History of Mining:The Miner's Contribution to SocietyLesson 1

Objectives: 

a) Student will describe the correlation between the development of mining and cultural progress.

b) Student will describe 3 ways mining has continued to benefit societies throughout history.

The contribution of mining has played a big part in the development of civilization, more than is usually recognized by the average citizen.  In fact, products of the mineral industry pervade the lives of all members of our industrialized society.

The chronological development of mining technology bears an important relation to the history of civilization.  In fact, as one of the earliest of human enterprises, mining and its development correlate closely with cultural progress.  It is no coincidence that the cultural ages of people are associated with minerals or their derivatives (i.e., Bronze Age).  Today, products of the mineral industry pervade the lives of all people.

Mining began with Paleolithic people, perhaps 300,000 years ago, during the Stone Age, when flint implements were sought for agricultural and construction purposes.  Primitive miners first extracted and fashioned the stone raw materials that they needed from deposits at the surface, but by the beginning of the New Stone Age (c. 40,000 BC), they began to mine underground as well.

Although records are nonexistent, human fossils and artifacts substantiate an early record of mining all over the world.  Like other aspects of human civilization, mining originated in Africa.  At first, it was done crudely, and then with some technological sophistication.  For example, early miners devised ways to chip and free fragments from the solid, to hoist ores by simple lifts, to illuminate their workings by torches and lamps, and even to ventilate underground openings.

Early people relied upon wood, bone, stone, and ceramics to fashion tools, weapons, and utensils. Civilization was advanced by the Early people relied upon wood, bone, stone, and ceramics to fashion tools, weapons, and utensils.  Civilization was advanced by the discovery of abundant supplies of high-quality flint in northern France and in the chalk beds of southern England.  Culture after culture occupied the sites

around the Acheuleum communities over a span of 200,000 years.  Clay deposits supplied material for storage vessels as agriculture was introduced, and the metallic residues from pigments in the potters' kiln may have provided the first clue to these ancient peoples of the secrets of extraction of metals through smelting .   Likewise, salt was recognized as essential in the human diet and, along with flint became a prime medium of exchange that dictated early trade routes.  During the initial development, the use of metallic minerals was in the form of pigments, decorative beads, and native metals that could be shaped into simple objects by hammering.

Eventually, the first technological breakthrough that significantly advanced mining occurred in the breakage of rock in place.  Fire setting, applying heat to expand, and water to quench, contract, and crack rock, was discovered by an unknown miner.  It was a revolutionary advance in geomechanics one not surpassed in mining history until the deployment of explosives to break rock in the later Middle Ages.

Most discoveries of these useful minerals were made by accident along trade route. However, Egypt, which was not well endowed with mineral resources, sent out expeditions exploring for turquoise and gold as early as 4500 BC, resulting in an era of warfare for the acquisition of metals. The Mycenaeans followed by the Phoenicians broke this cycle of war and became wealthy, exchanging minerals for goods.  These traders/prospectors sought deposits of silver, tin, lead, copper, and gold, acquiring them by barter rater than by conquest. by 1200 BC They had sea trade routes throughout the Mediterranean work, acquiring lead and silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, and tin from Cornwall.

By 100 BC trade routes between China and the West, primarily for silk and spices, were well established. The roads passed through many countries and disseminated knowledge of "seric" iron (steel) and metallurgic technology to the known world.  By 620, during the T'ang Dynasty, China had become the most advanced society in the world culturally and technologically.  The fact that mining technology never fully developed in china can probably be attributed to Guatarma (563-483 BC), who taught that "suffering is caused by the craving for that which one has not," resulting in governmental policies that alternately discourages and encouraged mining.

The discovery of copper on Cyprus c. 2700 BC resulted in the fabrication of tools, weapons, and household utensils made of metal and turned the island into an important trading center.  Wealth poured into the island allowing for luxuries an artistic and religious development.

Work in the mines by the Greeks and Romans, was first done by slaves, either prisoners of war, criminals, or political prisoners.  Easily exploitable deposits were eventually exhausted and mine economics demanding mining skills.  As a result, beginning with the reign of Hadrian (AD 138), the Roman Empire began to recognize a degree of individual ownership and permitted mining by freedmen in increasing numbers.  There was gradual improvement of mining technology through the Roman Empire tat accompanied replacement of slaves by skilled artisans, though villeinage was still practiced.

One legacy largely the result of Phoenician trading was to create a system whereby power and prosperity could thereafter be measured in terms of actual, exchangeable wealth.  In this capacity, gold and silver throughout history have been universally accepted coinage.  Thus debasement of the Roman denarius resulted in its loss of credibility as the standard of exchange, contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire, and by the end of the 6th century, the Latin West reverted to an agrarian economy and

abandoned coinage and trade. The center of culture and technology shifted to the Byzantine and Islamic empires.

Charlemagne (768-814) recognized the need for metals and began the mining of lead, silver, and gold at Rothansberg, Kremnitz, and Schemnitz by enslaved captives.  He also reformed the coinage of his Holy Roman Empire leading to the establishment of new mints during the 10th century. As

Charlemagne's empire gave way to more local kingdoms, a demand for precious metals had been created that aroused the spirit of enterprise and wakened the interest in the development and use of metals.  Europe saw a birth (or rebirth) of the traditions originally carried by the Celts of nomadic mining expertise.  This birth was characterized as "bergbaufreihet," or the rights of the free miner, whereby the poorest villein could become his own master merely by marking his own mining claim and registering its boundaries after making discovery -subject to a tribute or royalty paid to the royal land owner.  Thus the miner ceased to be a serf and became a free person.  In 1185, the Bishop of Trent initiated a treaty where miners were invited to explore and mine that region of northern Italy as free men with rights of discovery.  In 1209 various princes in the Germanic empire granted similar rights to miners.  Edward II of England in 1288, ordered to memorialize the ancient customs and practices of miners within his realm.  Thus the right of ownership based on discovery by a free miner became the foundation for mining laws carried by individual miners throughout Europe, then to the Americas, Australia, and South Africa.

As mining extended underground, the free miners found they could do little by themselves, and thus formed partnerships.  As operations grew, more men were required and self-governing associations were born whose ownership and financial stake were supported by contributions recorded in a "cost-book."  The cost-book organization formed the model for company organization before the practice of issuing stocks.  Initially, production was divided among the shareholders, but as treatment and marketing became more complex, the sale became centralized.  When a profit was made, it was divided among the "adventurers," but when losses were experienced the adventurers were required to contribute in proportion to their holdings or risk loss of their ownership.  Rarely was any money set aside as reserve, and consequently, a decline in metal prices or grade generally resulted in mine closure.

Growing demands for capital forced a search for outside capital and gradually operators lost control to investors.  The miners became contract workers.  Guilds, originally organized by miners for charity and insurance, assumed objectives of industrial aggression.

During the 18th century, iron metallurgy made great strides and made possible the Industrial Revolution in Britain.  Village craftsmen evolved into the factory system and the "Friendly Societies" legally took on the function of the trade unions after 1825.  When public financing in Britain was made possible though the enactment of the Limited Liabilities Act of 1855-1862, British capitalists came to the forefront in financing mineral development worldwide.  Goldsmiths assumed a banking function and issued printed receipts (or notes) payable to any bearer - the forerunner of present paper currency.  Stimulated by the availability of energy and available resources, similar industrial revolutions other countries (France, United States, Germany, Japan, Russia, Sweden, Canada, Taiwan, and Korea) transformed into industrial economies. 

The machine age, introduced by the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th century, also required minerals as raw materials and as a source of energy.  Industrial power thus became a measure of political and military power, and the exploration for attainable mineral resources extended to nearly all parts of the world.  Nations' economies became interdependent.  In an attempt to control the large-scale international flow of mineral resources, various commercial and political measures have been tried: monopolies, cartels, tariffs, subsidies , and quotas , to name a few.  The final result was that political and commercial control over mineral resources and their distribution played a leading role both in the maintenance and destruction of world peace (Leith et al., 1943).

Since the latter part of the 19th century, Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, Japan, West Germany, and France primarily have developed the world's mineral resources.  These countries have furnished the necessary science, technology and capital and have supplied the markets.  With the final peace settlement after World War I, Germany lost 68% of its territory, all of its gold, silver, and mercury deposits, 80% of its coal mines and iron-producing capacity, and entered into a period of depression and starvation.  The German economy managed to recover with imported ores and a high degree of technical skill and efficient labor.  The depression years of the 1930's resulted in economic nationalism and protective tariffs, and many markets were effectively closed.  Since Germany and Japan were both dependent upon international trade, their standard of living plunged, and hunger, bitterness, and resentment flared.  The Nazis came to power in Germany with promises of work, food, and prestige; rearmament began in 1933, and Japan followed suit shortly thereafter, leading the world into World War II (Lovering, 1943).

Local mineral wealth throughout history and social development has made first one nation rich and powerful, then another.  The Phoenicians established worldwide trade and gained great wealth by developing and exchanging minerals for all manner of goods.  Athens financed its ancient wars and "Golden Age" with silver from Laurium, Alexander funded his early conquests with gold from Macedon, the Romans expanded their Empire to acquire the silver of Carthage and the copper of Spain, and the Catholic crown of Spain became a world power by the exploitation of old and silver from the New World.  During the Middle Ages, Germany became the center

of lead, zinc, and silver production and the leader in mining technology.  Britain moved into the forefront during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century and was successively the world's leading producer of tin, copper, lead, and then coal.  Bolstered by the resources of a vast empire, Britain became the wealthiest nation in the world.  The greater resources of the United States subsequently supported its advance to become the richest nation; however, the future is already foreshadowed.  Most of the Greek, German, and British high-grade mines are exhausted, and the United States is fast becoming dependent upon imports and preservation of peaceful world trade.  Near East countries have experienced a rapid rise to great wealth based upon petroleum resources.  This has been important in technological developments, but historically of short duration.  New discoveries of high-grade metal deposits are very likely in the Soviet Union and China, but less likely in the United States.

A Pictorial Walk Through the 20th Century : Little Miners

Future Contributions of the Mineral Industry

With few exceptions, no nation can achieve a high level of prosperity without a reliable source of minerals to supply its manufacturing industry.  Through mining, emergent countries can finance growth progressively by the export of raw mineral resources, then by processing these raw materials prior to export, and finally by achieving progressive industrial development.

Mineral reserves, upon which the future of the human race depends, occupy less than 0.1% of the continental areas. Unfortunately, we are not at present sufficiently skilled to determine exactly where they occur or how large they may be.  They remain elusive targets.  Therefore, research in mining and metallurgical technology is essential.  A new discovery may locate a mine, but a technological breakthrough can open up mines all around the world. 

The economic evolution of society that began in Neolithic prehistory was based then, as it is now, on minerals, and has led people into modern times.  The 104 elements of the periodic table, all but a few of which are recovered widely spaced often remote, mineral deposits using a variety of complex mining and metallurgic techniques, form the foundation of modern society.  They provide its light, heat, shelter, transportation, communication, and food.  The standards of living of the industrialized nations - which developing nations are striving to attain - are based upon minerals, and societies could not continue in their material wealth (and contribute to the gross national product) only by being mined.  Among the benefits to the state are an increase in employment levels, and enhanced level of self-sufficiency, and improved balance of trade.  The latter results from fewer imports and greater exports of commodities mined, a spirited search for more minerals and a build-up of technical manpower levels by in-service training, attraction of overseas investment capital and creation of national wealth (Gregory, 1980).

 

References

Gregory, C.E., 1980, A Concise History of Mining, Pergamon, Oxford, 259 pp.

Leith, C.K., Furness, J.W., and Lewis, C., 1943, World Minerals and World Peace, Brookings Inst., Washington, DC, 253 pp.

Lovering, T.S., 1943, Minerals in World Affairs, Prentice Hall, NY, 394 pp.

**This article was adapted from Howard L. Hartman, Senior Editor.  SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Volume 1.  (Littleton, Colorado:  Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 1992),  pp. 19-24.

GLOSSARY

 

Cartel- an international syndicate formed to regulate prices and output in some field of business

Denarius- a silver coin and monetary unit of ancient Rome, first used in the latter part of the 3rd century

Geomechanics-the science and engineering of soil and rock

Metallurgy-  technique or science of separating metals from their ores

Monopoly-  exclusive control of a commodity in a particular market

Prospector-  a person who systematically explores, searching for a mineral discovery

Quota-  a share or proportional part of a fixed total amount or quantity

Smelting- fusing or melting of ore in order to separate out metal

Subsidy- direct aid provided by a government (usually) to a private industrial undertaking

Tariff- duties imposed by a government on imports or exports

Villeinage- the holding of land at the will of a feudal lord

 Resources:

Copper in the Middle Ages and RenaissanceA good picture of copper mining, metallurgy, and use in the Middle Ages and Renaissancehttp://www.unr.edu/sb204/geology/middleag.html

Copper Recovery in the Middle Ages.. Europe became a chaotic place with no substantial mining taking place until the10th century.. By the middle ages the Moors were living in Spain. They had ...www.rhosybolbach.freeserve.co.uk/midages.htm

Gold Rush ChroniclesThis article includes info on history of gold and its uses  to the present. http://comspark.com/chronicles/gold.shtml

Important Dates in the History of GoldGold probably was found on the ground and used by prehistoric man as a tool.Highly sophisticated gold art objects and jewelry discovered by archaeologists in theRoyal Tombs at Ur, in what is now Southern Iraq, date back to around 3000 BC.

Similarly, goldsmiths of the Chavin civilization in Peru were makingornaments by hammering and embossing gold by 1200 BC.http://www.exquisite.on.ca/goldhistory.htm

Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons.http://www.encyclopedia.com/articlesnew/01894.html

Ancient Silver and GoldBackground history on silver and gold.http://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~GEL115/115ch6.html

 Now proceed to the task for this lesson.

 

Delta Mine Training CenterCopyright © 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved..

Maps and Major Regional DiscoveriesLesson 2

Objectives:a) Student will use longitude and latitude to locate a exact site on a topographic map.b) Student will use the world wide web to research several important regional mines around the world, list major minerals mined and describe the major obstacles that each had to overcome to become sucessful.c) Students will calculate the approximate per cent slope, and identify roads on a map using the scale and key on a map.

Lesson:In this lesson, you will gain understanding of the information provided on a topographical map.  When prospecting, exploring or applying for permits, a map

is a critical tool. One must give exact locations  when filing for a claim or to keep data of where the samples were collected.   Geologists using the direct method of discovery, use the aerial photography along with topographic and structural maps to locate ore bodies.

Maps

Maps are one of the most important media used to communicate information in exploration geology.  Maps are a two dimensional representation of the surface of the earth and its features.  Maps are a kind of shorthand language media with two main purposes: 1) to convey detailed information about a specific area, and 2) to indicate the position of the specific area relative to other parts of the earth.  The first objective is accomplished by recording information in graphic form, either directly from field observation or indirectly from air photographs or a wide variety of other sources.  The second objective is accomplished by showing reference marks (or a coordinate system), or by showing a small scale location map with well known landmarks.  A coordinate system is nothing more than a graphical means of locating any point on the map, with two coordinates for each point giving positions with respect to the X axis and Y axis.

Most maps have more than just a map area, they often have lots of other information that is given in the space around the main map area.  A complete map generally has several main components.  In addition to the main map area, a complete map will usually include the following information in various positions adjacent to the main map area: 1) title, 2) author(s), 3) date, 4) scale, 5) indication of true and magnetic north, and 5) coordinates or reference points.  Additionally, almost all geologic maps, as well as geophysical and geochemical maps, contain an explanation.  The explanation is where the code for reading the map is provided.  This may include the colors, symbols and all other abbreviations used on the map.

 Geological Terrain Map ( Zambia) below:

 Many types of maps are used in exploration geology.  Topographic maps are the most widely used maps.  These depict the surface morphology by showing lines of equal elevation (or contour lines).   The most basic and essential type of map used by geologists is the geologic map.  A geologic map shows rock types (or lithologies) and their geometry.  Geologic maps are very often constructed on a topographic base map. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Geophysical Map below:

Other types of maps which are used in conjunction with geologic maps include geophysical maps and geochemical maps.  Geophysical maps show readings of magnetism, gravity, electrical conductivity, radioactivity, or other physical properties of rocks in an area.  Geochemical maps, likewise, show geochemical values of samples collected in an area.  These may be samples of soil, rock, stream sediments or water.   There may be numerous values or readings from an area, so typically a derivative map will be created from these maps which summarizes the information or otherwise depicts the data in a fashion such that it can be more quickly evaluated.  Typically this is done by designing a map which delineates or emphasizes the anomalous (outside normal) readings or values.  One way these derivative maps can highlight anomalous values is by contouring the data similar to the way elevations are used to create topographic contours.  This method clusters data points with similar high values and shows the gradient towards lower values just in the way hills and valleys show up on a topographic map.  The other method of creating a derivative map is to create a thematic map.  A thematic map uses colors or symbols to code the values on the map.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS

There are many, many types of coordinate systems used for maps, but relatively few are in common usage in exploration geology.  These include latitude-longitude, UTM, metes and bounds and local grids.  As stated, the map is a two dimensional representation of an irregular surface forming a portion of a sphere of the earth (also called a geoid).  Problems arise when trying to fit a flat piece of paper onto a rounded object.  The result is a flat map which contains distortion, particularly in the corner areas.  This distortion is accommodated by using a projection, which is a mathematical or geometric means of minimizing the problem.

Latitude-longitude has historically been the most frequently used coordinate

system for both navigation purposes as well as for conducting exploration geology.  In this system the coordinates consist of degrees, minutes and seconds.  The latitude, which represents the Y value, is the angular distance north of the equator,  which ranges from 0 degrees at the equator to 90 degrees at the poles.  The longitude, which represents the X value, is the angular distance westward from the 0 degree meridian, also known as the prime meridian.

The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system is rapidly becoming the coordinate system of choice in creating maps for exploration geology.  The major advantage to this system is that it is based on the metric system, using meters (or kilometers) for distance units.  This greatly simplifies mathematical calculations concerning scale and distance measuring.  The UTM system is based on a series of geographic zones, each containing a rectangular grid.  The Y value of the grid system is referred to as the Northing and increases towards the north.  The X value of the grid system is referred to as the Easting and increases towards the east.

Another coordinate system used in exploration geology, more for legal descriptions of land than for navigation purposes, is the system of metes and bounds.  This system is referenced to a known meridians (north-south and east-west lines), which is stated on the USGS topographic map of the area.  The largest subdivision is the township, which consists of 36 square miles.  The township is six miles in length per side.  Each township is defined by a township number, which refers to the Y coordinate, and by Range number, which refers to the X coordinate.  For example, Township 3 North, Range 4 E refers to the thirty six square mile area extending from 18 to 24 miles in an easterly direction from the meridian, and from 12 to 18 miles in a northerly direction from the specified meridian.  The ìsectionsî (one square mile each) are numbered in a standard pattern, starting in the upper right corner of the township with Section 1 and increasing to the west to Section 6.  The pattern begins with Section 7 assigned below Section 6, and across to the east to Section 12.  Sec. 13 is below Sec. 12, etc...  The next level of subdivision is the the quarter section, which, as the name implies, is one fourth of the Section.  The quarter sections are labeled with the quadrant direction specified as NE, NW, SE, and SW.  The last subdivision is the quarter of the quarter section, again labeled as to the quadrant direction. 

LAND STATUS RESEARCH

Research of the land status for a project area involves obtaining the land status records at the nearest state or federal office, whichever applies.  Many states have land status information available on-line now. 

GEOLOGIC MAPS

Geologic maps are central to almost any geological exploration projects.  First, all previous geologic maps and data for an area needs to be sought after.  Once the previous geologic maps have been assessed, there may be need for additional geologic mapping to be completed at a smaller scale to show more detail.  Geologic maps may be created at different scales to show different levels of detail.  For example, a reconnaissance geologic map will generally have less detail than an underground mine map.  When trench or underground mapping requires the illustration of great detail, so must be made at a larger size. 

Rocks can be exposed at the surface in three main ways.  They can be present in outcrop, which is a direct observation of bedrock.  They can be present in the form of rubble, which is loose rock having no obvious connection with bedrock.  Rubble is generally pretty consistent, and thus may frequently be used to represent bedrock.  Float is defined as loose rock material which has no obvious origin.  Float generally is less consistent, ice, there is more variability in composition.  The type of rock exposure observed in the field should be noted as outcrop, rubble or float.  The map should eventually document what type of rock exposure is being used to provide the basis for the interpretation of the geology shown on the map.  Outcrop maps are more reliable to predict the subsurface geology. 

There are several different types of outcrop geologic maps commonly made at an early stage in the exploration of a prospect or area.  The decision as to which lithologies to show is a matter of mappers opinion.  Each lithology can be made into a separate map unit, or lithologies can be combined into one map unit.  The amount of detail needs to fit the map scale chosen, such that it will fit within the map units and be legible.  Within each outcrop, the various contacts between differing map units and structural features are shown. 

GEOLOGIC MAPPING METHODS

The aim of geologic mapping is to create a map which summarizes the geologic data gathered in the field  Every place that an observation is made, a sample is gathered, or any type of data collection takes place, it is positioned on the map at the appropriate X ñ Y coordinates.  Conventionally, reconnaissance geologic maps are created with true north toward the top edge of the map.   The map can be small scale and show much detail, or be large scale and generalized.   At each point, sometimes called a station, two essential pieces of information need to be recorded, including the lithology and the geometry (or structure), which are defined using color, shading, patterning, and symbology Generally the key to the graphics are shown in an explanation near one edge of the map.  The information shown graphically on the map is generally also recorded in writing in

a field notebook.   

As each contact between lithologies is traced on the map, the type of contact needs to be defined.   The possible types of contacts including different types of sedimentary contacts, intrusive contacts, and fault contacts.  Sedimentary contacts may be either normal, which is called a conformable contact, or show an erosional surface as the contact, which is called an unconformable contact.  Intrusive contacts are often sharp, but can be gradational over a large zone.  This could be illustrated graphically using dashed or stipple lines.  

The structure data which should be recorded include the geometry of the bedding in the case of sedimentary or volcanic rocks.  It would include the foliation in the case of a metamorphic rock.  In some cases, layering within plutonic igneous rocks can also be measured.  Jointing in igneous rocks can also be an important type of structural data to collect.  Where faults are present, the surface must also be measured for its orientation.  Fault traces on maps are often shown as heavy, dashed or squiqqly lines.  There may be lineations, such as streaks on fault surfaces or alignment of elongate minerals, which can be measured if they are present at the location.  These are shown graphically as a small arrow in the direction of the lineation.  As mentioned, it is important to not only show the information graphically on the map.

The geometry of many types of planar features are shown using the strike and dip symbol.  The strike is the bearing of a horizontal line in the plane of the feature.  It is measured with a compass and plotted on the map.  The direction of inclination of the same plane is called the dip, and is measured, using an inclinometer, in a direction perpendicular to the strike.  The inclination direction is shown by the small mark on the side of the strike line, and the measurement is placed next to it. 

The methodology of determining lithology and structure for map units is the same for reconnaissance, trench or underground mapping.  However, the normal convention of north at the top edge of the map is not always the case for trench or underground maps, or any other type of geologic map where a lot of detail is desired. 

 

FIELD DATA COLLECTION

Field data collection, done in conjunction with field mapping, is frequently done in one of two ways.  The first way is to record information chronologically in a field notebook.  The notebook represents a daily log of the field activities which were completed.  Each day should begin with a header consisting of the date.  Then it is customary to summarize the general location.  Then a systematic list

of stations, observations, sample numbers, etc... should follow.  The second method of collecting field data is to use a standard data collection form which is designed for the project.  This method requires a separate form for each station or sample location. 

 When scanning the globe, looking at major current operating mines, one will find the same company names many times.  Many small companies seek funding from major mining companies after the prospecting stage is completed and it becomes a good prospect or discovery.  An example would be Placer Dome, one of North America's largest gold mining companies..  Placer Dome Mining Co.  operates fifteen mines in Australia, Canada, Chile, Papua New Guinea, South Africa and the United States. You will also discover companies names such as Outokumpu Lead and Zinc Mining  Company, Rio Tinto Copper Mines, De Beers Diamond Mines, and Newmont Gold Mines operating in many parts of the globe.

Glossary

Direct method of discovery- They use the aerial photography along with topographic  and structural maps to locate orebodies.

Ore bodies- A continuous, well-defined mass of material of sufficient ore content to make extraction economically feasible.

Topographic-Topographic maps show the location and shape of mountains, valleys, plains, the networks of streams and rivers, and the principal works of man.

Lithogies The rock types in  the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle.

 

 

Resources

This site has great information on important mines around the world.http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/index.html

This site has major mines around the world listed by country. It also has a job and resume bank so one can get a feel for the enormity of  the mining industry

job market.http://mininglife.com/minesbycountry.htm

Topography-Glossary of map terms, how maps are made, and describes information found on a map.http://www.indiana.edu/~libgm/readmap.hmtl

Topographic map resourcehttp://www.topozone.com

This presents the information that is displayed on a topographic map.http://www.ghosttowns.com/topotmaps.html

A list of all the different types of  USGS maps availablehttp://mac.usgs.gov/mac/isb/pubs/booklets/usgsmaps/usgsmaps.html#Geologic

Glossary of geologic terms- a good resource to bookmark for on going use.

How to read a map- Glossary of map related terms.http://www.indiana.edu/~libgm/glossary.html

Mapping Informationhttp://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/sdts/news.html

 Delta Mine Training CenterCopyright © 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved..

  Mining Planning and Designand

Dredging and Placer Mining Part 2Lesson 9

Objectives:

a) Student will plan a trip to do some prospecting in Alaska.

b) Student will explain how ecology of an Alaskan river is affected by dredging.

 

Surface Mining

 

As with any mining project, the planning process for strip mining is based on data collected and the prospect of making a profit. The variables that are involved in the economic analysis may include consideration of various mining methods/equipment combinations, mine size/equipment combination, mining method/pit layout combinations, etc. Problems could arise in areas such as geology, engineering, environmental sciences, and economics. The correct mine plan will optimize the economic return using many individuals with diverse backgrounds and training.

Jones (1977), SME Mining Engineering Handbook, has outlined 10 major steps involved in planning and developing a surface coalmine. These steps can take up to 10 years and require millions of dollars of expenditure exclusive of that for actual mine preparation and equipment purchase.

Salient Factors Requiring Consideration in Mine Planning and Feasibility Studies

 I. Information On Deposit  A. Geology: Overburden

   

a. Stratigraphyb. Geologic structurec. Physical properties (highwall and spoil characteristics, degree of consolidation)d. Thickness and variabilitye. Overall depthf. Topsoil parameters

  B. Geology: Coal

   

a. Quality (rank and analysis)b. Thickness and variabilityc. Variability of chemical characteristicsd. Structure (particularly at contacts)e. Physical characteristics

   C. Hydrology (Overburden and Coal)

   a. Permeabilityb. Porosityc. Transmissitivity

d. Extent of aquifer(s)   D. Geometry

   

a. Size b. Shapec. Attituded. Continuity

  E. Geography

   

a. Locationb. Topographyc. Altituded. Climatee. Surface conditions (vegetation, stream diversion)f. Drainage patternsg. Political boundaries

  F. Exploration

   a. Historical (area, property)b. Current programc. Sampling (types, procedures)

 II General Project Information  A. Market

   

a. Customersb. Product specifications (tonnage, quality)c. Locationsd. Contract agreementse. Spot sale considerationsf. Preparation requirements

  B. Transportation

    a. Property accessb. Coal transportation (method distance, cost)

  C. Utilities

   

a. Availabilityb. Locationc. Right-of-wayd. Cost

   D. Land and Mineral Rights

   a. Ownership (surface, mineral, acquisition)b. Acreage requirements (onsite, offsite)c. Location of oil and gas wells, cemeteries, etc.

   E. Water

   

a. Potable and preparationb. Sourcesc. Quantityd. Qualitye. Costs

  F. Labor

    a. Availabilityb. Rates and trends

c. Degree of organizationd. Labor history

  G. Governmental Considerations

   

a. Taxation (local, state, federal)b. Royaltiesc. Reclamation and operating requirementsd. Zoninge. Proposed and pending mining legislation

III. Development and Extraction  A. Compilation of Geologic and Geographic Data

   a. Surface and coal contoursb. Isopach development (thickness of coal and overburden, stripping ratio, quality, costs)

  B. Mine Size Determination

  a. Market constraintsb. Optimum economics

  C. Reserves

 

a. Method(s) of determinationb. Economic stripping ratioc. Mining and barrier lossesd. Burned, oxidized areas

  D. Mining Method Selection

   

 a. Topographyb. Refer to previous geologic/geologic factorsc. Production requirementsd. Environmental considerations

  E. Pit Layout

   

a. Extent of available areab. Pit orientationc. Haulage, power, and drainage systemsd. Pit demensions and geometry

  F. Equipment Selection

   a. Sizing, production, estimatesb. Capital and operating cost estimatesc. Repeat for each unit operation

  G. Project Coats Estimation (Capital and Operations)

   

a. Mineb. Mine support equipmentc. Office, shop, and other facilities d. Auxiliary facilitiese. Manpower requirements

  H. Development Schedule

    a. Additional explorationb. Engineering and feasibility study

c. Permitting d. Environmental approvale. Equipment purchase and deliveryf. Site preparation and constructiong. Start-uph. Production

IV. Economic Analysis 

   A. Sections III and IV repeated for various alternatives

 

Major Steps in Surface Mining Development

Jones (1977), SME Mining Engineering Handbook, has outlined 10 major steps involved in planning and developing a surface coalmine. These steps can take up to 10 years and require millions of dollars of expenditure exclusive of that for actual mine preparation and equipment purchase.

I. Assembly of the Mining Coal Package

1.Leasing Acquisition2. Mapping the area3. Drilling program4. Surface drilling rights acquisition5. Drilling, sampling, logging, analysis6. Mineral evaluation (determination on commercial quantities present)7. Drilling on closer centers (development drilling)8. Sampling, logging analysis9.Surface Acquisition

II. Market Development

1. Market survey2. Potential customer identification3. Letter of intent to develop and supply4. Contact negotiation

III Environmental and Related Studies

1. Initial reconnaissance2. Scope of work development3. Implementation

4. Environmental impact report5. Environmental monitoring

IV. Preliminary Design, Machine Ordering

1. Conceptual mining development2. Economic size determination3. Mining system design, layout and development4. Equipment selection5. Stripping machine ordering6. Mine plan development

V.NEPA Process (National Environmental Policy Act of 1969)

Identification of lead agency for Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)Draft EISEIS review and commentsEIS hearing and recordFederal EIA reviewCouncil on Environmental Quality filingMining and /or reclamation plan approval

VI. Permits

State water well rights appropriation permitsState special use permit, such as a reservoirState mining permitState industrial siting permitFederal NPDES permitUS Forest Service special land use permit

VII. Design and Construction

Preliminary design and estimationMaterial ordering and contractingWater well developmentAccess road and site preparationRailroad constructionPower supply and installationFacilities and coal handling constructionWarehouse building and yardsCoal preparation and loading facilities constructionOverland conveyor construction

VIII. Mining Preparation

Stripping machineLoader erectionSupport equipment readyingManpower recruitment and training

IX Production Buildup

X. Full Production

***Source: Jones, SME Mining Engineering Handbook,Matthew J Grebar and Thomas Atkinson,1977.Referenced to Chapter 13

PUT STRIP MINING PLANNING AND DESIGN CHART HEREPAGE 1301

Alternative Stripping Methods

Area Dragline Method- The area/dragline method involves opening an initial box cut, removing the coal exposed in the box cut and then placing the overburden from the next longitudinal cut into the mined out, box cut area. The procedure is then repeated on a cut-by-cut basis. The method is also referred to as "deep plowing." This operation is generally employed in flat to moderately dipping coal seams with constant overburden depths. This works best in areas where the coal and overburden reach economic limit in a few cuts.

The advantage of the dragline method is the flexibility in varying the operations that the stripping shovel can handle. The dragline can handle varying overburden depths, characteristics, and multiple seams by changing modes. It may cause some loss of machine productivity but the need for additional equipment is decreased.

PICTURE NEEDED HERE FOR AREA DRAGLINE

Modified Open Pit- Modified open pit or terrace mining is generally used in thick seam properties with low stripping ratios. In these operations, the seams are generally flat lying, gently dipping and rolling.

This method often puts the overburden in off-site storage. Coal is then removed from the initial pit area. The next cut is taken in the direction of the mine advance and the over burden is hauled around to the existing pit and dumped. The coal is removed and the haul back process is repeated as the pit advances.

 

Block Area/Dozer-Scraper Method- The block area method uses construction-type equipment and was first conceived in the mid 70's as an alternative to the dragline method. Because the dragline equipment was so difficult to procure, the dozer/scraper method began to take hold. This method takes advantage of the scrapper's ability to move material over a short distances at low costs and the scrapper's ability to elevate material overstep grades for short distances at reasonable costs.

References:

**This article was adapted from Matthew Hrebar and Thomas Atkinson.  SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Volume 2.  (Littleton, Colorado:  Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 1992),  pp. 1298-1303.

Delta Mine Training CenterCopyright © 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved.

 Underground MiningLesson 10

Objectives:

a) Students will examine the baseline plan for a POGO mine in Alaska.

b) Students will summmarize the mine planning process.

Underground Mine Planning

The planning process will, in general move through four steps, irrespective of the design phase: baseline assessment, reserve determination, premine planning, and subsystem design.

BASELINE ASSESSMENT

Baseline assessment of all available data precedes any planning efforts. It is a comprehensive initial review of all available information on the potential reserve or mine from geographic, geologic, environmental, technical, and economic standpoints. An example: the geologic location of a resource would have a great influence on the economics and may dictate the mining method due to the equipment and power availability, labor availability, and skills level, supplies transport, etc. Negative aspects of the location of a mine may be overcome by the value of the resource but many problems such as permitting, environmental, or geographic issues may need to be overcome before it can become a profitable mine.

Geologic Factors

The geologic model is only an interpretation of the actual conditions based on the skill of geologists and the economic backing available to do thorough testing . Constant testing and drilling is done as the project moves through the design phases. The data collected dictates the changes that effect the geologic model.

Two approaches can be used to handle the uncertainty in the geologic model in mine planning efforts based on risk:

1) accept the geology and develop the plan accordingly

2) acknowledge the uncertainty in the geologic model and direct the planning effort to assure sufficient subsystem flexibility to accommodate any potential

impact.

Environmental Factors

Today designing a mine requires planning for environmental protection and reclamation from the very beginning. Potential negative impacts can be minimized by including in the planning:

1) cost of environmental protection rather than trying to find a remedy for reclamation.

2) good community relations as negative publicity may have severe economic consequences

The planning process requires at least a minimum of baseline environmental data.

1) overburden analysis

2) soil surveys identifying topsoil and subsoil

3) hydrolic studies

4) determination of characteristics of surface and ground water

5) vegetation and existing land use surveys

6) air quality analyses

7) wildlife surveys

8) archeological surveys

**********More About EIS in Chapter 11************

Geographic and Economic Factors

There are a number of geographic and economic factors to be considered in the baseline assessment. The location of a reserve with respect to transportation for equipment and shipment of the products, climate, labor force availability and skills,

and power availability.

Other factors may influence the method of mining:

1) high labor costs

2) skill level

3) equipment availability

Economic factors that influence plan design are:

1) political and tax environment

2) stability of the present government

3) availability of replacement equipment and supplies

 

RESERVE DETERMINATION

The characteristics of a reserve are as crucial as the reserve magnitude or grade: the depth, inclination, geometry, type and properties of host and deposit rocks, quality, etc. and play a key role in the design.

Criteria

A mineral deposit or resource can only be classified as an ore body only when it can be mined at a profit. The planning and design attempts to identify the method to make this possible. Demand of the ore body and mining technology can affect the future of a project. As more knowledge is gained about the resource, the plan must include provisions for revisions such as:

1) technological advances

2) market or demand

3) depletion

4) new geographic factors

Data Presentation

Data is usually presented in a matrix form with one side presenting the degree of certainty of existence or an ore or mineral and the other side indicates the recovery viability. The use of computers offers huge masses of summary that often is overwhelming when trying to present data. The effective graphics of computers though, can often create a visual presentation that is easier to present data than a matrix.

Mathematical Methods

To estimate the reserve involves taking point data and transferring the data to block or grids for calculation purposes. Mapping involves using the determination of the of sample point coordinates to determine boundaries. Block size in terms of length and width may be defined on the basis of geologic structure, deposit variability, and data spacing or quality forecasting requirements. Mapping the block data is critical to the planning and design.

PREMISE PLANNING

The mine plan constantly evolves as the mine process changes physical characteristics. Engineering science and technology are constantly evolving while the mine is locked into the physical framework. An interesting fact is that equipment changes with time but the basic design of the mine remains the same. This is most obvious in comparing existing and newer mines.

The only way to obtain accurate cost forecasts for the project is to develop a life-of-the-mine plan for the reserve block. This must include the reclamation and final land use plan. There are limitless factors that go into mine planning.

Following is a list of concerns for underground mining:

1) Regulatory and Legal Factors

Permits and approvals may be at the federal, state, local, or regional level. These are subject to continual revision or reinterpretation requiring ongoing review of the mine plan. Review leases to insure that the mineral and surface rights are available.

Compliance plans include:

1) mine layout with projections

2) strata/roof control plan

3) ventilation plan

4) fan stoppage plan

5) dust control plan

6) medical / emergency evacuation plan

7) fire control/mine evacuation plan

8) escapee map/plan.

 

2) Geologic/ Geotechnical Factors

Depending on the mining methods under consideration, many geologic and geotechnical factors must be considered. The economics usually favor extraction of the best grade materials or the lowest mining cost areas to maximize the return on investments and shorten payback period. While the immediate extraction of the best grade materials enhances immediate finances it can compromise designs.

3) Environmental Factors

The impact on the environment must be considered from the beginning of the plan design. The impacts to the environments can include; noise, aesthetics, air

quality, water discharge and run off. The environment must remain within regulation during the initial data gathering to the reclamation process.

Reclamation plans include; drainage control, segregation of waste material, erosion and sediment control, solid waste disposal, regrading and restoration of waste and mine areas. The plan must include the effects of the mine subsidence, vibration ( induced by transportation, mining, processing or subsidence) and impact on surface water. The environmental items often dictate the economics and viability of the mine.

4) Technical Factors

The technical areas of the plan are the most extensive. It takes into consideration the regulations, geologic, and and environmental factors to develop each part of the plan. The layout of the mine is determined by the size and shape of the reserve. After the ore deposit is mapped, access development for the reserve area is figured into the plan. The size of the reserves determines the kinds of access and the number of access portals needed. Access can be vertical shafts, inclined slopes, and drifts or horizontal entries. The larger the reserve, the more complicated the plan becomes.

Surface Facilities

The productivity and the reserve size determine the size and placement of facilities. Consideration must be made for access, extraction, removal, and storage of the ore, the physical needs of the work force, and the operational needs of the facility. Land acquisition for disposal areas, dust, noise, safety, and layout are other design considerations.

Physical Factors

Isopach mapping is used to determine the reserve depth and develop the best mine layout. The plan lays out the number of benches and designates the portion of the reserve that will best meet the needs of the market. Economics drive the design to gain the

most profit from the mine while still maintaining plans for reclamation.

The sequence of the extraction can be important to maximize the the reserve recovery. The mine may have multiple seams being extracted at once or only a single vein. The plan will take this into consideration and plan for the most efficient method of recovery. Poor mining conditions must be factored into the analysis to account for changes in productivity rates and mine costs.

Equipment

The equipment needed is determined by the dimensions and the hardness of the mineral deposit. Other factors that need to be considered are production rates, seam or working height, and property extent. Ventilation, size constraints, regulations, and floor pressures may impact the choice of diesel-or electric-powered equipment. The floor condition plays a a big part in the equipment needed.

Desired product size also determines the equipment selection. Some equipment is for fine-particle generation and some is for a courser product.

Schedules for equipment overhaul should be developed to assure productivity rates. New equipment purchase should consider the incorporation of new technology as it becomes available.

Support Systems/ Infrastructure

As the development of the mine progresses the mine entries, drifts, and levels become part of the infrastructure. All parts of the system must be evaluated for capacity and availability . The systems are built in a series so that if one of the systems fails the whole system is halted until systems are corrected. A series system design is usually used to keep costs low as many systems are parallel or redundant. They are designed to be as maintenance

free as possible.

TransportationTransportation encompasses provisions for the movement of materials, personnel and equipment into and out of the mine. Supplies, workers, equipment must be transported in a timely manner to maintain the planned production. One of the main transportation plans include moving the mined material from the face to the processing facility. A successful mine design will have a smooth transportation flow.

ManpowerStaffing of the system is a function of the required production level. Typically the manpower level is inversely related to the relative level of capital spending but related to the reserve size. Adequate personnel must be provided to allow the system to function properly. Personnel includes the supervisory work force as well.Consideration must be made for support staff levels such as administration, engineering, financial staff. The centralization of the the support personnel may be more effective if centrally located depending on particular circumstances. The physical location of the mine must be considered also.

Mine PowerThe electrical power needs of the mine depends on the mine productive capacity and the mineral processing requirements. The availability of necessary power in the area will determine if the mine will produce it's own power. The power distribution system needs to be adequate to provide support for the life of the mine.

It must be easily maintained and reliable.Safeguards must be in place and adequate backup capacity must be available when needed. In many mine areas, backup systems are being designed where different forms of power are being utilized, including solar. radio transmitters, methane power generation and hydroelectric power.Communications can be wired or wireless and include data and voice transmissions. Backup systems for communication are also very important to consider. Timely and accurate documentation of the mining system status can be delivered all over the world to provide for efficient mine production.

WaterVarious mine systems need the water for cooling , dust suppression, fire fighting,, processing, and personnel needs. If adequate local water supply is not available, the plan design must include a water system to meet all the potable and process water. Wells may have to be drilled.

VentilationAfter most of the other factors are laid out the ventilation is designed to provide the mine's life support system. The first consideration is providing clean respirable air to the workers. The dilution of contaminants is next. In other cases air can used to cool also. Mine layout is dramatically impacted by the ventilation system. Proper airflow requires proper sizing , location and numbers of airways. Minimum and maximum velocities, and quantities are often specified by regulations and mine

condition.

5) Mine Closing and Reclamation

After the deposit has been completely mined, the mine area must be cleaned up and returned to approximately it 's original condition. Permits require bonds to be set for protection against not completing this reclamation. Funds are allocated to cover this process from the onset of the mine. Much of the reclamation process begin with the first breaking of the ground. Openings are sealed, pits filled and revegetated, and the structures removed. We will cover more on the reclamation process in Chapter 15.

 

References**This article was adapted from George W.Luxbacher and Richard T. Kline.  SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Volume 2.  (Littleton, Colorado:  Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 1992),  pp. 1543-1549.

Mine Plant Layout

Mine planning layout is a general term for describing the process of configuring a complex and often expensive portion of an underground mine. This encompasses the placement of all development facilities such as buildings and structures, machinery, pipelines, power lines, equipment, cables ponds, roads, rails and other auxiliary works needed to support any underground mine activities. Mine plan layout is the design for integrating all structures, systems or activities, required to support the mine for economic gain.

The decisions are influenced by a number of major factors namely, depth of cover, location with respect to the reserve perimeter or ore body, surface topography, proximity to contract services, power and water, locations of railroads and market destinations, geological structure, proximity to population centers, regulatory and environmental constraints, and ease of of access by personnel.

Mine plant layout is divided into three major subcategories: surface, shaft and underground plant. The surface plant

commenced at the entrance to the property to the mine opening site.This is generally seen in the form of roads, fencing, drainage, and runoff ditches, lighting/power lines, and other items needed to provide the site with materials and services.

The shaft plant subcategory begins at the shaft of the collar and consists of the airways and pumps, piping, water collection structures, communication and power lines, transportation systems and the components between the surface and the underground workings. This is generally seen in the form of roads, fencing, drainage, and runoff ditches, lighting/power lines, and other items needed to provide the site with materials and services. The shaft plant layout encompasses all of the equipment, buildings, yards and controls needed to service the mine.

The underground mine plant would include, but not be limited to, ventilation, drainage, transportation, supply and materials handling, mine power and communications.

There is a difference between designing the plants for large and small mines. The three basic parameters are duration of the underground facility, the profit expected from the mine, and the needs of the mine for auxiliary services. As a rule of thumb, the mines with a life longer than ten years need a more detailed plan and thorough mine plant engineering. Smaller mines that have a life of 3-5 years need a portable surface plant, little or no shaft plant, and a very basic underground plant layout.

Guidelines for Basic Plant Layout

1. Primary mine and preparation facilities should be designed to last the life of the mine unless other circumstances (economics, safety, regulations, etc.) dictate a change.

2. Size of the stockpile areas, mine supply yard capacity, bathhouse space, and throughout of the facilities should reflect the expected maximum design of the mining operations. Limitations to this guideline include space, topography, and climate.

3. Primary design components such as power, water, and access routes should reflect the most recent available technologies. Mine power 20 years ago was thought to be adequate at 440 V for primary machinery. Today the new trend is 950 V .

4. The shaft plan design should reflect sufficient flexibility in the

placement of piping, cables, machinery, and wires to allow individual repair or replacement without significantly impacting any other component.

5. Shaft plant systems should be designed for the life of the mine unless circumstances dictate otherwise.

Secondary guidelines are concerned with the interdependence of the mine plant stems. Secondary guidelines are used during the second stages mine plant layout after the initial design is determined. There are three secondary design guidelines:

1. Competing uses for primary resources such as power and water should be designed to compliment each other. An example is where a thermal dryer fan motor comes on in the plant the lights should not dim or production machinery slow down.

2. The layout of any system should consider built in safety systems so that it can function without problems and that any failure won't cause other separate system failures.

3. The plan layout should, to the greatest extent possible, minimize any waste or inefficiency in repetitive operations between systems.

The final set, tertiary guidelines, is directed toward the layout of systems when competing regulatory agencies, outside oraganizations, and other unforeseen circumstances compel a change in the design. These instances generally occur when competing uses for natural resources are regulated by governmental actions based on law. They are set apart from other guidelines because they do not impact the design layout until the design itself is under review by external authorities such as state, federal , environmental or safety agencies, and the general public. These guidelines are summarized as follows:

1. To the greatest extent possible, input from the agencies or outside organizations should be gathered early in the design process. The environmental permit may not be submitted until the end of the design process but as much input as possible needs to be gathered from the outside agencies and general public in the beginning of the process. Public comment sessions are a necessary ingredient to good public relations and acceptance of the mine plan layout.

2. In public debates or public meetings over technical design

issues, "facts speak louder than words". For the mining engineer, this means being prepared with correct and completed data, and the facts should be stressed against emotional arguments. To be effective with the "facts", the engineer must be able to break the number down to clear charts, graphs and tables.

3. Acceptable alternative solutions should be developed for those items within the design layout that may represent points of contention between various groups. These alternatives may serve to avoid costly delays or redesign problems later in the project design or construction phases.

4. Keep design parameters conforming to known standards to aid in maintaining effective project design. For example, in the US, electrical installations should reflect current National Electrical Code Standards as well as local utility construction standards, if necessary. Mine materials should conform to US Bureau of Mine published standards as ASTM standards or any other governmental agencies. Health and occupation standards need to be met at the onset to avoid costly design changes or expensive construction changes after completion.

References:

**This article was adapted from Scott G Britton, Mine Plant Layout.  SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Volume 2.  (Littleton, Colorado:  Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 1992),  pp. 1572-1579.

Environmental Health and SafetyLesson 12

Objectives:

a)Students will list 5 possible health hazards to miners today.

b)Students will write a paragraph explaining the history of the use of canaries in the mines.

This lesson will emphasize personnel health and safety aspects and engineering design and control practices to ensure the productive health and safety environment. This lesson will cover the health and safety of the individual miners as well as the safety of the working environment.

Health and Safety Issues-

Among possible threats to the health of miners are the following: exposure to toxic gases and dusts, exposure to excessive heat and humidity, inadequate illumination, noise and vibration problems, and oxygen-deficient

Jobs and ToolsLesson 13

Objectives:

a. Student will locate mining jobs of interest on the web to locate what training is required and the average pay scale.

b. Students will list various heavy equipment that may be used in an underground mine.

Employment 08 AAC 05.070. All Occupations in Connection With Mining

All occupations in connection with mining are considered dangerous and prohibited to minors, except the following:

(1) work in offices, in the warehouse or supply house, in the change house, in the laboratory, and in repair or maintenance shops not located underground;

(2) work in the operation and maintenance of living quarters;

(3) work outside the mine in surveying, in the repair and maintenance of roads, and in general cleanup about the mine property such as clearing brush and digging drainage ditches

Sample: TECK-POGO Preliminary Staffing List

 Mine Department Mill/ Process Department

  Environmental /External Affairs

 Finance Department   Administration  Management Staff

Mine Department  Mine Superintendent  Salaried  1

 Mine Foreman  Salaried  1 Operating Supervisor  Salaried  6 Technical Supervisor  Salaried  1 Chief Engineer  Salaried  1 Chief Geologist  Salaried  1  Engineer/ Geologist  Salaried  6 Senior Technician  Salaried  3 Technician  Salaried  6   Total  26 Clerk/Reception  Hourly  2 Jumbo Driller (Senior)  Hourly  15 Jumbo Driller Trainee  Hourly  5 Bolter (senior)  Hourly  6 Bolter Trainee  Hourly  2 Powder Crew (Senior)  Hourly  12 Powder Crew Trainee  Hourly  4 LHD Operator (Senior)  Hourly  22 LHD Operator Trainee  Hourly  6 Truck Operator (Senior)  Hourly 12  Truck Operator Trainee  Hourly  4 UG Labor  Hourly  16 Constuction Experienced  Hourly  4 Construction Trainee  Hourly  4 Back Fill Underground  Hourly  8 Diamond Driller (Senior)  Hourly  6 Diamond Driller Trainee  Hourly  2 Road Maintenace (Senior)  Hourly  6 Road Maintenace Trainee  Hourly  2 Mechanic (Senior)  Hourly  20 Mechanic Trainee  Hourly  8 Electrician (Senior)  Hourly  6 Electrician Trainee  Hourly  2 Hoistman (Senior)  Hourly  3 Hoistman Trainee  Hourly  1 Cage Tender (Senior)  Hourly  3 Cage Tender Trainee  Hourly  1 Crusher Operator (Senior)  Hourly  6 Crusher Operator Trainee  Hourly  2

 Lead Mech/ Electrician  Hourly  8   Total  192

MIll/ Process Department Mill Superintendent  Salary  1 Metallurgist  Salary  1 General Foreman  Salary  1 Operation Foreman  Salary  4 Mechanical Foreman  Salary  1 Electrical Foreman  Salary  1 Chief Chemist  Salary  1 Assayers  Salary  4 Metallurgical Technicians  Salary  2   Total  16 Grinding/ Floatation Operator  Hourly  4

 Leach/CIP/Tailings Operator  Hourly  4

 Tailing/ Dewater/Backfill  Hourly  8 ADR Operator (Carbon Stripping)  Hourly  4

 Refinery Operator (Senior)  Hourly  2 Reagent Operator  Hourly  4 Labor/ Helper  Hourly  6Tailings Stacking Operators  Hourly  4 Mill Wright (Senior)  Hourly  3 Mill Wright Trainee  Hourly  1 Welder Pipefitter  Hourly  2 Electrician  Hourly  3 Instumentation Electrician  Hourly  2 Apprentice /Helper  Hourly  4   Total  51

Environmental /External Affairs  Environ/External Affairs MGR  Salary  1

 SR Environmental Engineer  Salary  1

 Environmental Engineer  Salary  1 Environmental Technicians  Salary  2

   Total  5Finance Department

 Chief Finance Manager  Salary  1 Accounting Clerk  Salary  1 Payroll Clerk  Salary  1 Purchasing Agent  Salary  1   Total  4 Warehouse Inventory  Hourly 2 Warehouse Yard  Hourly  2 Expeditor  Hourly  2   Total  6 Catering/ Housekeeping Director  Salary  1

   Total  1 Catering/Housekeeping Staff  Hourly  20

   Total  20Administration

 Administrative Manager  Salary  1 Human Resources Director  Salary  1 Administrative Secretary  Salary  1 Administrative Assistant  Salary  1 Receptionist  Salary  1 Safety/ Security Director  Salary  1 Safety/Medical Trainer  Salary  1   Total  7 Security Staff  Hourly  4   Total  4

Management Staff  Mine General Manager  Salary  1 Operations Manager  Salary  1 Administrative Assistant  Salary  1   Total  3

Propsed Work Schedule 4 Days on 4 days off  Total Salaried Positions  63 Total Hourly Positions  273   

TECK/ POGO Total 336

   

Read the following articles about employment in the mining industry.

Mining and Quarryinghttp://stats.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs004.htm#employment

Oil and Gas Employmenthttp://stats.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs005.htm

Tools

Tools of the Trade-This page is devoted to the various tools used to extract placer gold in the field and the methods for final separation of the yellow stuff from the heavy black sands usually associated with gold.http://www.dnai.com/~wfw/tools.html

Gold Mining Equipment

Alaska Mining & Diving Supply is a leading supplier of equipment for recreational and small mining needs. Gold pans, sluice boxes, suction dredges, metal detectors, digging tools, vials, snuffer bottles, and all the other small equipment needed for gold mining are kept in stock. Related items such as rock tumblers, scales, and more are also kept on hand. This online selection is only a small part of our actual product line. More items will be added here as time allows.http://www.akmining.com/mine/mineacc.htm

Rock Drilling in Underground Mines- Pictures of Underground Equipmenthttp://www.mining-technology.com/contractors/drilling/tamrock/index.html

Resources

Sites to visit for information:

http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/mms/school/jobs/jobbis.htm - Careers in Mining

http://www.msha.gov/techsupp/arp/initiatives/cameras/photos.htm - Equipment

http://www.infomine.com/equipment/- Database of Mining Equipment Suppliers

 

Delta Mine Training CenterCopyright © 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved.

ReclamationLesson 15

Objectives:

a)

b)

Reclamation technology has expanded from its original agricultural roots to embrace hydrology, wildlife and compliance. Reclamation science has responded to legal requirements, reconstruction of endangered habitats, revitalization of damaged environmental systems, and establishment of wetlands. Reclamation methods are used to minimize the impact of human development from surface mining, as well as in housing subdivisions, on ski slopes, and in highway reconstruction.

This chapter presents economical and successful reclamation techniques that have survived the test of practical application. Many of the techniques are a cumulation of scientific studies and practical experience.

Preserving the Environment

Public concern about the quality of the environment has intensified in recent years and has brought some beneficial reforms. Today, for example, detailed reclamation plans must be approved by government officials and local permitting groups even before mining begins.

Mining operations, including smelting and refining, can be pursued while meeting necessary standards for the protection of human health. Still, some temporary

environmental disturbance is inevitable if there is to be minerals production.

Another question of public concern is the effect of surface mining on the land. Today surface mining is practiced in all 50 states and provides over 60 percent of the coal we use and more than 95 percent of the domestic output of phosphate rock, clays, copper, uranium, iron, crushed stone and gravel. Yet, there is another astounding fact: Despite extensive exploration, during the entire history in U.S. well over 99 percent of the land surface never has been touched by mining.

In earlier times, technologies were primitive and, unfortunately, so were the attitudes of some operators, who left the landscape scarred. Today, such irresponsible approaches are prohibited by law. Through extensive environmental planning, for instance, coal producers now return all mined land to the same or better condition than existed before the mining took place. Other mineral producers also spend millions of dollars reclaiming mine sites.

Underground mining does not disturb the land in the same way as surface mining, but the mining companies take great care to protect the water and wildlife surrounding their operations, too.

Industry also is cleaning up the air by reducing sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-burning utility plants by nearly 30 percent since 1973, even though coal use has increased by about 85 percent.

New improvements are being made with the use of clean coal technologies, which have been developed and tested in laboratories and plants around the country and are now ready for commercial use. America has enough coal to provide its energy for centuries to come, and these new processes to remove coal's impurities will help protect the environment for future generations.

Pictures are of Quartz Creek Reclamation Project-During the 1970's a dozer trail was used to access gold mining claims on Champion Creek, Little Champion Creek, Quartz Creek and upper Bear Creek. This route, which has been dubbed the Quartz Creek Trail, may have been developed as early as the 1950's. The Quartz Creek Trail is located approximately 50 miles north of Fairbanks, Alaska, within the White Mountains National Recreation Area (WMNRA).

Resources

Kinross has a committment to reclamation. Read about current Alaska projects.http://www.kinross.com/corp/hse/enviro/index.html

Kinross brochure for reclamation.http://www.kinross.com/corp/hse/enviro/reclamation_brochure.PDF

Mining glossaryhttp://www.kinross.com/misc/glo.htm

Video of Reclamamtionof Cow Creek-Sullivan Mine, Canadahttp://www.teckcominco.com/articles/environment/cowcreek.htm

Changing Times in Kimberly- The transition of Kimberley from a mining town to a tourism/recreation destination and retirement community is well underway.http://www.teckcominco.com/articles/operations/ki-changingtimes.htm

Pictures of Successful Reclamation Projectshttp://66.113.204.26/mining/coalrec.htm

Pictures of Successful Reclamation Projectsin Canadahttp://spans.gscc.nrcan.gc.ca/~ren/coal/reclaim.html

McClaren River Mine Alaska-Reclamation pictures of the project with current expenditures.http://www.ak.blm.gov/amines/maclaren/slideshowM.html

 

 

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