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Page 1: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Extra­Solar Planets

Page 2: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Extra­Solar Planets● We have estimated there may be 10­20 billion stars in Milky Way with Earth­like planets, hospitable for life.  But what evidence do we have that such planets even exist?● 11 years ago we knew of no planets outside our own Solar System (aside from 1 or 2 planets around pulsars, not interesting in terms of life).  We now know of 185 extrasolar planets (Mar 2006)

Page 3: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Planets and Brown Dwarfs

● We need to have a clear definition of what a planet is.  We need to consider low­mass stars and brown dwarfs (failed stars)

(1) Stars: we define a star as an object massive enough to burn H in its core.  This requires a mass > 0.08 solar masses

(2) Brown Dwarfs:  These are objects which formed similar to stars, but not big enough to fuse H.  They can burn deuterium (D).

● Not clear how small brown dwarfs could be; could they be as small as “planets”?  How do we distinguish planets and BDs?  They form differently but this is hard to tell

Page 4: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets
Page 5: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Decision: BDs are those objects big enough to burn D.  BDs thus have masses > 13 M

jup and planets have masses < 13 M

jup

Page 6: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 Ways to Detect Extra­Solar Planets

● There are several possible ways to find ESPs:

● Detection of radio messages from intelligent civilizations: we will discuss this later (nothing so far!)

● Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture)

● Planetary transits: planet blocks off some of star's light

● Gravitational microlensing

● Wobbles in star's position or velocity caused by planet

Page 7: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Extra­Solar Planets: The Doppler Technique

●  Nearly all ESPs discovered using the Doppler technique (173)

● A star and giant planet both orbit together around their common center of mass.  Star is much more massive, so star's  orbit much smaller than planet's.

Orbital “Wobbles”

Page 8: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

● So a giant planet will cause the star's orbit to wobble.  The more massive the planet, the larger the wobbles.  

● We will talk later about astrometric detections of such wobbles, which have not yielded results to date.

Page 9: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Doppler Technique

● Look for “wobbles” in radial velocity of the star, by Doppler shifting of its light (compare spectroscopic binary stars).

Page 10: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Doppler Technique

● Doppler technique only measures that part of star's velocity along the line of sight

● The changes in velocity are small and hard to measure, between few m/sec to ~100 m/sec

● Requires special spectroscopic setup: high spectroscopic resolution to measure such small velocities

● 1995: Swiss team (Michel Mayor & Didier Queloz) announced the first extra­solar planet (51 Pegasus).   An American team (Marcy, Butler & co) have found most extrasolar planets so far

Page 11: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets
Page 12: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets
Page 13: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

What Doppler Technique Tells Us

(1) Period of the Doppler shifting gives us the orbital period (of star and planet)

Page 14: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

(2) Shape of the lightcurve gives us the orbital eccentricity

Nearly Circular Orbit

Page 15: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 Very Elliptical/Eccentric Orbit

Page 16: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

(3) Period + Star Velocity + Star Type gives:­­ Planetary orbital radius­­ Planet velocity­­ Planet's Mass (nearly!):  Msini, where i = inclination

Page 17: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 (4)  Combined with transit data also get:­­ definitive planet mass, plus planet size and density

Page 18: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Gravitational Lensing

● Gravity bends light.  Spectacular gravitational lensing seen in galaxy clusters

Page 19: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Gravitational Microlensing

● Less spectacular microlensing can be seen when objects such as brown dwarfs or planets pass in front of background stars

Page 20: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

● Duration depends on planet's mass and speed.  So by measuring duration we find out the planet's mass

­­ Durations of a few hours for Jupiter­sized planets● Each event is one­time only: you don't get a second chance!  No information about planet's orbit (just its size)● But microlensing is sensitive to Earth­mass objects (unlike Doppler technique), with distances from 1­5 AU

Page 21: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

● A variation of this method is to search for secondary spikes in microlensed stars, caused by planets orbiting them

● lots of searches underway around the world, e.g. PLANET

● PLANET found that no more than 1/3 of all sunlike stars have Jupiter­sized planets with orbits between 1.5 – 4 AU (2001)

Page 22: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

First Success!!!

Probably a planet ~2 MJup

 a distance of ~3 AU from its star

Page 23: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

More Microlensing Discoveries ...

OGLE­2005­390Lb: Mp = 3­10 M

E

a=2­4 AU  D=6.6 kpc  Ms = 0.22 M

sun

Tp ~ 50K (like Pluto!)

OGLE­2005­BLG­169b: Mp = 13 M

a=3 AU  Tp ~ 70K (cold!)

● 4 microlensed planets now known● Two of these (below) are several Earth masses, orbits of a few AU­­ such planets should be common, and detectable via microlensing● Planets common around fainter M stars?

Page 24: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 Planetary Transits:

● A planet passing in front of a star can block and dim some of the star's light, something like 1­2% for a  “hot Jupiter”, with durations of typically hours 

● This is similar to studies of eclipsing binary stars: can get planet's size, distance from star, and orbital period.  With velocity measurements, could then get planet's mass and hence density (rocky, gas giant?)     Transit Animation

Page 25: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Advantages of Transits:

● Sensitive to Earth­sized planets, unlike most other methods.  Better than microlensing, because you can followup

● The geometry is known (edge­on), simplifying things

Disadvantages of Transits:

● Planet orbit has to be edge­on to us to see transit.  This will be rare, so lots of stars have to be monitored

● The brightness dip is small, so difficult to measure

Page 26: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Transit Results to Date:

● First transit seen (1991) was that in HD209458, a planet found earlier using the Doppler technique. 

● With the velocity data, the planet's radius, mass, and density could be determined: it is definitely a gas giant

● HST spectra found Na, H, O, and C in the planet's upper atmosphere, which is escaping from the star (because the planet is so near its star, and thus so hot)

Page 27: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

HD209458

Page 28: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Further Transit Discoveries● 5 found by Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment (OGLE) 

● These have masses 0.5­1.5 MJ, sizes ~ Jupiter, a= 0.02­0.05 AU, periods 1­4 days, T: 1000­2000 deg ­­ “Hot Jupiters”

● Many transit experiments in progress, and planned space missions (later)

Page 29: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

TrES­1● Found in 2003 by STARE project using 10cm telescope!

● M = 0.75 MJ, a = 0.04 AU, P = 3 days (Hot Jupiter)

● Spitzer Space Telescope detected IR photons from this planet

Page 30: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Transit Searches in Globular Clusters

● 47 Tuc has been searched for planets by HST (Gilliland et al. 2000).  None found!  ● But they only searched a small region near the cluster center● I'm involved in a search for planets over a much larger area in two GCs: in progress but no planets so far! ● Looks like stellar metallicity is very important for planet formation

Page 31: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Proper Motion (astrometry):● Stars that are close enough to us to have observable proper motions are candidates.  Idea is to look for wobbles in their motions across the sky caused by a massive planet orbiting them

Page 32: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Proper Motion

● Very difficult to measure because wobbles are small.  Most sensitive to massive planets

● But planned for ground­based interferometers.  E.g. Keck hopes to detect wobbles < 3000 km at the distances of the nearest stars.  Could detect Uranus­size planets around stars up to 60 light years away.  Also VLT

● But no planets discovered yet ...

● Space Interferometry Mission (SIM) should be able to detect Earth­size planets!  Also GAIA. 

Page 33: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 Imaging Extra­Solar Planets

● Observing planets directly is hard!    ­­ Planets shine mostly by reflected light

  ­­ Planets are ~1 billion times fainter than star     ­­ Planets are very close to their stars (1 AU at 1 pc is 1” in angular size (atmospheric resolution limit).  

● Need very high angular resolution and blocking of light from star. Possible from the ground with extreme adaptive optics and a coronagraph (e.g. Gemini), or interferometery. Even better in space (e.g. JWST, Terrestrial Planet Finder, SIM)

● Works best in the IR, where the contrast between star and planet is lowest, and with smaller, fainter stars

Page 34: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 Success: 2M1207b● Imaged with the VLT in 2004 and confirmed in 2005.  Star is (faint) Brown Dwarf● 5± 1 M

J ;1.5 R

J , 41 AU,  D=53 pc

● Spectrum shows evidence for water absorption

Page 35: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

 Two Other Possibilities

 AB Pictoris13.5 ± 0.5 M

J, a = 275 AU

GQ Lupi22 ±21 M

J  a = 103 AU  R = 2R

J

Page 36: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

        A “niche” for each technique

C. Lineweaver

Page 37: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Properties of Extrasolar Planets

● As of Mar 2006, 185 planets have been found around ~150 stars, 149 of these planets using the Doppler technique

­­ At least 10% of stars surveyed have detected planets (fraction depends on stellar metallicity­­ see below)

­­ Orbital periods from few to thousands of days!

●18 stars have multiple planets (2 or more planets)

● Almost all giant planets: most techniques are sensitive to massive planets close to their stars (Earth­mass planets difficult at present time).  This is an important selection effect we have to bear in mind.

Page 38: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Host Star Properties● Stars richer in heavy elements are more likely to host planets● Most planets have been found around Sun­like stars (F, G, K)­­ but this is partly a selection bias: planets are now found around fainter M stars● 18 systems are multiple­star (2 or more stars): it is possible to have planets in such systems (but are these planets habitable?)

Page 39: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

ESP Masses

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ESP Sizes and Densities● Density: 0.1 to 2.5 times that of Jupiter: Not silicate­iron composition● But not many ESPs have measured radii (transits, microlensing)

Page 41: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

ESP Semi­Major Axes

Page 42: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

ESP Semi­Major Axes

● Most ESPs are very close to their host stars!● Compare Mercury at 0.39 AU● “Hot Jupiters”!

Page 43: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

● Many ESPs are on very eccentric orbits!● Unlike our solar system● Not good for life: extreme hot/cold cycles

ESP Orbital Eccentricities

Page 44: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Puzzles 

● Our planet formation model predicts near­circular orbits: planets form from condensations in rotating disk of gas and dust

● Compare our solar system: gas giants much further out ­­ partly a selection effect: most sensitive to massive, inner      

  planets; but will improve with time

● Still, this doesn't explain everything: how did these planets get so close?  Unlikely they could have formed so close.

­­ just too hot for material to condense to form gas giants

Page 45: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

● Current thinking:  They formed out at several AU, then migrated inward due to tidal/friction effects in solar nebula

● Type I migration: interaction between giant planet and circumstellar gas/dust disk pushes planet inwards

● Type II migration: Gap in disk opens and migration slows

● Have to halt the process: removal of disk; tidal/magnetic interactions between planet/star/disk

● Multiple­giant cases can explain high­eccentricity orbits by resonances or close encounters between giants

● Not clear how difficult it is for Earth­mass planets to form and survive under giant planet migration

● Quite likely every planetary system has lost planets ... 

  Type II Migration

Page 46: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Implications For finding Earth­like Planets

● Having Jupiter­sized planets in elliptical orbits, near their host stars really decreases chances of forming Earth­sized planets

● We need: Jupiter­sized planets in Jupiter orbits (circular and >5 AU from their stars)!  Only then can we be (more) secure that Earth­sized planets can form within the habitable zone

● Doppler technique biased against finding such planets: ones closer to their stars having faster periods and easier to detect

● However, ~12+ years on, we are now starting to find such Jupiter analogues!

Page 47: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

55 Cancri: a 3­planet system!  

(1) 15 days, 0.84 MJ,  0.115 AU

(2) 44 days, 0.21  MJ, 0.24 AU

(3) 14 yrs!, 4 MJ,  5.9 AU

● Compare Jupiter at 5.2 AU,          e = 0.04, P = 11.9 years

Page 48: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

55 Cancri(AAT Planet Search Program)

Page 49: ExtraSolar Planets - Queen's Universityastro.queensu.ca/~tjb/het603/extrasolar.pdf · Observe the planets directly (i.e. take a picture) ... in microlensed stars, caused by planets

Some Thoughts

● Planets could still exist outside giant planets (but far from star)

● Earth­like planets may be captured by giant planets (like Trojan asteroids), and go along for the ride to inner solar system

● Moons of the giant planets may be suitable for life

● We have always to be aware of the selection techniques in the Doppler technique: we are discovering more planets as time goes on.  At least ~10% of stars studied so far have planets, and this fraction will only increase with time

● So it's impossible to estimate number of Earth­like planets in our Galaxy from the Doppler data 

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Ways to Find Earth­Mass Planets● Doppler technique (on current telescopes) will never find Earth­like planets: their velocity wobbles are simply too low

 We need different techniques: we have discussed two already that should yield Earth­size planets: transits and microlensing

­­ lots of ground­based programs at the moment

● Space­based missions hold much promise:

Transit: COROT, Eddington, Kepler (within next few years)

Interferometry: SIM, TPF, Darwin (within next 15­20 years)

● The interferometry instruments and/or large ground­based telescopes should be able to directly detect extra­solar planets and life gases in their atmospheres!

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Kepler (2007)

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SIM (2009)

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Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and 

Darwin (Next Decade)

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Detecting Life on Exoplanets?● Direct sampling: send a probe! Pretty damn hard ...

● IR spectrum of exoplanet gives temperature of surface and/or atmosphere, and atmospheric composition

­­ If H2O vapour and CO

2 found, and if temp right for liquid      

water and carbon compounds­­ conditions good for LAWKI

● Strong O3 (ozone) would indicate O

2 and a biosphere (e.g. 

oxygenic photosynthesis).

● Even stronger evidence: existence of redox pairs such as O2 

and CH4 (i.e. out of chemical equilibrium)

­­ lack of O2 does not mean there's no biosphere!

● Spectra might also detect atmospheric gases or effects of chlorophyll, or by changes in the light­curve with time

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