto-Charon system. (Courtesy NASA and C. Veillet, Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope.)

23Furthermore, Hubble’s future in this arena is potentially even more promising, as none of the KBO surveys with Hubble so far were customized for the detection of close binaries. The high-resolution channel of the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) is the perfect tool for discovering binaries with smaller angular separations and larger mass ratios than have been found so far. If, as predicted by some models of binary formation, close binaries are more frequent than more widely separated pairs, an optimized survey with ACS could detect companions orbiting 25% or more of KBOs! Like astronomers of the nineteenth century, we recognize binarity as a unique and valuable tool in exploring the Kuiper Belt, the Solar System’s fascinating kitchen midden. However, unlike stellar astronomers of yore, we won’t need the patience of decades or centuries to exploit this boon of nature.

M A R I O L I V I O

After the death of Alexander the Great, his successor, Ptolemy I, established in Alexandria a school known as the Museum. Teachers at this ancient university (around 300 B.C.) included the founder of geometry as a formalized deductive system—Euclid. In his ‘best-selling’ book on geometry and number theory, the Elements (no book but the Bible had more copies sold until the twentieth century), Euclid defined a division of a line into what he called its “extreme and mean ratio.” The definition (in Book VI of the Elements) reads: “A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser.” In other words, in Figure 1, Point C divides the line in such a way that the ratio of AB to AC is equal to the ratio of AC to CB. Some algebra shows that in this case the ratio AC/CB is equal to half the sum of 1 and the square root of 5, the never-ending number 1.6180339887…. In the centuries that followed Euclid’s work, as more of the amazing mathematical properties of this number became known, it attracted much admiration. The number was given the honorifics “Divine Proportion” (in a book published by mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1509) and “Golden Section,” “Golden Ratio,” and “Golden Number” (in a series of books starting in 1835, the first by mathematician Martin Ohm). At the beginning of the twentieth century, mathematician Mark Barr gave the ratio the name phi (Φ), the first letter in the name of the great Greek sculptor Phidias (ca. 490–430 B.C.), because it was believed Phidias used the Golden Ratio in his sculptures. The Golden Ratio’s attractiveness stems primarily from its propensity to pop up where least expected. An interesting example is provided by phyllotaxis, or leaf arrangement. Successive leaves of many plants tend to advance roughly by the same angle around the plant’s stem. That angle, ~137.5°, is obtained by subtracting 360°/Φ from a complete circle!

Another example is provided by a curve that is intimately related to the Golden Ratio—the logarithmic spiral. Nature appears to have chosen the logarithmic spiral as one of its favorite shapes, for we encounter this curve in phenomena as diverse as the shells of mollusks and giant spiral galaxies. The spiral arms of galaxies are not ‘attached’ to disk material (or they would not have survived for long, because of differential rotation within the disk). Rather, they represent density waves—waves of compression that sweep through the disk and squeeze gas clouds along their way—thereby triggering star formation (Figure 2).

The relation between the logarithmic spiral and the Golden Ratio can be visualized as follows. Take a Golden Rectangle (in which the ratio of length to width is equal to the Golden Ratio) and mark a square in it (Figure 3). The remaining figure is also a Golden Rectangle. Mark a square inside that one, and continue with the same process ad infinitum. If you connect the successive points where these whirling squares divide the sides of the rectangles in Golden Ratios, you obtain a logarithmic spiral. Once we realize how ubiquitous the Golden Ratio is in nature, it comes as no surprise that a few famous cosmologists showed great interest in this ratio. The most eloquent of these was Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), who wrote: “Geometry has two great treasures; one is the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line

into extreme and mean ratio [Golden Ratio]. The first we may compare to a measure of gold; the second we may name a precious jewel.” The first great astronomer to have been involved in some important mathematical work directly related to the Golden Ratio was Ptolemy (ca. A.D. 100–170). Best known for his geocentric model of the Solar System, Ptolemy produced a monumental thirteen-volume synthesis of the astronomical knowledge of his time, entitled The Mathematical Synthesis. The book later became known as the Almagest, the Arabic translation of the Greek superlative Megiste (meaning ‘the greatest’). Ptolemy wrote yet another influential book, known in English as The Geography. In both books, Ptolemy presented one of the earliest equivalents of trigonometric tables for various angles, including in particular the angles 36°, 72°, and 108°. These angles are closely associated with the Golden Ratio—in any isosceles triangle with base angles of 72°, the ratio of the side to the base is equal to the Golden Ratio (Figure 4). In any isosceles triangle with base angles of 36°, the ratio of the side to the base is equal to 1/Φ. However, even long before Ptolemy, the great philo-sopher Plato (ca. 428–348 B.C.) developed a ‘cosmology’ that was based, in some sense, on the Golden Ratio. Plato assigned to each of the four basic elements—earth, water, air, and fire—one of the five Platonic solids (Figure 5). Thus the stable cube (Figure 5a) represented earth, the pointy tetrahedron (Figure 5b) represented fire, the ‘mobile’ octahedron (Figure 5c) air, and the multifaceted icosahedron (Figure 5d) water. To Plato the dodecahedron (Figure 5e) was that “which the god used for embroidering the constellations on the whole heaven.” The properties of two of the Platonic solids, the dodecahedron and icosahedron, are expressible

The Golden Ratio and the CosmologistsA C B

Figure 1

Figure 3Figure 2

Figure 4

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 2001 Hubble makes first direct measurements of an extrasolar planet atmosphere and finds compelling evidence of a ‘dark energy’ that is accelerating the expansion of the universe.

S C I E N C E

in terms of the Golden Ratio, Φ. An icosahedron with an edge of unit length, for example, has a volume of 5Φ5/6. The volume of a dodecahedron with a unit length edge is 5Φ3/(6-2Φ). Also, the twelve vertices of the icosahedron can be divided into three groups of four, with the vertices of each group forming a Golden Rectangle. As noted above, another famous astronomer who showed great admiration for the Golden Ratio was Kepler. His fascination with this number originated from his belief that the Golden Ratio served as a fundamental tool for God in creating the universe. This intriguing combination of rational elements with religious beliefs characterized all of Kepler’s scientific endeavors. Referring to the Golden Ratio as the “divine proportion,” Kepler wrote:

A peculiarity of this proportion lies in the fact that a similar proportion can be constructed out of the larger part and the whole; what was formerly the larger part now becomes the smaller, what was formerly the whole now becomes the larger part, and the sum of these two now has the ratio of the whole. This goes on indefinitely; the divine proportion always remain-ing. I believe that this geometrical proportion served as idea to the Creator when He introduced the creation of likeness out of likeness, which also continues indefinitely. I see the number five in almost all blossoms which lead the way for a fruit, that is, for creation, and which exist, not for their own sake, but for that of the fruit to follow. Almost all tree-blossoms can be included here; I must perhaps exclude lemons and oranges; although I have not seen their blossoms and am judging from the fruit or berry only which are not divided into five, but rather into seven, eleven, or nine cores. But in geometry, the number five, that is the pentagon, is constructed by means of the divine

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proportion which I wish [to assume to be] the prototype for the creation. Furthermore, there exists between the movement of the Sun (or, as I believe, the Earth) and that of Venus, which stands at the top of generative capability the ratio of 8 to 13 which, as we shall hear, comes very close to the divine propor-tion. Lastly, according to Copernicus, the Earth-sphere is midway between the spheres Mars and Venus. One obtains the proportion between them from the dodecahedron and the icosahedron, which in geometry are both derivatives of the divine proportion; it is on our Earth, however, that the act of procreation takes place. Now see how the image of man and woman stems from the divine proportion. In my opinion, the propagation of plants and the progenitive acts of animals are in the same ratio as the geometrical proportion, or proportion represented by line segments, and the arithmetic or numeri-

cally expressed proportion.

Kepler refers here, first, to the appearance of the Golden Ratio in leaf and petal arrangements in botany, and second, to the fact that in the regular pentagon, the ratio of the diagonal to the side is equal to the Golden Ratio. He then alludes to the outrageous model of the solar system that he presented in Mysterium Cosmographicum. Kepler’s main purpose in Mysterium Cosmographicum was to answer two major questions: (i) Why were there precisely six planets? (In Kepler’s time only the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were known.) And (ii) what determined the spacings between the planetary orbits? We should realize that these ‘why’ and ‘what’ questions represented a revolution in astronomical

thinking. Unlike most astronomers before him, who merely recorded the observed positions of the planets, Kepler was seeking a theory that would explain the observations. The full title of Mysterium Cosmographicum (published in 1596) reads: “A precursor to cosmographical dissertations, containing the cosmic mystery of the admirable proportions of the Celestial Spheres, and of the true and proper causes of their numbers, sizes, and periodic motions of the heavens, demonstrated by the five regular geometric solids.” Kepler proposed that there were six planets because there were five Platonic solids. Taken as boundaries, the five solids, together with an outer spherical boundary corresponding to the heaven of fixed stars, determine precisely six spacings. Furthermore, his imaginative model with the solids was designed to answer the question about the sizes of the orbits (Figure 6). In Kepler’s words:

The Earth’s sphere is the measure of all other orbits. Circum-scribe a dodecahedron around it. The sphere surrounding it will be that of Mars. Circumscribe a tetrahedron around Mars. The sphere surrounding it will be that of Jupiter. Circumscribe a cube around Jupiter. The surrounding sphere will be

that of Saturn. Now, inscribe an

icosahedron inside the orbit of Earth.

The sphere inscribed in it will be that of Venus. Inscribe an octahedron inside Venus.

The sphere inscribed in it will be that of Mercury. There you

have the basis for the number of the planets.

Figure 5a Figure 5b Figure 5c Figure 5d Figure 5e

Figure 6

Kepler’s model in Mysterium Cosmographicum did not survive for long, despite that the spacings of the planets that resulted from this model agreed fairly well with the observed orbits (the discrepancies did not exceed ten per-cent). Nevertheless, this preposterous model marked a true turning point in the history of science. Kepler was actually able to construct a mathematical model of the cosmos that was both based on observations that existed at his time and was falsifiable by observations that could be undertaken subsequently. It is no wonder that astronomer and historian of science Owen Gingerich concluded that: “Seldom in history has so wrong a book been so seminal in directing the future course of science.” Following Kepler, the story of the Golden Ratio and the cosmologists takes us from the sixteenth to the twentieth century—to Oxford physicist Roger Penrose and Princeton physicist Paul Steinhardt. Penrose is responsible for the discovery that Einstein’s theory of general relativity predicts its own shortcomings—singularities at which the force of gravity becomes infinite—the objects we call black holes. Steinhardt was one of the key figures in the development of the inflationary model of the universe. Yet the interest of these two cosmologists in the Golden Ratio was inspired by another topic in physics: quasicrystals. In 1984, Israeli materials engineer Dany Schectman and his team discovered that the crystals of an aluminum manganese alloy exhibit fivefold symmetry (namely, the image of their structure obtained from x-ray scattering does not change when rotated by 360°/5 = 72°). This was as shocking to crystallographers as the discovery of a herd of five-legged cows would be to zoologists. For decades, solid-state physicists were convinced that solids could either have a structure of strictly periodic crystals or be totally

amorphous. In ordered and fully-periodic crystals, like those of table salt (NaCl), atoms (or groups of atoms) appear in periodic structures—recurring unit cells. Just as in a perfectly tiled floor, the orientation of each unit cell determines uniquely the entire pattern. In amorphous materials, such as glass, the atoms are totally disordered. In the same way that only shapes with fourfold symmetry (e.g., squares), threefold symmetry (triangles) and sixfold symmetry (hexagons) can fill the plane with periodic tiling (Figure 7), it was thought that crystals with fivefold symmetry could not exist. Schectman’s crystals demonstrated that another state of matter (dubbed quasicrystals) exists, sharing important aspects with both crystalline and amorphous substances. It did not take physicists long, however, to realize that a mathematical recreation tool discovered by Penrose in 1974 could shed light on the quasicrystals mystery. Penrose discovered two basic shapes of tiles, ‘darts’ and ‘kites’

(Figure 8), that can fit together to fill the entire plane and exhibit the ‘forbidden’ fivefold symmetry. While the resulting patterns are not strictly periodic, they display a long-range order—precisely the properties of the quasicrystals (Figure 9). Penrose tiles have the Golden Ratio written all over them (Figure 8). Furthermore, if we denote the number of kites in a plane-filling pattern by Nkites and the number of darts by Ndarts, then Nkites/Ndarts approaches Φ as the area we examine increases. The next step required turning Penrose’s mathematical model into a physical one. German mathematician Petra Gummelt noted in 1996 that Penrose tiling could be obtained by using decagon tiles, if these tiles are allowed to overlap

according to certain rules. Based on Gummelt’s work, Paul Steinhardt and Korean physicist Hyeong-Chai Jeong showed that the mathematical rules of overlapping simply corresponded to neighboring clusters of atoms sharing atoms. Images of the surfaces of some quasicrystals show flat ‘terraces’ terminating in steps that come primarily in two heights (both measuring only a few Ångstroms). The ratio of the two heights was found to be precisely equal to the Golden Ratio. The love affair between the Golden Ratio and astronomy does not end with the story of the personalities interested in both. The Golden Ratio made its way even into black hole thermodynamics! Self-gravitating systems, such as stars, often have the peculiar property of heating up when they lose energy (a property known as negative specific heat). A star like the sun, for example, contracts upon losing energy and becomes hotter. Black holes that do not rotate—Schwarzschild black

holes—behave the same. However, black holes that possess angular momentum (Kerr black holes) can undergo an interesting phase transition (similar to the transition to superconductivity), in which they transform from a state with negative specific heat into a state with positive

specific heat. Surprisingly, physicist Paul Davies showed that this transition occurs when the ratio of the square of the mass of the black hole to the square of its angular momentum (in the appropriate units) is equal to the Golden Ratio! There is no doubt that the Golden Ratio will continue to surprise us, and it is precisely this feeling of amazement that makes this number so appealing. Einstein recognized the importance of surprise in intellectual endeavors: “The fairest thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and science. He who knows it not and can no longer wonder, no longer feel amazement, is as good as dead, a snuffed-out candle.”

Figure 7

Figure 8 Figure 9

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 2002 During Servicing Mission 3b, astronauts install ACS and revive NICMOS through the installation of a cryocooler.

S T S c I O R G A N I Z A T I O N

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Director’s Office [DO] The DO is responsible for the overall performance of the Institute. » The DO performs five tasks to guide the Institute’s work to achieve the goals of the Strategic Plan: First, it promotes and protects Hubble’s pace of scientific discovery and potential for the future. Second, it strives to maintain the scientific integrity of Hubble and the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) under NASA’s changing budget constraints. Third, the DO seeks to improve the culture and environment within the Institute at all levels. Fourth, it ensures that the Institute remains NASA’s choice and the choice of the community to implement the science and operations of Hubble, JWST, and their successors. Fifth, the DO delegates authority, instills responsibility, and ensures accountability in the organization. » The Director is the leader of the Institute and is responsible for its performance to the AURA President, the AURA Board, NASA, the community of scientific users, and the public. He is the selecting official for time on the Hubble Space Telescope and for the associated grant funding to support scientific research with the data. He recommends to AURA the promotion of scientists to tenured appointments. He approves budget plans for the Institute as well as large capital expenditures and use of discretionary funds. The Director represents the Institute to the AURA oversight committees—the Space Telescope Institute Council (STIC) and the Institute Visiting Committee (IVC)—the AURA Board, and the public at large. The Director is the head of the Director’s Office, which includes the Deputy Director, the Associate Director for Science, the Chief Information Officer, the Head of Program Management, and the Head of Business Services. » The Deputy Director [DD] serves as Acting Director in the Director’s absence. The DD is responsible for oversight of the Divisions that directly support the missions: Instruments, Operations and Data Management, and Engineering and Software Services. The DD presides over regular reviews of the Divisions and their work plans, and is responsible for ensuring that the staff can meet the commitments of the Institute.

Associate Director for Science [ADS]ADS is the Institute’s senior officer for science policy and staffing. He is responsible for oversight of the Science Division, Science Policies Division, and the Office of Public Outreach. The ADS coordinates scientific hiring, renewal, and promotion, and oversees policies applying to the science staff and their research activities. He acts as a scientific representative of the Institute in initiatives with external organizations and sponsors.

Program Management [PM]PM is responsible for planning, allocating, and tracking the budgets of the missions managed and operated by the Institute. The Heads of the HST Mission Office, JWST Mission Office, and Community Missions Office report to the Head of PM, who works with NASA to establish and maintain the contracts needed to carry out the Institute’s work. He works with the Mission and Division Heads to ensure that the missions’ goals are met as required by NASA. » The Program Management function comprises groups responsible for financial and resource management and developing innovative programs throughout the Institute. » The Resource Management Group leads financial and business planning activities Institute-wide. It prepares and helps negotiate and administer contract cost proposals, prepares and administers budgets and staffing plans, and generates government reports such as budget variance analyses. » The Operations Manage-ment Group provides a managerial and programmatic integration between Divisions, Mission Offices, and the DO. It is a focal point formanaging staffing and work plans, as well as schedules and require-ments. This group’s program managers also participate in process improvement activities and lead special projects, where they promote effective integration, coordination, communication, and conflict resolution.

Chief Information Officer [CIO]The CIO develops Institute plans and policies that address the infor-mation management and technology needs of scientific research, engineering, management, and business. She coordinates strategic software and technology improvement projects for the operational environments and Institute-wide business systems, and she is responsible for innovation studies, assessing both technology trends and emerging technology. The CIO ensures Institute compliance with information and network security regulations. She oversees the work of the Center for Process and Technology (CPT). She makes recommen-dations on mission-critical systems architectures and works with the Engineering and Software Services Division to coordinate approaches to software engineering. She represents the Institute to NASA regarding major information technology purchases, funding models, and security.

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90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 2003 Oldest known extrasolar planet identified in the 13 billion year old globular star cluster M4.

O R G A N I Z A T I O N

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Head of Business Services [HBS]HBS manages the Business Resource Center and is responsible for planning, developing, and implementing policies that provide for com-prehensive business management solutions. The HBS represents the Institute in major procurements and contract negotiations, including those with NASA and The Johns Hopkins University.

Center for Process and Technology [CPT]CPT is responsible for the Institute’s computing and communications infrastructure. It provides process engineering, develops technology-based solutions, and supports information systems for the Institute’s missions, scientific research, and business functions. CPT also delivers additional technical services that complement the Help Desk and provide a bridge between the process engineering, development, integration, and production branches of CPT. » The Information Technology Services Branch operates the Center’s Help Desk and provides call management for support platforms, applications, and infrastructure. » The Technology Infrastructure Management Branch manages the Institute’s computing infrastructure. It provides system, network, security, database, and web administration to keep the overall computing environment operating reliably and efficiently. » The Technical Services Branch applies technical solutions to address the varying requirements of Institute staff. It supports ongoing product development efforts, engineering and business information systems, information management, electronic conferencing, and training. » The Technology Systems Development Branch develops technology-based solutions, integrates new or improved processes into the Institute’s information systems processes, and develops architectural solutions for the Institute’s computing and information infrastructure. » The Strategic Initiatives and Process Engineering Branch evaluates and develops new methods, processes, and technologies to improve productivity and promote breakthroughs in science and engineering.

Business Resource Center [BRC]BRC provides business and administrative services to the Institute in the areas of finance, human resources, accounting, contracts, grant administration, procurement, facilities management, property administration, administrative support, and staff support services. It partners with the Center for Process and Technology to improve information technology support for BRC internal operations and communications. It also provides expertise and support to the AURA corporate office and other AURA centers. BRC is organized into branches and groups according to its major functions and responsibilities. It has a customer-service orientation, as it is involved directly or indirectly in almost every endeavor at the Institute as well as in the careers of Institute staff and in providing funds to General Observers (GOs) and Archival Researchers (ARs). » The Administrative Support Group comprises administrative staff members, who are deployed by matrix assignments to the operating divisions, where they provide comprehensive administrative support and coordinate between BRC, Institute management, and the divisions. » The Finance Branch maintains all Institute financial records, prepares and monitors performance against indirect budgets, and produces management financial statements. It tracks property, provides travel support services for Institute staff and visitors, and ensures that procurements of products and services are competitive. » The Grants Administration Branch provides funds to GOs and ARs to support their scientific research based on Hubble observations. It facilitates the financial review of submitted budgets and makes funding recommendations to the Director for final approval. » The Contracts and Sponsored Programs Branch performs administrative functions associated with grants, cooperative agreements, and contracts in both the pre- and post-award phases. In addition, it oversees major subcontracts from initiation through closeout. » The Human Resources Department provides personnel services to Institute staff and management, including recruitment and employment, relocation, salary administration, benefits administration, development of

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Equal Employment Opportunity/Affirmative Action plans, employee-management relations, and various forms of training. » The Building Operations and Services Group manages the facilities infrastructure and provides a variety of staff support services, including security, housekeeping, parking administration, food services, document repro-duction, and other logistical support. The physical plant comprises the 130,000 square foot Steven Muller building and a 300-car parking facility. Logistical support services are also provided to off-site leased office space at the Rotunda and The Johns Hopkins University’s Bloomberg Building.

Science Division [SD]SD fosters the research environment of the Institute. It monitors the functional assignments of individual scientists. To encourage career growth, it promotes research opportunities, provides mentoring and advice on professional development, and conducts annual science evaluations. The SD conducts visitor programs to foster collaborations, to enrich journal clubs, and to support distinguished astronomers for extended visits. It manages the Director’s Discretionary Research Fund, which supports staff research projects and investments in the Institute’s research infrastructure. The SD conducts a spring symposium each year on a major area of astronomy as well as smaller- scale workshops on specific scientific topics and issues. It organizes brainstorming sessions on scientific topics, supports science initiatives, and forms agenda groups to develop issues affecting the productivity of Institute scientists. » The SD includes the Library, which procures and provides access to a large collection of paper and electronic resources in support of astronomical and correlative research, and which conducts citation studies to help measure the productivity of scientific staff and the Hubble observatory. The SD produces the Annual Report and the Newsletter.

Science Policies Division [SPD]SPD manages the allocation of Hubble observing time, conducts the process of selecting the science program, including General Observers and Archival Researchers, and establishes science metrics to evaluate success. It is the Institute point of contact with oversight committees. It also manages the Hubble Fellowship Program and the Institute Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.

Office of Public Outreach [OPO]OPO develops astronomy-related educational products and services and delivers them to classroom students, the public, the media, and the astronomical community. It supports individual scientists in devel-oping educational contributions based on their research. » The Formal Education Team develops educational materials that address national education standards and are relevant to K-12 curricula. It provides pre-service and in-service teacher training on the use of space science educational materials in the classroom. » The Online Outreach and Public Information Team develops and hosts a variety of Internet sites that provide first-hand information about Hubble and its discoveries to the general public and news media. » The Informal Science Education Team brings the excitement of scientific discovery and technological accomplishment to a wide audience through science museums, planetariums, libraries, and the Internet. » The News Team develops press releases, photo releases, and Space Science Updates to disseminate Hubble discoveries via print, electronic, and broadcast media. » The Origins Education Team operates a forum to coordinate the education and public outreach efforts of all of the NASA missions within the Origins theme. » The Education Grants Team empowers individual scientists to conduct their own education and public outreach programs. » The JWST Community Outreach Team provides the astronomical community with information about James Webb Space Telescope.

Engineering and Software Services Division [ESS]ESS is responsible for systems engineering and software development support at the Institute. ESS is organized into three departments. » The Science User Systems Department develops and maintains the software used by the astronomical community for proposal submission and processing, data analysis, calibration, and archival research, and by the pipeline and archive infrastructure. » This department is made up of the Science Software Branch, which is responsible for the calibration and data analysis software, the Astronomer’s Proposal Software Branch, which is responsible for the extensive user interfaces used to prepare proposals and to structure observations, and the Data Systems Branch, which provides the pipeline and archive infrastructure software

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90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06


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and the external archive interface software. » The Planning and Scheduling Systems Department is responsible for planning and scheduling software products used for Hubble, the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer, Chandra, and James Webb Space Telescope and for several large ground-based optical observatories. » This department is made up of the Planning Systems Development Branch, which is responsible for the front-end planning and scheduling software, the Scheduling Systems Development Branch, which provides the short-term scheduling software, including the Guide Star Selection System, Moving Object Support System, and Science Commanding System, and the Spacecraft Scheduling and Commanding Branch, which develops and maintains the system that prepares command loads for uplink to the Hubble spacecraft. » The Test and Systems Services Department is made up of the Test Engineering at Space Telescope Branch, which provides software testing and is responsible for the quality and productivity of testing as a fundamental process at the Institute, the Project Reference Database Group, which maintains, controls, and deploys the critical parameter definitions used by the application software for spacecraft systems, and the Database Engineering and Systems Infrastructure Branch, which develops and maintains databases throughout the Institute, as well as the various infrastructure components and tools used by the Division, and the Space Telescope Grants Management System, which is used by astronomers to submit Hubble budgets—and by institutions to administer them. » Three additional branches report directly to the ESS Division Office. These are the Mission Ground Systems Engineering Branch, which ensures that Institute software projects conform to requirements and employ robust methodology for development and testing, the Flight Systems Engineering Branch, which supports the development and maintenance of mission flight software and stored commanding, and the Systems Integration Management Branch, which provides technical project management support to cross-divisional initiatives, such as the integrated schedule for ground systems development for new Hubble instruments.

Operations and Data Management Division [ODM]ODM processes and schedules the selected Hubble observing programs and provides around-the-clock monitoring of the spacecraft. It pro-cesses Hubble data in the pipeline, distributes data products to the community, and operates the Multimission Archive at Space Telescope (MAST). It maintains and upgrades the Guide Star Catalog and Digitized Sky Survey. It is responsible for project management of the NSF-funded Information Technology Research program, “Building the Framework of the National Virtual Observatory,” and for coordinating the Institute’s technical, scientific, and outreach contributions to this initiative. » The Observation Planning Branch (OPB) works with Hubble users to ensure the optimal translation of their scientific requirements into the technical instructions necessary to operate the observatory. » The Science and Mission Scheduling Branch, with the support of OPB, prepares the master, multi-year science-observing plan, which reconciles Hubble science program requirements and operational constraints at a high level. It then fits candidate observations into optimal weekly observing schedules with instrument calibration and engineering activities, and creates the detailed command loads that are executed by the telescope. » The Flight Operations Branch is responsible for spacecraft and instrument housekeeping, monitoring and maintenance, and the health and safety of the Hubble mission. » The Observation Processing and User Support Branch is responsible for pipeline processing of all Hubble data. It also provides offset-slew and real-time target acquisition support for Hubble observers. » The Archive Branch operates the Institute’s archive systems, provides data delivery services and technical support to users, ensures the scientific integrity of the data, and enhances the scientific utility of the archive. » The Catalogs and Surveys Branch produces all-sky digital images and deep object catalogs to support observatory operations worldwide and to provide a research resource to the community.

31

The best is yet to come....

Instruments Division [INS]INS is home for the scientific and engineering staff who work directly on the Hubble Space Telescope, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), and future missions. It supervises functional assignments of individual scientists to each of the three Mission Offices and is responsible for career growth and professional development of its staff, for all personnel decisions, and for establishing and developing expertise in its technical domain. INS supports Hubble observers to use the science instruments with maximum effectiveness, providing scientific and technical advice in developing observing programs and interpreting data. It calibrates and characterizes the science instruments. It facilitates the use of new science instruments by participating in their development, by capturing and transferring information about instrument operation and calibration to the Institute, and by coordinating the commissioning of all the instruments following a servicing mission. » The ACS & WFPC2 Branch is responsible for utilization of the Advanced Camera for Surveys and the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. » The NICMOS Branch is responsible for utilization of the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer. » The Telescopes Branch maintains the Hubble focal plane model, monitors telescope focus, and supports use of the Fine Guidance Sensors (FGSs) as astrometry science instruments. It also characterizes the anticipated imaging performance of JWST and its scientific capa-bilities. A small engineering team maintains engineering knowledge of the Hubble instruments and spacecraft, monitors health and performance of the instruments, and tracks the status of their limited-life items. » The Spectrographs Branch is responsible for use of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and for supporting analysis of archival data from the retired spectrographs. » The WFC3 Branch is responsible for the Wide Field Camera 3. » The COS Branch is responsible for the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph. » The JWST Instruments Branch participates in the development of instruments for JWST. » The Data Analysts Branch supports the technical work of the Hubble and JWST Missions, as well as the scientific research of Institute staff.

Hubble Space Telescope Mission Office [HST]HST is responsible for maximizing the science return from the mission by managing the Institute activities specific to the conduct of the Hubble Space Telescope program. It develops the overall Institute plans for Hubble science operations and system enhancements, working with the team leads in the operating divisions and centers. HST is responsible for establishing performance and development requirements, monitoring performance and schedules, and prioritizing the expenditure of resources. It works with the divisions, centers, and Program Management to develop and then monitor yearly and long-term budgets. It is also responsible for establishing effective scientific, technical, and operational interfaces with the Hubble Project at Goddard Space Flight Center and associated contractors.

James Webb Space Telescope Mission Office [WMO]WMO collaborates with NASA to develop the scientific, technical, and operational vision for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). WMO manages the development of the JWST Science and Operations Center. It works with the community to ensure the best JWST observatory possible within the cost constraints of this challenging program. It works with the Institute divisions to ensure proper support to NASA, the science instrument teams, and other JWST partners, including the prime contractor, Northrop Grumman Space Technologies.

Community Missions Office [CMO]CMO manages the Institute’s involvement in missions and projects other than Hubble and JWST. CMO facilitates new initiatives and coordinates their review by the New Initiatives Panel and the New Starts Group. For missions arising in the community, CMO promotes new applications for Institute products and services customized to meet specific mission needs. CMO strives to maximize the scientific usefulness of Institute involvements by engaging scientific staff members directly in the support of community missions.

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Teams INSIDEThe DIRECTOR’S LEADERSHIP FORUM involves staff in Institute planning, aids the Director on policy issues affecting the work of the Institute, puts the Director in touch with staff who are not members of the Management Council, and addresses grass-roots issues for consideration by the Management Council and Director.

The SCIENCE ADVISORY RESOURCE provides scientific advice to Institute divisions, centers, and missions to inform science-related issues and decisions.

The NEW INITIATIVES PANEL, with representatives from each division and center and led by the Community Missions Office, supports new-business proposals, by coordinating and evaluating division input, facilitating work plans, recommending bid and proposal funding, and shepherding proposals through the New Starts Group and AURA approval processes.

The SCIENCE RECRUITMENT COMMITTEE conducts the recruitment process for AURA scientists, including advertising, screening applications, formulating a short list, arranging interviews, and producing a ranked list of candidates for the Senior Scientific Staff, which makes its recommendations on hiring to the Director.

The SCIENCE PERSONNEL COMMITTEE conducts the promotion and tenure processes for AURA scientists, including documenting each case, reviewing the candidate’s scientific and functional performance, and presenting a decision package with a recommended action to the Senior Scientific Staff, which makes its recommendations on promotion to the Associate Director for Science or on tenure to the Director.


The SENIOR SCIENTIFIC STAFF advises the Director on the hiring, promotion, and tenure of AURA scientific staff and on issues regarding the scientific health and future of the Institute.

The TELESCOPE TIME REVIEW BOARD evaluates Hubble’s readiness for science observations following a servicing mission, and it reviews exception requests from General Observers—to repeat observations, to make major program changes, or to resolve data duplication issues—and makes recommendations to the Head of the Science Policies Division.

The HOUSING COMMITTEE, consisting of division representatives and supported by the Building Operations and Services Manager, assigns office space based on policies and procedures approved by the Management Council.

The SAFETY COMMITTEE, consisting of division representatives, brings forward safety concerns, discusses issues of compliance with regulations and standards, and advises the Building Operations and Services Manager, who is responsible for the Institute’s safety program.

The NEW STARTS GROUP, which consists of the members of the Director’s Office, a senior contracts manager, a senior technical manager, and an AURA representative, approves requests for bid and proposal funding, approves proposals for new business opportunities, and advocates proposal approval by AURA when necessary.

A Team of Teams Institute staff and outside stakeholders join in various groups, councils, and committees to maintain the vitality of the

Institute and to promote the science from our missions. The following ‘teams’ complement the divisions on our organi-

zational chart and illustrate other ways that individuals come together to benefit science and improve the Institute.

33

The SPACE TELESCOPE USERS COMMITTEE reviews the scientific utility of Hubble and the quality of the Institute’s services and makes recommenda-tions to both the Director and the NASA Project Scientist.

The TIME ALLOCATION COMMITTEE evaluates proposals for observing time and proposals for archival research that request funding and makes recommendations to the Director, including the allocation of Hubble orbits to selected observing programs.

The MAST USERS GROUP provides advice to increase the scientific utility and productivity of the Multimission Archive at Space Telescope and recom-mends priorities for new services, data sets, and interarchive collaborations.

The WFC3 SCIENCE OVERSIGHT COMMITTEE provides scientific oversight and direction on choices, like filter selection, and trades during the development and testing of the Wide Field Camera 3.

Teams OUTSIDEThe OPO EXTERNAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE—drawn from OPO’s diverse user community of astronomers, educators, journalists, planetarium, and science center directors—provides feedback on OPO products and services and counsels OPO management on ways to advance its mission, goals, and objectives.

The SPACE TELESCOPE INSTITUTE COUNCIL, our primary management oversight committee, is nominated by the AURA Member Representatives and is elected by and reports to the AURA Board of Directors.

The SPACE TELESCOPE ADVISORY COUNCIL is available to the Director for advice on any subject related to the Hubble science program.

The INSTITUTE VISITING COMMITTEE evaluates the management, scientific productivity, working environment of the Institute, and the morale of the Institute staff. It reports to NASA through AURA.

Spectroscopic Explorer teams, Ball Aerospace, NASA, and the Institute, discusses COS calibration issues, sets calibration pipeline requirements, and advises on implementation aspects, such as keywords, data formats, reference files, and reuse and sharing of algorithms and code from previous applications.

The WFC3 OPERATIONS WORKING GROUP, including engineers and scientists from Ball Aerospace, NASA, and the Institute, sets the requirements for the flight and ground software needed to operate the Wide Field Camera 3 instrument.

The WFC3 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION TEAM, with scientific leadership from the Institute and including engineers and scientists from NASA, Ball Aerospace, and the Institute, is developing the plans and procedures for the ground testing and pre-launch scientific calibration of Wide Field Camera 3.

The ACS PHOTOMETRIC CALIBRATION WORKING GROUP, including members of the Advanced Camera for Surveys Instrument Definition Team and representatives from other instrument groups, studies issues that affect the photometric performance and overall calibration of the ACS.

Teams INSIDE / OUTSIDEThe JWST SCIENCE WORKING GROUP, consisting of the first users of the James Webb Space Telescope and including Institute staff members, advises NASA on the scientific priorities for the mission.

The FINANCIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE reviews all budgets submitted by General Observers and Archival Researchers and recommends appropriate funding to the Director.

The SERVICING MISSION OBSERVATORY VERIFICATION WORKING GROUP—consisting of Institute scientists and engineers, NASA engineers, and instrument developers—defines, designs, and executes in-orbit verification activities to commission the Hubble observatory after servicing missions.

The COS OPERATIONS WORKING GROUP, including engineers and scientists from the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph team, Ball Aerospace, NASA, and the Institute, sets the requirements for the flight and ground software needed to operate the instrument.

The COS CALIBRATION WORKING GROUP, including engineers and scientists from the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) and Far Ultraviolet

I M P R O V E M E N T S

35

Constant improvement is deeply embedded in the Institute culture. The discipline of continuous process improvement, sometimes referred

to as CPI, took root in the 1980s as we prepared to operate Hubble. Its flagship success was PRESTO (Project to Re-engineer Space

Telescope Operations), which greatly streamlined the scheduling of Hubble observing programs. Since that time, managers throughout the

Institute have focused energy on process improvement as a means to enhance the quality of products and services as well as a way to reduce

operational costs. These efforts strengthen the Institute’s ability to meet customer needs, whether the customer is outside the Institute—the

astronomical community, NASA, or AURA—or within our organization. We are always trying to improve our processes, products, services,

and ultimately our value in the pursuit of breakthrough science.

We initiated a program to coordinate technical training across the Institute. The goal was

a program that provides high-quality, cost-effective training options to the staff of the

divisions, centers, and mission offices. As implemented, the training program is responsive

to staff needs and also reflects the strategic technical needs and plans of the Institute.

The program provides single-point access to all training resources via a web page. It offers

in-house courses covering topics of use to a large number of staff, access to information

about computer-based training, and instructional materials. The new technical training

program maximizes impact and benefit of the Institute’s budget for technical training.

2003 Process Improvement Initiatives

Coordinated Technical Training Program

Improved Computer Security

Over the past year, we took two major steps to improve the security of the Institute’s computing

environment. First, we implemented filtering on the Institute’s email servers to remove junk

email—that is, spam or unsolicited commercial email. The new filtering feature automatically

places junk email in a separate location, to avoid cluttering the addressee’s inbox, and provides

controls to manage junk email at the user level. Second, we automated the installation of

security patches on Windows computer systems, to block new viruses and worms in a timely

manner. Viruses and worms can result in many lost hours of work for both users and CPT staff.

As a result of the automation, no systems at the Institute were compromised by the major

attacks of the past year.

Improved Internet Access for Visitors

We implemented a directory solution for the Institute based on the industry standard LDAP

(Lightweight Directory Access Protocol). This solution serves as the master directory for

staff information, which was previously stored in multiple repositories. By eliminating

redundancy in the information and data, we greatly reduced the risk of inconsistency. Also,

the design of the new directory reduces the labor expended across the Institute in adding

and updating information formerly in multiple locations. We developed a user interface

to store and update information in the repository. LDAP has many current applications,

including email-alias lookups, web authentication, integration with CPT’s helpdesk

software (Remedy), integration with the leave-request system, and generating the printed

phone book. Future potential uses include integration with PeopleSoft (human resources

system), and user authentication for databases and operating systems.

Visitors to the Institute typically bring their own laptop computers and want to connect to the

Internet to read their email and to access data on their home computers. In the past, we had

to scan these laptop computers for viruses and check that current antivirus software was

present prior to allowing them to connect to the Institute network. These steps were time

consuming, burdensome for the staff, and delayed visitors’ access to the Internet. The problems

were exacerbated during workshops or meetings, when many visitors would simultaneously

request network connectivity. In 2003, the Center for Process and Technology implemented

a ‘visitor network’; a network domain separate from stsci.edu, the Institute’s own network

domain. The new design permits visitors to connect their systems immediately. They can also

print documents on a local Institute printer. This solution has been well received by visitors,

particularly attendees at meetings and workshops.

Single Repository for Staff Information

I M P R O V E M E N T S

37

Improved Archive Distribution System

Astronomer’s Proposal Tool Released

In 2003, we re-engineered and improved the distribution system for the Hubble archive, replacing

an antiquated system that had little versatility and that routinely failed to keep pace with the

increasing demand for archive data products. Now, the operations staff manages data flows with

greater visibility and precision, which in turn enhances system fidelity. Besides satisfying more

archive requests in less time with better reliability than ever before, the new distribution system

further benefits archive users by offering secure electronic data file transfers and more user control

over the calibration of the delivered data files. The Hubble data archive is now delivering far more

data than in the past, with each dataset receiving more sophisticated calibration and processing.

From top to bottom, the system is more reliable and operates with greater performance margin.

The new archive distribution system was the first major software delivery to take advantage of the

re-architected Hubble Data Management System, which offers a realistic environment for end-to-

end performance and stress testing. The increased processing capacity allowed us to deploy the new

software without additional systems or complexity of the infrastructure.

The Institute successfully released the Astronomer’s Proposal Tool (APT), which was used

by the Hubble user community to prepare Cycle 12 Phase 1 and Phase 2 science proposals.

APT provides an integrated set of interactive, graphical tools, which assist Hubble users

in the process of preparing proposals. By reducing the effort required by the Institute

staff to process the Phase 1 observing proposals, APT shortens the interval of time between

submitting proposals and executing observations. Based on feedback from individual

Hubble users and recommendations from the Space Telescope Users Committee, the

Institute developed many new features for the Cycle 13 release of APT.

In 2003, we installed a new server and a new storage system to make our infrastructure for data

processing more reliable and efficient. The server, with high-end performance and robustness,

took over data management tasks from obsolete computers, which has reduced downtime

and retired the risks inherent in the complexity of the aging hardware. The new server can

host multiple virtual machines, which enabled us to set up a testing environment that was

nearly identical to the operational environment. As a result, we gained high confidence that the

systems we tested would perform as expected when operationally deployed. The new storage

system is a 32-terabyte ‘storage area network’ (SAN). We use it to support data processing

activities in our operations, test, and development environments. The highly reliable SAN has

virtually eliminated data loss and downtime. It replaced several disjointed storage systems,

reducing the complexity of managing stored data and performing backups. By moving data from

the former magneto-optical jukeboxes to the SAN, we have also helped reduce data retrieval

times for users.

Conversion of Scheduling Processes to UNIX

We successfully completed the conversion of our scheduling software for generating Hubble

command loads from the VMS to the UNIX operating system or platform, with no interruption

of science operations. This was a several-year project, culminating in 2003 with finishing

software and operational tools, extensively testing all aspects, and passing flight-readiness

reviews. The conversion removed obsolete capabilities, corrected many maintenance

problems, and simplified functionality, making it consistent with current operations. It

also modernized the software, streamlined procedures, and facilitated the delivery of

generated command loads. In the process of converting to UNIX, we reduced code by 25%

and developed several reusable, platform-independent software packages for scheduling,

which the Chandra and Hubble control centers have incorporated in their systems.

Data Processing Hardware Upgrades

In 1994, following the first servicing mission and the restoration of Hubble’s capabilities, Institute management paused to reflect on its opportunities and formulated a

strategic plan to navigate the years ahead.

We reaffirmed our first commitment, to serve the astronomical community with a Hubble program as scientifically productive and technically powerful as possible. We

planned to expand our efforts in education and public outreach. We looked forward to other missions, particularly to a role in defining the successor observatory to Hubble.

Measuring our achievements against our first strategic plan—indeed, by almost any measure—the Institute had become fully successful as the twenty-first century

beckoned. Perceiving new circumstances and enjoying the approval of our stakeholders for our contributions to the Hubble program in the 1990s, we began developing a

new strategic plan at the turn of the millennium. Distributed in 2001, this new plan takes into account our strengths, opportunities, and philosophy of partnership with the

community. It portrays an appropriate leadership role for the Institute, in which we adopt unique tasks while enabling the community to do others. It is a plan to help

ensure both the future of space astronomy and the vitality of the Institute.

We bring the cosmos to the desktops of astronomers across the country and around the world. In doing so, we empower the astronomy community to make scientific

discoveries. In striving to excel, we seek to improve the utility and productivity of our observatories and to promote new missions with the greatest potential for unlocking

the secrets of the universe. From the achievements of astronomers using our observatories, we bring the cosmos to the public, through the media, over the Internet, in

museums and planetariums, and in homes and classrooms. We share the excitement of astronomical discovery with our ultimate sponsors, the supporting citizens who

prize exploration and benefit from it. We have pursued this vision for Hubble, and we will do the same for the James Webb Space Telescope, JWST. We will promote this

vision when new missions and new tools and resources for research are discussed and planned. To implement our vision successfully, we must have a first-rank astronomy

research staff, which itself is engaged in forefront research. We must have an excellent technical staff to develop and maintain innovative systems to implement the

missions. We must have an outstanding outreach staff to engage the public in forefront intellectual questions of our time. We must have proficient business, computer,

and information services staffs to support the Institute and the community.


The strategic plan proclaims the Institute’s vision: We bring the cosmos to Earth.90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 04

Hubble is our first telescope. In 1990, it launched a new era of astronomical research from space with

unprecedented capability, data quality, and data volume. » We will optimize the science program of Hubble’s

second ten years and continue to serve the community in its best scientific use of the facility.

JWST will be our second major telescope. Starting in this decade, it will explore the universe at infrared

wavelengths. » We will help develop—then operate—the best JWST possible, with full inheritance of Hubble

lessons-learned and full engagement of the community in its development.

Our archive has become a first-rank research facility, providing unique research and outreach opportunities.

» We will continue to run the best astronomical data archive in the world, adding new data sets, providing new

research tools, and collaborating with other data centers to provide an international astronomy data system.

Our education and public outreach programs have engaged the public and made Hubble a household word.

» We will improve these programs, extend them to JWST, and make them available to the rest of astronomy,

ensuring maximum benefit from the research enterprise to the public.

Our new technologies to improve Hubble operations have been applied beyond astronomy; we expect this

trend to continue, increasing the benefit to society as a whole. » We will continue to facilitate the transfer of

our technical innovations to other space astronomy missions and other fields of research.

Our approaches and solutions to technical, operational, and procedural challenges have changed the way

astronomy is done and have been adopted by observatories worldwide. » We will continue to attract the

best technical staff to advance and apply the state-of-the-art for astronomy.

Our excellent astronomy and support staff has made us a first-rank research institute. » We will

continue to attract excellent scientists and provide them with an academic environment that nourishes

excellence in research.

We recognize the importance of supporting and advancing all of our missions and programs—Hubble,

JWST, the archive, our outreach programs—to enable our vision. » We will continue to work with the

community to investigate and advocate new missions that will enable further scientific advances.

Goal 1 »

Goal 2 »

Goal 3 »

Goal 4 »

Goal 5 »

Goal 6 »

Goal 7 »

Goal 8 »

G O A L S

41

A C H I E V E M E N T S

A primary responsibility of the Institute is to optimize the science program of the Hubble Space Telescope. This responsibility is carried out by all involved in the Hubble program—scientists, engineers, and technical staff in organizations across the Institute. There are several major areas where the Institute adds value to the Hubble science program, and these naturally are the focus of our improvement activities. These include stimulating the best possible science program from the astronomy community via the proposal selection process, squeezing the highest possible observing efficiency from the telescope, providing timely and accurate calibration of the Hubble data, stimulating the use of the Hubble data archive for additional scientific results, and providing tools to support the astronomy community’s use of the telescope and the archive.

Goal 1 » Optimize the science program of the Hubble Space TelescopeWe will optimize the science program of Hubble’s second ten years and continue to serve the community in its best scientific use of the facility.

» After the successful servicing mission in 2002, the year 2003 saw Hubble operate with un-precedented capabilities. The new Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) in particular provided the majority of observations and many successful results began to emerge. The observing efficiency of Hubble remained very high. Also during this year, we implemented major changes to the processes and procedures for Cycle 12, shortening by nearly half the time from Phase I proposal submission to the start of observations. The implementation of an improved and more robust hardware and software system for data processing and the archive was a further highlight for 2003.

Stimulate the best Hubble science programThis year saw continued evolution in the process for selecting the Hubble science program. We made a major improvement with Cycle 12, reducing the time between submitting proposals and starting observations in an observing cycle. In prior cycles, the Phase I deadline occurred in mid-September, with observations starting the following July. For Cycle 12, we moved the Phase I deadline to the end of January 2003, with observations still starting in July. As a consequence the Time Allocation Committee did not convene in 2002, but met in March 2003 for Cycle 12. Shortening the time between proposal deadline and cycle start helps to ensure that recent findings have greater influence on new Hubble observations, quickening the pace of scientific advance.

» We began the Hubble Treasury Program in the Cycle 11 proposal solicitation and continued it in Cycle 12. The HST Second Decade committee recommended this program based on the obser-vation that many of the highest impact results came from the largest programs. Recently compiled metrics (see Figure 1) support the conclusion that papers from larger programs have higher impact than those from smaller programs.» In Figure 1, the mean number of citations per refereed paper based on Hubble observations increases with the program size, measured in orbits. Two sets of binnings illustrate the uniform trend.» Treasury programs are large programs to create major data sets with long-term significance and relevance to multiple scientific problems. The Treasury data sets are non-proprietary and immediately available to the community. In addition, we expect the observing teams to provide processed (science-ready) data sets, catalogues, and other data products to the archive for the community’s use. Accepted Cycle 11 Treasury programs were carried out, and investigators published results from programs such as the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey in prestigious journals.» For Cycle 12, we took several steps to strengthen further the Treasury Program. The Institute Director established a Treasury Program Advisory Committee to provide continued advice on matters related to the selection and conduct of the Hubble Treasury Program. The Cycle 12 Large and Treasury Programs are listed in Table 1.1-10 11-20 21-50 51-100 1-50 51-100 >100

mea

n #

of c

itatio

ns

program size (orbits)

20

25

15

10

5

0

13.4714.58 14.43

16.1617.55 17.55

19.74

FIG 1: Citations per Refereed Paper FIG 1: Citations Per Refereed Paper

» In Cycle 12, we continued a new class of Archival Research (AR) proposals, called Legacy programs, to take advantage of the growing size of the Hubble data archive and develop the potential of large, homogenous data sets. Selected Legacy programs analyze specific data sets uniformly to deliver data products such as catalogs, software tools, and web interfaces to the archive for the community to use.» In Cycle 12 we continued the successful Hubble Theory Program, funded as part of the Hubble AR Program, to improve the interpretation and understanding of Hubble data. The Astronomy and

Astrophysics Survey Committee of the National Research Council recommended funding such targeted theoretical research in conjunction with major observing facilities.» To assess the impact of Hubble observations on astrophysical research, we use standard, objective measures of productivity and impact that we have developed. Among these measures are the annual number of published papers based on Hubble data (see Figure 2) and the mean annual number of citations based on Hubble data (see Figure 3). Following a strong and regular increase of publications during the first eight years of Hubble,

the number of papers continued to increase, although at a slower pace, during the last four years, reaching a value of 502 for the year 2003. The current total is over 4,100 refereed papers. During the last four years, the number of refereed papers based on Hubble data constituted about 8% of all refereed papers published in the five major journals: Astrophysical Journal, Astronomical Journal, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, and Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. » Figure 3 shows the histogram by year of the mean number of citations, from the Astrophysics Data System, of refereed papers based on Hubble data. For comparison, the curve shows the mean number of citations for all refereed astrophysics papers. This shows clearly the impact of Hubble science: the average paper based on Hubble data receives about 50% more citations than the average astrophysics paper. » Figure 4 displays the histogram by year of the number of refereed papers based on Hubble data that have not been cited. Understandably, there is a

Title Principal Investigator Orbits Type

The Ultra Deep Field with ACS Steven Beckwith 400 Director’s Discretionary Time

HST Imaging of Gravitational Lenses Christopher Kochanek 110 Large Program

The Galactic Bulge Deep Field Kailash Sahu 110 Large Program

The COSMOS 2-Degree ACS Survey Nicholas Scoville 320 Treasury Program

Deep NICMOS Images of the UDF Rodger Thompson 144 Treasury Program

Table 1. Cycle 12 Programs with more than 100 orbits.

publication year

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 0% 0% 0% 2.2% 2.5% 2.4% 0.6% 1.2%4.0% 3.2% 4.6%

10.3%

45.6%

all Astrophysics HST papers

FIG 4: Percentage of Refereed HST Papers without Citations

1991

publication year

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

# o

f ref

eree

d pa

pers

200

300

400

600

500

100

0

total number of refereed papers = 4116

41 57

109

179

243

304

360

446 438479

457499 502

FIG 2: Refereed Papers based on Hubble Data FIG 2: Refereed Papers based on Hubble Data

mea

n #

of c

itatio

ns

publication year

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

45.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0

38.0

44.0

39.0 38.041.0 41.0

32.0

18.0

13.0

7.0

2.1

22.0

31.0

all Astrophysics HST

FIG 3: Citations of Refereed Hubble PapersFIG 3: Citations of Refereed Hubble Papers FIG 4: Percentage of Refereed Hubble Papers Without Citations

43

A C H I E V E M E N T Stime delay between the publication of a scientific paper and the first paper citing it. After allowing a few years to elapse, only about 2% of the Hubble-based papers have no citations, whereas about one quarter of all refereed papers in astrophysics are never cited. The high quality of papers based on Hubble observations reflects the high degree of competitiveness of the proposal process.

Optimize Hubble science operationsIn 2003, the overall Hubble scheduling efficiency remained high, averaging 43.7% for prime science observations and 48.6% for prime plus snapshot observations, as shown in Figure 5.» Cycle 12 led to the greatest observation scheduling challenge of Hubble’s lifetime. The nearly 700 orbits for Large and Treasury programs accepted by the Time Allocation Committee and over 400 orbits for the Director’s Discretionary Ultra Deep Field comprised approximately one- third of the entire Cycle 12 observing program. Several of these large programs requested targets located within the same several hours of right ascension. This co-location of high priority targets,

combined with science constraints on telescope orientation and timing, resulted in an unprece-dented number of observatory resource conflicts in the Hubble science observing plan during the fall of 2003 and early 2004. The entire period was nearly 50% oversubscribed, with some epochs having as many as two and three times the number of telescope orbits requested as were available. Ultimately, cooperation between Hubble observers and the Institute resulted in an executable plan that was acceptable to all involved and achieved the high level of scientific quality that is Hubble’s hallmark.» In April 2003, a gyro failed, leaving only four out of six onboard gyros operational. Hubble currently requires three working gyros in order to point. Given the historical failure rates and the delay of Servicing Mission 4, when new gyros could be installed, the likelihood of Hubble soon having only two working gyros became relatively high. This situation arose once before, prior to Servicing Mission 3A, forcing a shutdown of science observations for six weeks. To prevent this from occurring again, the Institute and NASA started looking for a way to continue science operations with only two working gyros. If this effort is successful and the need arises, we will use the two-gyro pointing mode prior to Servicing Mission 4. It could also extend science operations at the end of the Hubble mission.» During 2003, the Institute upgraded the computer equipment that supports the Hubble archive and processes Hubble science and engineering data. During 2002, the increasing data load from both increased community use of the archive and the installation of the large-format Advanced Camera for Surveys, led to backlogs and breakdowns of the system. The new equipment solved these problems for Hubble users.

Calibrate Hubble dataAdvanced Camera for Surveys (ACS)A year after its installation on Hubble, the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) has already produced a string of important new scientific results. The instrument is performing as expected, and in many areas better than its pre-launch specifications. All modes, both supported and available-but-unsupported, are operational. ACS is the most-used instrument on Hubble and continues to make up approximately half of the total science program.» In 2003, Institute efforts focused on characterizing and calibrating the instrument in orbit. We used observations of standard stars to improve our understanding of the instrument sensitivity. We created new sensitivity and filter transmission curves for use with the data-reduction pipeline and other software tools. Photometric calibrations are now accurate to approximately one percent at all wavelengths. We checked for a potential decrease of ultraviolet sensitivity due to contamination, but found none.» Exposure times are generally consistent with the commanded values. There are small differences only for the shortest exposure times, which the pipeline can correct. We have found no shutter shading effects (exposure time variations over the field of view) of significance.» We used images of a star cluster to calibrate losses due to imperfect charge-transfer efficiency. These photometric losses have a strong power-law dependence on the stellar flux, as we saw for other charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors flown on Hubble. For the ACS Wide-Field Channel (WFC), we find photometric losses for stars undergoing numerous parallel transfers. The losses are approximately linear in time and are at the level of about two percent for typical observing parameters,

50%

60%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

sms week

Jan 03 Jun 03 Dec 03

effi

cien

cy

prime + snaps

prime

prime (8 week average)prime + snaps (8 week average)

FIG 5: HST Time Scheduling EfficiencyFIG 5: Hubble Time Scheduling Efficiency

rising to ten percent in the worst case (e.g., faint stars on low background). We find no losses due to serial transfer. We find qualitatively similar results for the ACS High Resolution Channel (HRC), although the losses there are smaller due to the smaller chip size and smaller number of charge transfers. We have made formulae available for observers to correct photometric losses as a function of position, flux, background, time, and aperture size.» The ACS point-spread function (PSF) is much more stable over the field of view than the PSFs with Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) or Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS). However, the WFC PSF still varies over the field of view in a manner that is important for certain observing programs. These variations are the result of small variations in the thickness of the detector, which affect the charge-diffusion properties of the CCD. There is also a component of PSF variation due to time-dependent defocus and field-dependent astigmatism and defocus. We have implemented our understanding of the variations in the TINY TIM PSF-modeling software.» We improved ACS flat fields in various ways. For the supported HRC modes in the wavelength regime below 4000 Å, we created improved flat fields from observations of the bright earth. (While the bright earth is a poor flat-field source at optical wavelengths because of structure in the cloud cover, it is a uniform source of diffuse light at shorter wavelengths due to the high optical depth above the cloud layer.) For filters with strong red-leaks, we use pre-launch ground-based flat fields.» The ACS filter wheel movements are accurate to one motor step. This is not generally a problem, except for filters with small blemishes, which produce out-of-focus features in the flat field that change position if the filter wheel does not rotate

to its nominal position. For a few filter combinations, this effect causes flat-fielding errors exceeding one percent over a small part of the field of view. For most of these filter combinations, we implemented flat fields calculated as a function of the filter-wheel offset step.» We developed a method for determining low-frequency flat-field structure from observations of star fields. We used the method to develop fourth-order polynomial corrections to the ground-based calibration flat fields. The results are accurate to approximately one percent.» We improved procedures for routinely creating bias and dark reference images, which are now delivered to the data reduction pipeline on a bi-weekly basis. We used the new procedures to calculate improved bias and dark images for the first year of ACS operations.» We used observations of blank fields at various angles from the bright Earth limb to measure the amount of scattered light in ACS data. We found no strong scattered-light component at angles in excess of 20 degrees. Since no science observations occur at smaller angles, scattered light is not an ACS issue.» We repair hot pixels on Hubble CCD detectors by performing monthly ‘anneals’— periods during which we heat and cool the detectors. Studies show that the hot-pixel annealing rate for WFC is approximately 63 percent, well below the values of approximately 85 percent for the CCDs on STIS, WFPC2, and ACS/HRC. Even after multiple anneals on ACS/WFC some 30 percent of hot pixels remain, leading over time to a linear increase of the number of hot pixels on the CCD. We do not know the cause of this behavior. Projections suggest that six percent of all WFC pixels will be hot by 2010. Observers can minimize the scientific impact with dithering strategies. A study of the dark count and

hot pixel rates as a function of detector temperature suggests that the installation of the Aft Shroud Cooling System during the next Hubble Servicing Mission should decrease both the number and impact of hot pixels.» We improved operational procedures for the ACS coronagraphy mode. We developed new commanding to make coronagraph acquisition repeatable and to minimize problems due to drifts of the coronagraphic spots. We now measure and uplink the actual position of the coronagraphic spot before a coronagraphic science observation.» Our collaborators at the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility used observations of Wolf-Rayet stars to determine the wavelength calibration of the G800L grism with both the WFC and the HRC. They also incorporated the results in the extraction software AXE, which we use extensively at the Institute.» We worked closely with community investigators conducting outsourced calibration programs. For example, the Cycle 11 program by Anderson and King provided new insights into ACS geometric distortions that will improve our astro-metric calibrations. The Cycle 12 Time Allocation Committee approved four additional ACS calibration proposals from the astronomical community.» To facilitate ACS observation planning and data analysis with the latest information, in 2003 we released new instrument and data handbooks and a new exposure-time calculator. We also released eleven Instrument Science Reports and published a suite of papers on the calibration of ACS—authored both by Institute staff and members of the astronomical community—in the proceedings of the 2002 HST Calibration Workshop.» The large geometric distortion in ACS makes analyzing its data fundamentally different from that of most other imaging cameras. We instituted

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A C H I E V E M E N T SPYDRIZZLE to correct for this distortion in the pipe-line by combining dithered images and correcting for geometric distortion, to provide data that are astrometrically and photometrically accurate. Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS)After being the ‘sleeping beauty’ of the Hubble aft shroud for three and a half years, we brought NICMOS back to life in 2002, and it spent 2003 as a full-fledged Hubble science instrument. » The NICMOS Cooling System (NCS), a mechanical cooler installed on Hubble during Servicing Mission 3B, resuscitated NICMOS in March 2002. It cools nitrogen gas and circulates it through the NICMOS dewar. The initial cool-down started on 16 March 2002, and after a few months of intense verification work by the NICMOS Group, Hubble was once again collecting infrared photons. By the end of 2003, after more than one and a half years of on-orbit operations, NICMOS and the NCS have shown a high level of stability. In fact, the NCS provides a higher level of temperature stability than achieved during Cycle 7 and 7N, when temperature fluctuations were the problem calibrating science data. The NCS now actively maintains NICMOS detectors at an average temperature of 77.15 K, with typical excursions of 0.15 K peak-to-peak due to orbital and telescope attitude variations. We actively correct an additional, secular temperature variation of about 0.05 K due to seasonal changes, by changing the NCS control-temperature set-point twice a year. Thus, we maintain the temperature at the detectors as close as possible to its nominal value during the entire course of the year. Dark, flat field, photometric, and focus monitoring over the last 18 months confirm a very stable instrument.» The stability of NICMOS allowed us to reduce

the frequency of monitoring programs in Cycle 12, permitting us to pursue other issues regarding NICMOS and its data reduction. One such issue is the persistence of ‘cosmic-ray’ effects due to trapped electrons encountered in passing through the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). Cosmic-ray persistence is a coherent, non-Gaussian, exponentially decaying noise that can have a standard deviation two to three times the typical NICMOS noise. It affects between half and two-thirds of NICMOS science data. In deep images, the extra noise can be seen for up to 85 minutes after passage through the SAA. When restarting NICMOS operation in 2002, we decided always to take two dark frames following an SAA passage and to use them to remove the cosmic ray persistence. We tested the method, proved it dramatically reduces the problem, and made the solution available as a software tool.» The NCS entered safe mode in August 2003, and NICMOS itself went into safe mode shortly after, as the temperature started to rise. After assessing the reason for the NCS safing, we restarted the system in a matter of days. NCS/NICMOS came down to pre-safing temperature at record speed, in about 48 hours. Within a couple of weeks, checks showed that NICMOS had fully recovered pre-safing stability conditions, providing an unexpected test of the repeatability of the NCS/NICMOS system, passed with flying colors. NICMOS science operations resumed on 21 August, just in time to support the campaign to observe Mars at closest approach.» The science program pursued with NICMOS in Cycle 11 and 12 has been varied and exciting, covering a broad range of contemporary scientific issues, ranging from the most distant objects in the universe to the Solar System.» NICMOS continues to be the only infrared instrument on board Hubble, offering unique

imaging, coronagraphic, grism, and polarimetric capabilities in the wavelength range from 0.8 to 2.5 microns. NICMOS provides continuous coverage in the infrared window, with high angular resolution over the entire sky, low sky background, photo-metric stability, point-spread-function uniformity and repeatability, and high Strehl ratio. The good stability and repeatability of NCS/NICMOS in 2003 is good news for observers and promises that NICMOS will continue to produce exciting science in the years to come.

Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS)During 2003, we implemented two major improvements in the pipeline flux calibration of the CCD spectroscopic modes of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS). The first was the correction for the effects of increasing charge transfer inefficiency (CTI), the magnitude of which depends on multiple parameters—the time elapsed since STIS was put on orbit, the location of the target on the detector, the signal level of the target, and the background level. The impact of CTI can be quite significant, especially for faint targets: losses of 20% or more are quite common. Our CTI algorithm, which corrects the extracted fluxes with an accuracy better than 1.5%, is the first on-the-fly CTI correction for any Hubble instrument. » The second pipeline improvement was the correction for the effects of time-dependent sensitivity (TDS) in the CCD flux calibration, which can change by nearly 2% per year at ultraviolet wavelengths and must be handled separately from CTI effects. We implemented similar corrections for MAMA (Multi-Anode Microchannel Array) first-order spectroscopy in 2001. Figure 6 illustrates the benefits of the corrections for CTI and TDS effects for fluxes measured from STIS spectra of standard stars.

Figure 6 illustrates the flux measured as a function of observation epoch at 2850 Å in sensitivity-monitoring observations of a standard star with the G230LB grating. We normalized the fluxes to the measured flux just after STIS was installed on Hubble. The dark green disks show the measured flux without corrections for CTI or TDS. The light green disks show the improvement due to CTI corrections. The hollow disks show the further improvements when both CTI and TDS corrections are applied.» We improved the geometric distortion solution for STIS imaging using the near-ultraviolet MAMA detector. Typical median errors between the predicted and the real positions are now in the range of 0.28 to 0.53 MAMA pixels (7 to 13 milliseconds of arc). For comparison, the previous geometric distortion solution produced median errors of a few MAMA pixels.» We implemented three new families of ‘pseudo-apertures’ to help STIS users in preparing Phase-II proposals. These new pseudo-apertures refer to existing, physical STIS apertures. They help the

observer position the target optimally for (a) the lowest possible dark current for observations with the far-ultraviolet MAMA detector, (b) the best fringe correction for CCD spectroscopy, or (c) coronagraphic CCD imaging using the smallest coronagraphic mask available on Hubble (0.6 arcsec wide).

Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2)Even after the installation of ACS, the WFPC2 continues to be used for a number of specialized ultraviolet and optical imaging applications. These applications include astrometric monitoring programs, ultra-violet imaging programs over wide fields (for which WFPC2 is especially suitable), programs needing the extensive WFPC2 narrow-band filter set, and parallel-observing programs.» To support the ongoing WFPC2 observations, we maintain a baseline of instrument calibration and characterization programs, including the creation of bias images, dark images, and hot pixel lists. We also monitor internal flat-field images, photo-metric sensitivity, and CTI losses.» In addition to routine calibration programs, we pursue special ‘close-out’ observations to make best use of WFPC2’s final years, obtaining unique observations to increase the scientific value of all WFPC2 data in the Hubble archive. For example, in 2003, we completed a study of the wavelength dependence of the geometric distortion of WFPC2. This work is the first on-orbit measurement of the distortion using the F300W and F814W filters, whereas previously the distortion had only been measured for filter F555W. The results indicate that the distortion is wavelength dependent at the few-percent level. In another closeout program, we observed a selection of Sloan Digital Sky Survey, ACS, WFC3 and STIS spectrophotometric standard fields through a range of WFPC2 filters. The

purpose was to provide a tie-in between the WFPC2 filter set and other photometric systems.» In 2003, we released a new WFPC2 Instrument Handbook and three Instrument Science Reports. Many additional papers on the calibration of WFPC2, authored by Institute staff and by members of the astronomical community, appeared in the proceedings of the 2002 HST Calibration Workshop, published this year.

Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS)The Cycle 12 Time Allocation Committee awarded observing time to nine proposals using the Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS). With five proposals continuing from Cycle 11, FGS observations accounted for a total 152 Hubble orbits or about 5% of Hubble’s General Observer program in 2003. Considering that past allocations were typically half that amount, this increase in FGS utilization was sizable, particularly as Cycle 12 offered a second year of highly productive ACS and NICMOS observations. » FGS proposals address a diverse set of scientific objectives, including accurate parallaxes of Galactic Cepheids to calibrate the first rung of the cosmic distance ladder, measuring the distances to some of the Galaxy’s oldest stars to determine their ages, obtaining the orbital elements and distances of binary systems to derive dynamical masses of O stars, white dwarfs, and M dwarfs, and astrometry of stars hosting planetary systems. » The FGS calibration plan to support these programs requires fourteen dedicated HST orbits, fewer than in any previous cycle. Primarily, this reduction is due to the stability of the FGS1R instrument. Data obtained from calibration observations in previous cycles remain applicable, especially with regard to the instrument’s geo-metric distortion across its field of view. Other

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A C H I E V E M E N T Scharacteristics, such as the morphology of the observed point-source interference fringes, also display little change over time. This allows for infrequent monitoring of standard stars or astrometric fields in the yearly calibration program. » All of the FGS proposals accepted in Cycle 12 continue through Cycle 14. Astrometry takes time.

Stimulate the use of Hubble dataThe Institute provides the astronomy community with easy access to the entire suite of Hubble data. After an observation, we process, calibrate, and archive new observational data promptly. Also, we make all non-proprietary science data available to the public.» By the end of 2003, the total amount of Hubble data archived since launch amounted to the equivalent of 17.1 terabytes from 575,000 observations. On average we ingested 112 gigabytes of new data per week, while delivering more than 350 gigabytes per week in response to user requests. Both the number of observations and data volume of the archive continued the rapid

growth that began with the installation of ACS in March 2002 (Figures 7 & 8). The average data retrieval rate grew even more rapidly: during 2003 it was 30% higher than in 2002 and more than 2.5 times higher than the 2001 retrieval rate (Figure 9). This dramatic rise is due mainly to the increasing availability of non-proprietary ACS images starting in mid-2003 and reflects continuing growth in the community’s use of the Hubble archive.» Figure 8 illustrates the increase in the volume of Hubble data stored in the archive from 1995 through 2003. Note the dramatic increase after installation of the ACS on Servicing Mission 3B in March 2002.» Figure 9 illustrates the average daily volume of both data retrieval and ingest. The ingest rate is steady since Servicing Mission 3B, but the retrieval rate continues to increase as the quantity of public ACS data grows.» We aim to satisfy user requests for science data within 24 hours, including both the time for On-The-Fly Reprocessing (OTFR) of the data and the time to transfer the resulting calibrated data products over the Internet to the user’s computer. The archive

was under stress this past year due to the great demand for ACS images, and its performance suffered during the summer as a result of saturation of our computational resources and limitations in the Internet bandwidth allotted to the Institute (Figure 10). » Figure 10 illustrates the median time (hours) to satisfy archive requests for each week in 2003. The dark-green line is for OTFR requests (includes most Hubble data), the dashed-green line for non-OTFR requests (where the files from the archive are directly transferred to the user), and the light-green line for all requests. There is considerable scatter due to variation in the number and complexity of requests received each week. Nevertheless, it is clear that performance was unsatisfactory in July and August. After the installation of the Sunfire 15K compute engine in September, the performance was generally excellent, with request times often dominated by the time to transfer large files over the Internet.» We implemented long-planned improvements in the archive’s hardware and software in 2003,

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leading to vastly better performance from September through December (Figure 10). The Hubble data archive is now delivering far more data than ever before, with each dataset subject to more sophisticated calibration and processing, and yet the system is from top to bottom more reliable and has a greater performance margin than ever before. After the problems of July to August 2003, performance was generally excellent. Our new system currently is a solid basis in both hardware and software to support the archive into the future.» We have completed the production of the Digitized Sky Survey (DSS) project. All of the major photographic sky surveys have now been digitized and the data are available online through the archive. The DSS now provides all-sky optical images in blue, red, and near-infrared through both a web-based interface and Virtual Observatory-compliant web services. The DSS continues to be one of the most popular resources for modern observational astronomy, with more than 100,000 image retrievals per month from MAST and the other major data centers. To improve the performance and reliability of access to these

data, we transferred the DSS images from CD-ROM jukeboxes to network-attached storage devices.» Over the last year we constructed a new Guide Star Catalog (GSC-II) from the digitized DSS images. GSC-II is the new reference catalog for Hubble operations and forms the basis for the future James Webb Space Telescope guide star catalog. We completed the second major public release (GSC 2.3) in August 2003, which includes over a billion objects to the magnitude limits of the plates. This catalog significantly improves the absolute astro-metric precision of the Hubble reference frame and ties it to the International Celestial Reference Frame. The production of the GSC-II has been an international collaboration, and many other missions and ground-based telescopes are using it.

Provide user supportIn 2003, we improved our infrastructure for helping users make best use of Hubble data and opportunities to observe with Hubble. These improvements include upgrades to the Hubble web portal, new software for developing proposals, enhancements to the data analysis environment, and initiating user support for future instruments.» For the first time in Cycle 12, proposers used the Astronomer’s Proposal Tools (APT) for Phase I submissions. While users raised several minor issues, they generally liked using APT, and we realized our goal of receiving a much cleaner set of submitted proposals. This helped reduce the time between proposal submission and execution, to ‘freshen’ the Hubble science program.» We conducted a user survey after the Phase I deadline and received many useful suggestions for further improving the system. Based on those comments, we upgraded APT for Cycle 13, for example, to allow users to ingest a list of targets directly. To remove some confusion, we also modified the way users specify observations.

» Also for the first time in Cycle 12, we provided a Phase II version of APT, which consisted of a proposal editor, an orbit planner (to allowed users to fully utilize their orbital visibility), and a visit planner (to determine the schedulability of observations). While a small number of users with large programs could not use APT, the great majority of users were able to submit their programs successfully with APT. » We introduced a new training scheme to teach users how to use APT, which is a very interactive system. Based on testing with Institute scientists, we found that the best way was to show them how APT works, rather than relying on written documentation. Since we could not visit all our users in person, we produced training videos, which were well received by the community.» As with Phase I, we conducted a user survey after the Phase II proposals were submitted. We found most users were happy with the orbit and visit planners. However, users expressed concerns with the editor, particularly for programs with many observations. To address this concern, we modified APT to ingest a file of observations directly into APT. To allow users to pack their exposures more quickly and efficiently into orbits, we created an ‘autofill’ capability. Users can now select exposures in an orbit and have the software optimize the use of target visibility in that orbit. Starting in Cycle 13, we support the use of Macintosh computers for APT.» In 2003, we improved the tools we provide the community for analyzing Hubble data. STSDAS/TABLES 3.1 included major upgrades to PYDRIZZLE, which is used to combine dithered images, and to the ACS and STIS calibration pipelines. We also developed more data-analysis tasks in Python and incorporated them into STSDAS, where they require PYRAF for use rather than IRAF’s own command language. We released PYRAF 1.1,

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A C H I E V E M E N T Sincluding a much-simplified installation procedure, a Mac OS X port, and an improved graphics kernel, which eliminates dependencies on external packages. We also enhanced the functionality of SPECVIEW, our Java-based spectrum plotting and fitting package, releasing version 2.6.» We improved both PYFITS, which provides tools for reading and writing data and manipulating the headers of FITS files in Python, and ‘numarray,’ which PYFITS uses to access and manipulate arrays.

Prepare for future science instrumentsThe Institute develops both pre-observation and post-observation components of the ground system for new Hubble instruments, drawing on our experience and capabilities from previous instruments. In 2003, we prepared for two instruments to be installed in the next servicing mission: the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) and the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). We supported instrument alignment and testing efforts. » For COS, we coordinated our efforts with the science team led by the Principal Investigator. We participated in integration, alignment, and testing activities at the instrument contractor, Ball Aerospace. We helped the COS team develop test protocols and assisted in analyzing the results. For the first time for any Hubble instrument development,

the Institute provided full data-processing services for thermal-vacuum calibration activities, including pipeline processing, archiving in MAST, and distributing data products. We completed the suite of calibration software for COS, which the team is using to assess the testing data. Preparing to operate COS, we updated the Institute’s obser-vation scheduling system based upon actual instrument performance.» For WFC3, Institute scientists and engineers played leadership roles as the instrument moved through critical integration and test phases. We guided the development of the ground system needed for testing and operating WFC3, and we supported instrument design, development, integration, and system-level testing. We demonstrated the data processing pipeline and archive functions in end-to-end tests and the first phases of instrument testing.» The Institute’s main role for WFC3 is assessing scientific performance to guide development. In 2003, we guided the selection of the flight infrared detector after a difficult and lengthy development program. Institute scientists built an independent optical model of the instrument and modeled the performance of WFC3 with various detectors. We developed an improved thermal model for the infrared channel, led the evaluation of the CCD charge injection performance, and supported the

detector characterization and test program at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and Rockwell Scientific.» The Institute further assisted the development of WFC3 hardware in three areas. First, we supported the optical alignment and led optical testing as the primary evaluators of image quality. Second, we led the ground calibration and science-level testing. Third, we provided management and analysis support.» We engaged the WFC3 Science Oversight Committee in WFC3 issues, hosting the group twice for meetings at the Institute during 2003. We supported science team reports at scientific and technical meetings of the astronomical community and released an updated version of the WFC3 Mini-Handbook as part of the Cycle 13 Call for Proposals.» In 2003, we began the planning cycle for the Servicing Mission Observatory Verification (SMOV) program for Servicing Mission 4 with two activities: concept definition and requirements analysis. The Institute organized the SMOV planning team, which consists of scientists and engineers from GSFC, the Institute, and Ball Aerospace. Under Institute leadership, the planning team analyzed the expected post-servicing mission circumstances and derived a set of functional requirements for the re-commissioning of the upgraded observatory. NASA approved the requirements after detailed review.

COS aft end and vent covers. The integrated COS instrument and its enclosure.

The COS optical bench and enclosure. WFC3 during assembly on its rotating support structure; the optical bench is visible in the center; the radiator with its protective cover is at the top.

Goal 2 » Develop the best possible James Webb Space TelescopeWe will help develop—then operate—the best JWST possible, with full inheritance of Hubble lessons-learned and full engagement of the community in its development

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is the ‘First Light Machine,’ an observatory that can peer back into the era when the first stars, galaxies, and massive black holes were formed. Since 1996, the Institute and the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) have been partners in defining this mission according to its scientific promise and the details of achieving it. » In 2001, NASA, the Institute, and the scientific community set performance goals for the obser-vatory. The telescope must have a high quality, large diameter mirror (> 6 m) to see a supernova at redshift z ~ 8, an epoch less than one billion years after the Big Bang. To detect the rare, faint star clusters or mini-QSOs at z ~ 15, which is when the first generations of stars were forming from the collapsing filaments of primordial hydrogen and helium gas, the primary camera on JWST must have a large field of view (~10 square arc minutes). To see the weak gravitational distortion of galaxy images in order to measure the total masses of galaxies and clusters at the time of peak star formation (z ~ 1 to 3), the telescope must be stable for many days. To achieve this stability, the telescope will have a large, multi-layered sunshade to provide a million-fold rejection of solar heating. » At the Institute, the Science and Operations Center (S&OC) will take advantage of Hubble tools and experience as well as JWST’s favorable orbit at the second Sun-Earth Lagrange point to provide efficient scientific use of the observatory to the community for an affordable cost. » In 2002, NASA completed its selection of development partners to join the Institute in the design and implementation of JWST and the S&OC.

Northrop Grumman Space Technologies (NGST) is the prime contractor, which—together with Ball Aerospace and other subcontractors—will construct and test the telescope, sunshade, and avionics. NASA retains responsibility for overseeing the development and assembly of the three science instruments as well as their supporting electronics and computer needs. The University of Arizona will provide the Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam), which will provide the deepest images of the universe and be capable of detecting the birth of the earliest galaxies and star clusters. The European Space Agency will provide the Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec), a multi-aperture spectrograph capable of observing over 100 galaxies or stars at one time. The US and Europe will collaborate on the construction of the Mid-Infrared Instrument, a camera and spectrograph operating in the 5 to 28 micron wavelength range. The Canadian Space Agency will contribute the fine guidance system (FGS), which will maintain Hubble-quality pointing using faint infrared stars from the most recent version of the Institute guide star catalog. If funding is adequate, this system will also have a tunable-filter infrared camera capable of spectral resolutions λ/δλ = 50–100 from λ = 1–5 micron.» On June 6, 2003, the Institute achieved a significant milestone in the NASA/AURA JWST partnership with the signing of an eight-year contract for JWST. The contract calls for the Institute to develop the science operations systems and the flight operations system, to support the development and commissioning of the science instruments and the observatory, to conduct outreach programs to the astronomy community

and the public, and to operate JWST and direct the science program until one year after launch. The scope of the contract for JWST is substantially the same as the work that the Institute has been performing for Hubble.» During 2003, the JWST Project passed several critical hurdles. The first was financial. To proceed into development within a constrained FY2003–06 NASA budget profile, the Project was forced to delay some major development—as well as the JWST launch—for 14 months. In addition, the Science Working Group agreed to a reduction in the diameter of the primary mirror from 7m to 6.5m. While reducing the overall sensitivity of JWST by 20%, this step lowered costs and reduced development risks. To better inform these and other decisions, the Institute scientific and engineering staff provided the Project and the Science Working Group with technical, financial, and scientific impact assessments. Fortunately, the Project maintained the performance and capabilities of the science instruments and still met its financial goals. Nevertheless, all elements of the program saw 15 to 25% budget reductions in their funding levels, including the Institute. » Despite fiscal woes, the year 2003 brought major technological successes. In June, the Near Infrared Camera team chose Rockwell Scientific as the vendor of the 2k x 2k infrared detectors that are the heart of the camera. Under NASA funding, Rockwell and Raytheon had developed two technologies for these detectors: HgCdTe and InSb substrates bonded to silicon readout devices. The University of Hawaii optimized the operation of the Rockwell devices. Likewise, the University

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of Rochester worked with the Raytheon team. The Institute’s Independent Detector Testing Laboratory provided uniform test results for both technologies, which were consistent with the two university teams and showed that each technology satisfied the original specifications. For HgCdTe (Rockwell), the test team found extremely low noise and high quantum efficiency over a wide range of operating temperature. This remarkable performance and the ability of Rockwell to produce large numbers of devices convinced the NIRCam team and NASA that HgCdTe was the right choice. These detectors, with minor modifications, will be used in the NIRCam, NIRSpec, and FGS instruments. » In September 2003, NGST and NASA reviewed the results of the joint NASA/DoD Advanced Mirror Development before choosing how to construct the JWST primary mirror. The inter-agency effort had funded two teams over the past few years to study the design and fabrication of ultra-lightweight mirror segments. (The JWST primary mirror will have 18 hexagonal segments, each about 1.3 meters in diameter (flat to flat), with an areal density of 13.2 kg m-2.) Kodak and Corning

constituted the ultra-low expansion (ULE) glass mirror team, and Ball Aerospace, Brush Wellman, Tinsley and Axsys made up the beryllium (Be) team. Both teams designed and fabricated off-axis parabolic mirrors 1.2 meters in diameter with areal density of about 10 kg m-2. Using cryogenic vacuum facilities at Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA and university engineers measured the quality of the mirrors at room temperature and down to 30 K. Again, both of the technologies could ultimately have met the specifications for JWST. NGST and NASA chose the Be technology because its performance had been reliably demonstrated at cryogenic temperatures. The glass mirror, while easier to figure, suffered significant distortions when cooled from room temperature to JWST operating temperatures. Since the design and construction of the primary mirror is the most demanding task for the observatory, the choice of mirror materials was a critical milestone for JWST. Institute engineers played an important support role in the independent analysis of mirror technologies and methods for verifying primary mirror performance.

» In October 2003, the Institute began the first major S&OC software development, the Project Reference Database (PRD). In two years, NASA will distribute the PRD and NASA’s test systems to NGST and the instrument developers. The PRD will be the central repository of verified commands for operating the spacecraft and the science instruments as well as other critical spacecraft parameters used by flight and ground software. The PRD’s challenge is to support testing and local control of the data during the early hardware development phases as well as project-level control when the observatory elements come together. Institute engineers played a leading role on the corresponding Hubble database, and NASA chose them to implement and operate the JWST system.» Throughout 2003, the Institute supported the NASA JWST Project in public outreach. The JWST exhibit at the winter American Astronomical Society meeting has encouraged hundreds of interested astronomers to learn about the JWST science mission and the new technologies that enable it. The public-oriented website (http://jwstsite.stsci.edu) and the astronomer-oriented website (http://www.stsci.edu/jwst/) describe the mission’s scientific goals, the JWST architecture, the capabilities of the science instruments, and members of the Science Working Group.

Goal 3 » Operate a world-class data archiveWe will continue to run the best astronomical data archive in the world, adding new data sets, providing new research tools, and collaborating with other data centers to provide an international astronomy data system.

The Multimission Archive at Space Telescope (MAST) is one of the world’s best and most widely used data archives. It offers users convenient search and retrieval utilities for accessing data from 17 missions and surveys, including Hubble (List 1).» To keep MAST on the cutting edge, we strove in 2003 to improve the key functions of a modern archive. We ensured the preservation of astro-physical data into the indefinite future with reliable storage technologies. Our scientific and technical expertise guided the processing, re-analysis, and interpretation of the data holdings. We developed multimission analysis and support tools. We defined data, software, and access standards. We coordinated with other national and international data centers to enhance inter-archive communication.» When investigating the physical processes in the formation and evolution of stars, galaxies, and large-scale structure, astronomers demand data from a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The MAST holdings—ultraviolet, optical, and near-infrared images and spectra—have become a key resource for such investigations worldwide.» In 2003, the Institute improved the tools for navigating MAST, including the ability to cross-correlate and combine data from different missions and making searchable the science abstracts for Hubble, Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer,

HST (Hubble Space Telescope) » FUSE (Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer) » GALEX (Galaxy Evolution Explorer) » CHIPS (Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer) » IUE (International Ultraviolet Explorer) » EUVE (Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer) » HUT (Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope) » WUPPE (Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment) » UIT (Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope) » Copernicus (the Copernicus satellite) » ORFEUS (Orbiting Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometers) » BEFS (Berkeley Extreme and Far-UV Spectrometer) » IMAPS (Interstellar Medium Absorption Profile Spectrograph) » TUES (Tübingen Echelle Spectrograph) » DSS (Digitized Sky Survey) » GSC (Guide Star Catalog) » VLA-FIRST (Very Large Array-Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-centimeters) » Note that in addition to these, MAST will be the archive for the upcoming KEPLER mission. MAST also provides interfaces for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and ROSAT (Röntgen Satellite), although the data for both those projects are stored elsewhere.

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, and International Ultraviolet Explorer. The archive also added numerous, new, fully reduced, high-level science data products, such as Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 cosmic-ray rejected images, spectral atlases, data previews for Hubble and other missions, and the images and catalogs of the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey. » The Institute continued working with other data centers to define the data standards and models for the Virtual Observatory and enhanced both the web and Starview archive interfaces to provide better links to other archives and catalogs. » We worked with our colleagues at other NASA data centers to improve the interoperability between all major astronomical data archives. We provided links between MAST data holdings and the on-line publications hosted by NASA’s Astrophysics Data System. This linkage permits immediate access to the data behind published results. We also provide seamless access to data stored at other sites, even beyond the ultraviolet/optical/near-infrared range but still relevant to interpreting our current holdings. These data sources include ROSAT (Röntgen Satellite), Chandra X-ray Observatory, and VLA (Very Large Array) FIRST (Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-One Centimeters).

» During 2003 the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) mission was launched. GALEX is a NASA ultraviolet imaging and spectroscopic survey mission designed to map the global history and probe the causes of star formation over the redshift range 0 < z < 2. GALEX is the first mission to produce an all-sky ultraviolet survey. MAST hosts the GALEX data, and we developed state-of-the-art tools for handling its anticipated five terabytes of data. NASA released GALEX early observations in December 2003.» We prepared to receive the data from the Kepler mission, which is a Discovery Program mission designed to detect terrestrial planets around stars in the sun’s neighborhood. The Kepler instrument will detect transits by planets across the disk of the host star, from which investigators can calculate the sizes of the orbit and the planet from the period and depth of the transit, respectively. Kepler will monitor 100,000 stars for four years and produce approximately five terabytes of data. Kepler is scheduled for launch in 2007. » NASA launched the Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer (CHIPS), a university-class Explorer mission, in January 2003, and MAST archives the data.

List 1.

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Goal 4 » Stimulate education and public outreachWe will improve our education and public outreach programs, extend them to JWST, and make them available to the rest of astronomy, ensuring maximum benefit to the public from the research enterprise.

The Institute’s Office of Public Outreach (OPO) shares Hubble Space Telescope’s breathtaking images and discoveries with the public through diverse products and programs that inform and inspire. An OPO team of communication professionals from a range of disciplines—including web and multimedia programming, video production, graphics, animation, curriculum development, and science writing—join with astronomers to provide the skills needed for developing products. To help achieve this Institute goal, OPO developed a five-year strategic plan in 2002 and completed a detailed implementation plan in 2003, putting in place a management process for achieving our mission to share scientific discoveries in ways that excite, inspire, challenge, and educate. » The year 2003 was exciting and productive for education and public outreach at the Institute. We developed a diverse portfolio of products and increased our presence in the space science education and outreach community.

User needsWe gave special attention to understanding the needs of our users and evaluating how well our products and services meet those needs. » Our Formal Education program surveyed the needs of classroom educators and improved our understanding of the requirements of those who develop curriculum and other education products. In response, we devoted a special section of the Amazing Space website to providing materials and content tailored to these constituencies. To ensure

the quality of our formal education products, we increased our reliance on the external evaluation services of the Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning organization. We have enough field experience with the Amazing Space product line to assess its consistent use and impact on science and technology in the classroom. We identified more than 250 school districts in all 50 states using Amazing Space, including 22 of the 50 largest districts in the country (e.g., the Los Angeles Unified School District and the Houston Independent School District, which have ~90% minority enrollment). We found Amazing Space being used in more than 150 colleges of education to train teachers on the principles of integrating technology into the curriculum. Based on these data, we estimate that Amazing Space reaches about 380,000 teachers and 4.9 million students, directly or indirectly. » We increased our connections with planetariums, science centers, and museums and surveyed them to develop a better understanding of the needs of the informal science education venues. We conducted surveys of users of our ViewSpace multi-media program to solicit their evaluation. Although assessing impacts in informal science education is less well established than for formal education, we gathered data on visitor numbers and demographics. There is ample anecdotal information that these public venues are a major source of inspiration for interest in the science and engineering activities of the astronomical community. In 2003, we continued to provide products and support to the student programs

of the formal education offices of planetariums, science centers, and museums.» We initiated a program to assess the needs of our Internet visitors and evaluate how well we are serving those needs. Through hundreds of email messages received per month, we know that we have a broad spectrum of visitors. Some come just to enjoy the beautiful images; school children use us as research sources for classroom projects; other users include hard-core techno-geeks, who really want to understand how the observatory works!» In 2003, we solicited feedback from media and broadcast users, a major constituency for Hubble news. We also conducted a detailed survey of the Origins mission OPO leads and obtained their help developing a strategic plan for the Origins Education Forum.

News & public informationIn 2003, we continued to play a significant role in science communication and public understanding of science. The Institute’s News Program communicates the latest information about Hubble discoveries to the public via print and broadcast media, and Internet news sites. Besides reaching these traditional mass media outlets, the News Program provides Hubble images and intellectual content for textbooks, popular astronomy books, educational documentaries, and astronomy web-sites and is the major source of material for other OPO products. Our News Program is recognized as a leader in quality science communication and as a model for NASA space science missions and other research institutions.

» A highlight of 2003 was Hubble’s outreach-inspired acquisition of Mars images at closest approach in August. Media and public attention to the ‘60,000 year’ phenomenon identified an opportunity to showcase astronomy. The Director added a few orbits of discretionary time to the already planned science observations to obtain pictures at the very time of closest approach. With help from across the Institute and from a science team led by J. Bell, we turned the data around within 12 hours of acquisition to support two releases only eight hours apart. The fast-paced work was re-warded with outstanding media coverage, including more than 450 news stories and a ‘Live with Matt Lauer’ segment on the Today Show. We received more than 50 million hits to HubbleSite in a five-day period around the Mars event, swamping our servers and the Institute’s network capacity. » We prepared the products for three other press events in 2003, including the Space Science Update (SSU) “Oldest Known Planet Identified”. This SSU featured the precisely-measured mass of the oldest known planet in our Milky Way galaxy, lying near the core of the ancient globular star cluster M4 in the constellation Scorpius. This SSU produced nearly 200 stories. The topics of the other press events were “Biggest ‘Zoom Lens’ in Space Takes Hubble Deeper into the Universe” and “Scientists Find Faint Objects with Hubble that May Have Ended the Universe’s ‘Dark Ages’”. These two topics produced about 50 articles, with the latter appearing on the front page of the Washington Post. » We prepared 31 press releases other than SSUs. The news topics included new measurements for the age of the universe, the rate of star formation in the early universe, and the landmark discovery of black holes in globular clusters. » NASA’s 2003 Science News metric study found that Hubble continues to lead all other NASA science programs in news coverage.

Formal educationThe Institute’s Formal Education Program develops online and hard copy curriculum-support products for the K–12-education community. A rigorous evaluation program and strict compliance with national educational standards ensures the success of these products. » In 2003, we transformed the orientation of Amazing Space from online activities to a formal education program. The new, more holistic philosophy is to bring the most recent scientific discoveries and research to the classroom through educator, student, and scientist entry-points. We completed a brochure describing the new Amazing Space Education Program to highlight features for educators and developers, presenting the breadth and depth of our core program, including the web sites, hard copy products, and teacher training workshops. We also created new formal education products, including Graphic Organizers, Fast Fact Updates, Lithographs and Educator Guides. » We completed the second phase of our retrospective study of the Initiative to Develop Education through Astronomy and Space Science (IDEAS) grant program this year. With respect to the persistence of the programs, we found that 87% still exist in some form. We found long-term relationships being built: some 82% of the scientists who became involved in IDEAS projects remain involved with educators and 97% pursue education and public outreach in some form. We found the IDEAS funding often became seed money for good ideas: some 31 programs that received ~$500K from IDEAS were able to secure an additional ~$14.6M from other sources.

Informal science educationThe Institute’s Informal Science Education Program assists museums, science centers, and planetariums to showcase and explain Hubble discoveries and images. We offer science-content review and consultation to informal science education organizations that are developing exhibitions and programs. » A major component of our program is ViewSpace, which is a unique multimedia product for large-screen video display in museums and planetariums. ViewSpace was the recipient of the 2003 Bronze MUSE Award in the science category from the American Association of Museums. Using colorful images, digital movie clips, and simple language in captions, ViewSpace tells science stories. In 2003, ViewSpace expanded its content and delivery media. We made it available on CD and via the Internet, as ViewSpace Online. We added four new feature shows via both channels. We added several new features to ViewSpace Online, including Astronomy Picture of the Day, regular updates for Hubble and other mission updates, and a ‘Skylines’ program, which provides backyard-viewing tips. » We led the development of a smaller Hubble traveling exhibit with the Midland (Michigan) Center for the Arts called “Heavens Above.” We also worked with the Smithsonian to define the future of the Hubble traveling exhibits.» We distributed first-quality 35-mm slides from our photo lab to support the more traditional needs of the planetarium community. The International Planetarium Society distributes the slides at low-cost. We continued our leading-edge work with mpeg-2 digital-video format for providing astronomical video animation from our Astronomy Visualization Lab to museums and planetariums. We post the downloadable video files on our website for program and exhibition designers.

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A C H I E V E M E N T SOnline outreachOur Online Outreach Program provides a suite of resources to deliver scientific results to the general public over the Internet. Our premier online site, HubbleSite, received more than 30 million visitors (and 1.8 billion hits) in 2003.» The year 2003 was the third anniversary of HubbleSite’s debut. We continued to add sub-stantial amounts of content to the site without altering the home page or any major navigation pages. We completed a project to bring these core pages up to date with the latest industry standards, and we fixed technical issues with certain browsers.» To serve the needs of the news media better, we debuted a retooled NewsCenter website in 2003, which provides journalists, reporters, documentary producers, and the public faster access to Hubble images and findings. Also, we introduced Inbox

Astronomy which delivers embedded images and information directly to the public via email. In the first few weeks of its availability, more than 1400 subscribers signed up for the new service.

Origins Education ForumThe Institute hosts the Origins Education Forum, a part of the NASA Office of Space Science Education and Public Outreach support network. We help missions communicate and coordinate outreach activities with each other. Also, we provide unique services to enhance the value of mission outreach efforts.» In 2003, we organized monthly telecons, splinter meetings at astronomical meetings, and an annual outreach retreat for the missions, which are scattered around the country. We captured and disseminated lessons learned by NASA and the missions about developing and disseminating

educational products. We also provided program- and product-evaluation services. We coordinated exhibits, staffing, schedule, and material dissemination at numerous conferences. » As a result of the Origins Education and Public Outreach retreat in 2003, we re-chartered the Origins Education Forum as a consortium of missions with OPO providing the leadership and administrative services of a secretariat. We led the development of a strategic plan for the consortium. » We released new versions of the NASA Space Science Education Resource Directory. We implemented a new search engine, which improves the quality of data returned, and improved the value and consistency of the keywords assigned to products. Working with the Origins missions, we led the development of a new Electromagnetic Spectrum Poster in record time and disseminated it via the National Science Teachers Association magazines.

Goal 5 » Facilitate technology transferWe will continue to facilitate the transfer of our technical innovations to other space astronomy missions and other fields of research.

The astronomical community recognizes the effectiveness, efficiency, and quality of our software products and capabilities for operating Hubble. NASA has adopted our planning and scheduling software and distributed data processing pipeline software for several other space astronomy missions. Such reuse has permitted those missions to become scientifically productive with lower cost and lower risk, which greatly benefits the astronomical community. Because we designed our systems to deal with changing suites of science instruments on Hubble and to accommodate new generations of computer hardware at the Institute, our systems offer built-in flexibility and resilience,

which makes them readily adaptable to other uses. Certainly the Institute’s acumen and success with operational systems contributed to our winning the contract for the James Webb Space Telescope Science and Operations Center. » We continue to garner interest in the wider use of Institute technologies. We formed the Community Missions Office (CMO) to provide sharper focus and a single point of contact to channel and facilitate such interest. The Internet is one of the most effective means of publicizing. Through its website (http://cmo.stsci.edu), CMO makes our offerings visible and accessible to the external community, with clear and up-to-date descriptions.

» In 2003, to support CMO’s role and to meet the needs of existing customers, the Engineering and Software Services Division initiated ‘help-desk’ support for our software systems currently used by other missions and in commercial industry. Aimed at responding to problems, this support is also effective at answering community enquiries about the technical characteristics of our products. With such information and support available, we believe the community will continue to find our systems attractive and useful, benefiting both scientists and managers with effective, low-cost products.

Goal 6 » Attract and retain outstanding technical staffWe will continue to attract the best technical staff to advance astronomy.

The Institute has long recognized that the partnership between its outstanding technical staff and its world-renowned scientific staff is the cornerstone to the Institute’s future. A healthy partnership ensures the Institute can continue to attract and retain outstanding technical staff to help achieve our scientific goals. Continuing the commitment to our technical staff, in 2003 we invested in their professional growth, engaged them in planning the future, and recognized one individual as epitomizing the Institute paradigm of the ‘scientific systems engineer.’» Our training and mentoring programs provide opportunities for the technical staff to grow professionally, keep pace with advancing technology, and prepare for our evolving technical challenges. In 2003, we strove to identify new training opportunities and match them to Institute needs. We developed a mentoring program focused on the mentee’s future, while also benefiting the

mentor. We conducted a colloquium series for the Institute staff to share their knowledge and stay abreast of shifts in technology. We supported staff participation in peer technical meetings, such as the series of ADASS (Astronomical Data Analysis Software & Systems) conferences.» In 2003, we introduced new technology planning processes and chartered several Hubble workgroups to increase the level and frequency of technical staff participation in ‘2005 and beyond’ mission planning. The new technology planning processes are part of a technology governance program. The program systematically connects our technical staff with each other and with the Chief Information Officer to ensure participation in technology planning. The Hubble workgroups dealt with technical issues associated with the Hubble mission operations, engineering, and information technology. The new technology planning processes, combined with the Hubble workgroup

activities, increased the opportunities for our technical staff to be involved. » In 2002, we developed a promotion path, other than management, for technical staff with high-value skills and untapped professional potential. The new positions are Consulting Engineer and Consulting Technologist. We set up a selective process to identify candidates and select individuals for these prestigious positions. In 2003, a selection panel followed the process to promote Dr. Ray Kutina to the position of Consulting Engineer, recognizing him for his superlative efforts and abilities performing critical science systems engineering. Dr. Kutina’s style is to build bridges over gaps between external science teams, industry, NASA, and Institute scientific and technical groups. His breadth as a systems engineer and his ability to work well with others of various backgrounds and perspectives are models for our technical staff.

Goal 7 » Attract and retain outstanding scientific staffWe will continue to attract excellent scientists and provide them with an academic environment that nourishes excellence in research.

We embrace this strategic goal, which lies at the heart of the Institute. Our programs provide our scientists stimulation, opportunity, and incentives for research at the forefront of astronomy and astrophysics. Within this environment, we serve individual scientists with mentoring and professional advice based on annual review. We match scientists to functional assignments that develop their technical skills while ensuring the success of the Institute’s missions. Our promise to

Institute scientists matches the Institute’s commitment to the outside community: we will enable you to do your best, for your career in astronomy and for the advancement of science.

Our academic environmentOur fellowship programs infuse the Institute and the Hubble program with the freshness of youthful exploration and discovery. Our visitor programs

promote intellectual exchange and research connections with the world community. Our symposia, colloquia, and topical sessions promote discourse and debate about emerging results. We invest in the Institute research infrastructure and provide competitive access to funding for promising research projects. » We manage the Hubble Fellowship Program, selecting recipients on the basis of their excellence

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Goal 8 » Promote new missionsWe will continue to work with the community to investigate and advocate new missions that will enable further scientific advances.

The Institute has a special responsibility to foster new missions and mission concepts, both for the vitality they afford the astronomical community and for the means they offer us to share the expertise we have developed in support of our prime mission, the Hubble Space Telescope. Institute staff members have honed the technique of ‘science systems engineering,’ which encompasses a full range of capabilities in science operations, engineering, systems architecture, programming,

and outreach. These skills have matured during the course of operating Hubble. » The Institute has built several productive partnerships to provide our expertise and products to other missions, including the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer, the National Virtual Observatory, Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Kepler Discovery mission. Individual scientists are

members of numerous science working groups for community-based missions, including James Webb Space Telescope, Space Interferometry Mission, and Terrestrial Planet Finder. Others are members of science teams on missions selected for Phase A study within the past year, such as the Jupiter Magnetospheric Explorer (JMEX), chosen in 2003 for Phase A study as a Small Explorer Mission.

in scientific research and appraising them annually. In 2003, we selected 12 new Hubble Fellows and supported approximately 31 Hubble Fellows nation-wide. We organized the yearly Hubble Fellowship Symposium, which allows all Fellows to present their latest scientific results. We also managed the Institute Postdoctoral Fellowship Program, selecting the recipients based on the strength of their pro-posed research. In addition, we host many regular postdoctoral fellows and graduate students, whose research is guided and supported by individual staff members. In 2003, we had 2 Institute Fellows and hosted approximately 30 regular postdoctoral fellows. We also hosted 29 graduate students, including those enrolled in the Physics & Astronomy Department at The Johns Hopkins University. » We conduct a variety of programs to host scientific visitors at the Institute. Our Collaborative Visitor Program supports collaborators on research projects with Institute staff members for visits of one to four weeks. Our Journal Club Visitor Program supports external scientists who come to give one or more seminars during visits of one to two weeks. Our Distinguished Visitor Program supports outstanding astronomers to join the

Institute for typically one month. In 2003, we hosted 1 Distinguished Visitor, 17 Journal Club Visitors, and 51 Collaborative Visitors. » Each spring, we organize a symposium on an astronomical topic of major interest with important new developments. Usually, 100 to 200 astronomers attend these symposia, drawn by the offerings of cutting-edge research and invited speakers of the first rank. The 2003 symposium was entitled “The Local Group as an Astrophysical Laboratory.” This choice of topic exemplifies the great importance of Hubble observations in measuring the quantitative, resolved stellar properties of the galaxies in the Local Group. Astronomers can now use these galaxies to infer the properties of the more distant universe. In 2003, we also organized a highly successful ‘science jamboree’ in collaboration with the Department of Physics & Astronomy of The Johns Hopkins University. At this one-day event, more than 80 participants took the podium to discuss their current projects and showcase their latest results. » The Director’s Discretionary Research Fund (DDRF) supports both short- and long-term staff research programs as well as infrastructure

investments to bolster our research capabilities. In 2003, the DDRF supported about 83 scientific projects and allocated approximately $478,000 in funding to 24 new projects.

Services to scientists To maintain staff excellence and to continue to attract first-class scientists from the outside community, we are committed to fostering the careers of our staff scientists, especially junior scientists, by providing mentoring, advising on professional development, and conducting annual science evaluations. In 2003, we reinvigorated the mentoring program by focusing on optimal pairing of junior staff members with senior colleagues and by organizing panel sessions dedicated to topics of high interest. We collect issues that may affect whole categories of scientific staff and address them through the Institute’s management structure. We perform an annual evaluation of each AURA scientist based on his or her summary of scientific achieve-ments for the past year. A committee consisting of the Science Division Head and a selection of junior and senior science staff members evaluates the summaries and determines the salary merit increases.

Afonso, J., Mobasher, B., Hopkins, A., Georgakakis, A., Cram, L. & Chan, B. 2003, “Galaxy evolution from a microJansky radio survey,” Ap&SS, 285, 149

Albrow, M., De Marchi, G., & Sahu, K. C. 2002, “The Spatially-Resolved Mass Function of the Globular Cluster M22,” ApJ, 579, 660

Albrow, M., et al. 2002, “A Short, Nonplanetary, Microlensing Anomaly: Observations and Light-Curve Analysis of MACHO 99–BLG–47,” ApJ, 72, 1031

Allen, M. G., Sparks, W. B., Koekemoer, A., Martel, A. R., O’Dea, C. P., Baum, S. A., Chiaberge, M., Macchetto, F. D., & Miley, G. K. 2002,

“Ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope Snapshot Survey of 3CR Radio Source Counterparts at Low Redshift,” ApJS, 139, 411

Allen, R. J. 2002, ‘‘On the Origin of H I in Galaxies: The Sizes and Masses of H I Photodissociation Regions,’’ in The Dynamics, Structure, and History of Galaxies, eds. G. Da Costa & H. Jerjen (San Francisco: ASP), 183

Allen, R. J. 2002, ‘‘On The Origin of H I in Galaxies: Photodissociation and the ‘Schmidt Law’ for Global Star Formation,’’ in Seeing Through the Dust—The Detection of H I and the Exploration of the ISM in Galaxies, eds. A. R. Taylor, T. L. Landecker, & A. G. Willis, (San Francisco: ASP), 288

Allen, R. J., Böker, T., & Rajagopal, J. 2003, ‘‘Simulators for Imaging

Interferometry in Space’’ in Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation: Interferometry in Space, ed. M. Shao, Proc. SPIE, 4852, 248

An, J. H., et al. 2002, “First microlens mass measurement: PLANET photometry of EROS BLG–2000–5,” ApJ, 572, 521

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Arribas, S. & Colina, L. 2002, “INTEGRAL Field Spectroscopy of IRAS 15206+3342: Gas Inflows and Starbursts in an Advanced Merger,” ApJ, 573, 576

Arribas, S. & Colina, L. 2003, “INTEGRAL Spectroscopy of IRAS 17208–0014: Implications for the Evolutionary Scenarios of Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies,” ApJ, 591, 791

Bahcall, N., McKay, T., Annis, J., Kim, R., Dong, F., Hansen, S., Goto, T., Gunn, J., Miller, C., Nichol, R., Postman, M., Schneider, D., Schroeder, J., Voges, W., Brinkmann, J., & Fukugita, M. 2003, “A Merged Catalog of Clusters of Galaxies from Early SDSS Data,” ApJS, 148, 243

Baker, A. J., Jogee, S., Sakamoto, K., & Scoville, N. Z. 2003, “The OVRO MAIN survey: Molecular gas in Active and Inactive Nuclei,” in Active

Galactic Nuclei: from Central Engine to Host Galaxy, eds. S. Collin, F. Combes, & I. Shlosman (San Francisco: ASP), 479

Bakos, G., Sahu, K. C., & Nemeth, P. 2002, “Revised Coordinates and Proper Motions of the Stars in the Luyten Half-Second Catalog,” ApJS, 141, 187

Bate, M. R., Lubow, S. H., Ogilvie, G. I., & Miller, K. A. 2003, “Three-dimensional global calculations of high and low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary discs,” MNRAS, 341, 213

Battaner, E., Mediavilla, E., Guijarro, A., Arribas, S., & Florido, E. 2003, “Axisymmetrical gas inflow in the central region of NGC 7331,” A&A, 401, 67

Beckwith, S. V. W., Caldwell, J., Clampin, M., De Marchi, G., Dickinson, M., Ferguson, H., Fruchter, A., Hook, R., Jogee, S., Koekemoer, A., et al. 2003, “The Hubble Ultra Deep Field,” BAAS, 35, 723

Belle, K. E., Howell, S. B., Sion, E. M., Long, K. S., & Szkody, P. 2003, “Hubble Space Telescope Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph Spectroscopy of the Intermediate Polar EX Hydrae,” ApJ, 587, 373

Benedict, G. F., McArthur, B. E., Forveille, T., Delfosse, X., Nelan, E., Butler, R. P., Spiesman, W., Marcy, G., Goldman, B., Perrier, C., Jefferys, W. H., Mayor, M. 2002, “A Mass for the Extrasolar Planet Gliese 876b Determined from Hubble Space Telescope Fine Guidance Sensor 3 Astrometry and High-Precision Radial Velocities,” ApJ, 581, L115

Benedict, G. F, McArthur, B. E., Fredrick, L. W., Harrison, T. E., Slesnick, C. L., Rhee, J., Patterson, R. J., Skrutskie, M. F., Franz, O. G., Wasserman, L. H., Jefferys, W. H., Nelan, E., van Altena, W., Shelus, P. J., Hemen-way, P. D., Duncombe, R. L., Story, D., Whipple, A. L., & Bradley, A. J. 2002, “Astrometry with the Hubble Space Telescope: A Parallax of the Fundamental Distance Calibrator delta Cephei,” AJ, 124, 1695

Bertero, M., Boccacci, P., Custo, A., De Mol, C., & Robberto, M. 2003, “A Fourier-based method for the restoration of chopped and nodded images,” A&A, 406, 765

Blades, J. C. & Siegmund, O. H. W. (eds.) 2002, Future EUV/UV and Visible Space Astrophysics Missions and Instrumentation, Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4854

Blakeslee, J., Franx, M., Postman, M., Rosati, P., Holden, B., Illingworth, G., Ford, H., Cross, N., Gronwall, C., Benitez, N., Bouwens, R., Broadhurst, T., Clampin, M., Demarco, R., Golimowski, D., Hartig, G., Infante, L., Martel, A., Miley, G., Menanteau, F., Meurer, G., Siriani, M., & White, R. 2003, “ACS Photometry of the Cluster RDCS1252.9-2927: The Color-Magnitude Relation at z = 1.24,” ApJ, 596, L143

Blakeslee, J. P., Tsvetanov, Z. I., Riess, A. G., Ford, H. C., Illingworth, G. D., Magee, D., Tonry, J. L., Benitez, N., Clampin, M., Hartig, G. F., Meurer, G. R., Sirianni, M., Ardila, D. R., Bartko, F., Bouwens, R., Broadhurst, T., Cross, N., Feldman, P. D., Franx, M., Golimowski, D. A., Gronwall, C.,

Kimble, R., Krist, J., Martel, A. R., Menanteau, F., Miley, G., Postman, M., Rosati, P., Sparks, W., Strolger, L.-G., Tran, H. D., White, R. L., & Zheng, W. 2003, “Discovery of Two Distant Type Ia Supernovae in the Hubble Deep Field-North with the Advanced Camera for Surveys,” ApJ, 589, 693

Blanton, E. L., Gregg, M. D., Helfand, D. J., Becker, R. H., & White, R. L. 2003, “Discovery of a High-Redshift (z = 0.96) Cluster of Galaxies Using a FIRST Survey Wide-Angle-Tailed Radio Source,” AJ, 125, 1635

Blustin, A., Branduardi-Raymont, G., Behar, E., Kaastra, J., Kriss, G. A., Page, M. J., Kahn, S. M., Sako, M., & Steenbrugge, K. C. 2003, “Multi-wavelength studies of the Seyfert 1 galaxy NGC 7469. II—X-ray and UV observations with XMM-Newton,” AA, 403, 481

Bohlin, R. 2002, “STIS Flux Calibration,” in HST Calibration Workshop, eds. S. Arribas, A. Koekemoer, & B. Whitmore, (Baltimore: STScI), 115

Böker, T., Allen, R. J., Rajagopal, J., & van der Marel, R. P. 2003, ‘‘Measuring Stellar Proper Motions in Crowded Fields with SIM,’’ in Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation: Interferometry in Space, ed. M. Shao, Proc. SPIE, 4852, 639

Böker, T., Stanek, R., & van der Marel, R. P. 2002, “Searching for bulges at the far end of the Hubble sequence,” AJ, 125, 1073

Böker, T., van der Marel, R. P., Gerssen, J., Walcher, J., Rix, H. W., Shields, J., & Ho, L. 2003, “The stellar content of nuclear star clusters in

spiral galaxies,” in Discoveries and Research Prospects from 6- to 10-Meter-Class Telescopes II, ed. P. Guhathakurta, Proc. SPIE, 4834, 57

Bond, H. E., Henden, A., Levay, Z. G., Panagia, N., Sparks, W. B., Starrfield, S., Wagner, R. M., Corradi, R. L. M., & Munari, U. 2003, “An Energetic Stellar Outburst Accompanied by Circumstellar Light Echoes,” Nature, 422, 405

Bond, H. E., Henden, A., Panagia, N., Sparks, W. B., Starrfield, S., & Wagner, R. M. 2003, “HST Imaging Polarimetry of the Light Echo around V838 Monocerotis,” BAAS, 34, 1161

Bond, H. E., O’Brien, M. S., Sion, E. M., Mullan, D. J., Exter, K., Pollacco, D. L., & Webbink, R. F. 2002, “V471 Tauri and SuWt 2: The Exotic Descendants of Triple Systems?” in Exotic Stars as Challenges to Evo-lution, eds. C. A. Tout & W. Van Hamme (San Francisco: ASP), 239

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