factors promoting retention of adult …
TRANSCRIPT
FACTORS PROMOTING RETENTION OF
ADULT NONTRADITIONAL STUDENTS IN
THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Faculty of the Education Department
Carson-Newman University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
By
Erin Pennington Dean
February 2020
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Dissertation Approval
Erin Pennington Dean
Dissertation Title: FACTORS PROMOTING RETENTION OF ADULT NONTRADITIONAL
STUDENTS IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE
This dissertation has been approved and accepted by the faculty of the Education Department,
Carson-Newman University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree, Doctor of
Education.
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Julia Price, Dissertation Chair
Dr. P. Mark Taylor, Methodologist
Dr. Samuel Hollingshead, Content Member
Approved by the Dissertation Committee Date: February 14, 2020
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Abstract
Linkages exist among postsecondary education, economic prosperity, and the economic
development of the state. As a result, the adult nontraditional population is a growing
segment in community colleges through Tennessee Reconnect. These at-risk learners have
unique needs to promote retention. The focus of this phenomenological study was to identify
the barriers leading to the attrition and the supports that encourage the retention of adult
nontraditional learners in a rural community college. The participants received tuition
funding through Tennessee Reconnect, removing the principal barrier to the enrollment of
this demographic of students. Data were collected through qualitative methods, including
semi-structured interviews, a focus group, and student journaling to prompts. The analysis
identified three barriers and three supports to retention-institutional, situational, and
dispositional. Tennessee Reconnect funding was identified as the reason that students
enrolled in college at this time. Effective instruction and instructional supports, coupled with
supportive personal relationships, promote retention. A strong self-efficacy and self-
discipline were common characteristics of students who were retained for at least three
semesters. When needed supports are not present at a sufficient level, they become barriers to
retention. Situational barriers of family responsibilities and finances are most influential to
attrition.
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Copyright
Copyright @ 2020 by Erin Pennington Dean
All rights reserved
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I hereby grant permission to the Education Department of Carson-Newman University to
reproduce this research in part or in full for professional purposes, with the understanding
that in no case will it be for financial profit to any person or institution.
Signature: Erin Pennington Dean
Date: February 14, 2020
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, John and Brenda Dean. You are amazing
parents and human beings! Thank you for your example as educators, citizens, professionals,
and Christians. I have never doubted that you are in my corner and that I count on your love and
support.
Dad, you are the calm and steady force in my life. Thank you for always putting others
first, including me.
Mom, you are one of the hardest working people I know. Thank you for giving me my
work ethic. Your expectations of me were always high, but your encouragement and help were
just as strong.
I love you today and always.
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Acknowledgments
No one makes this journey alone. There are so many special people that have traveled with
me and helped along the way. I thank the administration, faculty, and staff of Carson-Newman
University Department of Education.
My committee provided guidance and challenged me at each point in the process. Dr. Samuel
Hollingshead encouraged my pursuit of this topic and saw its importance in the lives of adult
learners. Thank you, Dr. P. Mark Taylor, for challenging my thinking in class and in this process.
Your words of encouragement meant more than you will ever know. I lack the words to express
my full gratitude to my chair, Dr. Julia Price. You have been a hero since I sat in your third-
grade classroom. Just like then, I needed your calm presence and your ability to instill
confidence in me and to encourage me.
I am grateful for my wonderful friends and colleagues. I extend thanks to Derek Welch, my
best friend. You are always there through smile, tears, good times and bad. Your friendship is
one of my greatest treasures. Thank you to Dr. Amy Ross, Dr. Chris Baker, and Dr. Debra
McCarter for your friendship and words of encouragement to begin and finish this degree.
I sincerely appreciate the adult nontraditional students who participated in this study. I
admire your determination and grit in facing challenges, developing strategies to overcome those
challenges, and persisting. I look forward to attending your graduations.
I am blessed.
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Table of Contents
Dissertation Approval ......................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii
Copyright statement ........................................................................................................... iv
Signature Page .....................................................................................................................v
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. viii
List of tables, figures, and illustrations .......................................................................... xvii
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................1
Background of the Study .....................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................................3
Purpose and Significance of the Study ................................................................................3
Research Question ...............................................................................................................4
Theoretical Foundation ........................................................................................................5
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................6
Rationale for the Study ........................................................................................................6
Researcher Positionality Statement......................................................................................7
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions ......................................................................8
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Limitations .....................................................................................................................8
Delimitations ..................................................................................................................8
Assumptions ...................................................................................................................9
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................9
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................10
Summary ............................................................................................................................11
2. Review of Literature ....................................................................................................12
Overview ............................................................................................................................12
Organization of Chapter .....................................................................................................13
Methodology ......................................................................................................................13
Historical Perspective of Retention Initiatives in Higher Education .................................14
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................17
Adult Learners and Nontraditional Students......................................................................20
Adult Learners .............................................................................................................20
Nontraditional Students ...............................................................................................21
The Adult Nontraditional Learner ...............................................................................22
The Growing Adult Nontraditional Student Population ..............................................24
Meeting the Needs of the Adult Nontraditional Learner ...................................................25
Adult Learning Theories ..............................................................................................25
Transformative Learning Theory ...........................................................................25
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Experimental Learning...........................................................................................26
Self-Directed Learning...........................................................................................26
Andragogy..............................................................................................................26
Needs of Adult Nontraditional Learners ............................................................................28
High Quality, Effective Teachers ................................................................................28
Application of Adult Learning Theories in the Mixed Classroom ........................30
Differentiated Approach to Instruction ..................................................................30
Financial .......................................................................................................................31
Information ..................................................................................................................34
Flexibility .....................................................................................................................35
Flexible Scheduling ...............................................................................................36
Alternative Programming.......................................................................................37
Credit for Past Learning .........................................................................................38
Other Needs .................................................................................................................39
Family Support and Encouragement ......................................................................39
Peer Relationships ..................................................................................................40
First-Generation College students’ needs ..............................................................40
Transportation ........................................................................................................41
Barriers to Retention ..........................................................................................................42
Institutional Barriers ....................................................................................................42
Academic Related Barriers ....................................................................................43
Situational Barriers ......................................................................................................45
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Gender and Situational Barriers .............................................................................45
Cultural ..................................................................................................................46
Financial .................................................................................................................46
Career and Job-Related ..........................................................................................46
Other Situational Barrier ........................................................................................47
Dispositional Barriers ..................................................................................................49
Intrapersonal Barriers.............................................................................................49
Psychological Barriers ..........................................................................................49
The Convergence of Barriers .......................................................................................49
Institutional Efforts for the Retention of Adult Learners ...................................................51
Advisors .......................................................................................................................51
Developmental placement of coursework ....................................................................51
Learning Communities.................................................................................................52
Early Warning Systems and Interventions ...................................................................52
Tutoring........................................................................................................................53
Wrap-Around Services.................................................................................................53
Gaps in Literature ..............................................................................................................54
Summary ............................................................................................................................55
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3. Methodology .................................................................................................................56
Research Question .............................................................................................................56
Qualitative Research Method .............................................................................................57
Phenomenological Approach .............................................................................................58
Description of the Specific Research Approach ................................................................59
Self-Structured Interviews ...........................................................................................59
Focus Group .................................................................................................................60
Student Journals ...........................................................................................................61
Triangulation ................................................................................................................61
Description of the Study Participants and Setting .............................................................61
Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................................63
Management of Data ....................................................................................................64
Interview Protocols ......................................................................................................64
Data Analysis Procedures ..................................................................................................65
Coding System .............................................................................................................65
Rigor and Ethic in Qualitative Research ............................................................................65
Credibility ....................................................................................................................66
Transferability ..............................................................................................................66
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Dependability ...............................................................................................................67
Confirmability ..............................................................................................................67
Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................................67
Summary ............................................................................................................................68
4. Presentation of the Findings .......................................................................................70
Role of the Researcher .......................................................................................................70
Descriptive Characteristics of Participants ........................................................................71
Participant 1 .................................................................................................................74
Participant 2 .................................................................................................................74
Participant 3 .................................................................................................................74
Participant 4 .................................................................................................................74
Participant 5 .................................................................................................................74
Participant 6 .................................................................................................................75
Participant 7 .................................................................................................................75
Description of Setting ........................................................................................................75
Research Methodology Applied to Data Analysis .............................................................75
Phenomenological Analysis ...............................................................................................75
Familiarization .............................................................................................................75
Identifying significant statements ................................................................................75
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Formulating meanings .................................................................................................77
Cluster themes ..............................................................................................................77
Developing an exhaustive description .........................................................................77
Producing the fundamental structure ...........................................................................77
Seeking verification of the fundamental structure .......................................................78
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework ............................................................................78
Data Sources ......................................................................................................................78
Semi-structured Interviews ..........................................................................................78
Focus Group .................................................................................................................78
Student Journals ...........................................................................................................78
Field Notes ...................................................................................................................78
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................79
Research Question .......................................................................................................79
Emerging Themes ..............................................................................................................79
Barriers .........................................................................................................................80
Institutional Barriers ....................................................................................................80
Dispositional Barriers ..................................................................................................91
Situational Supports .....................................................................................................96
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Dispositional Supports .................................................................................................97
Self-discipline ..............................................................................................................97
Trustworthiness Techniques ..............................................................................................98
Credibility ....................................................................................................................98
Transferability ..............................................................................................................99
Dependability ...............................................................................................................99
Confirmability ..............................................................................................................99
Coding Table ......................................................................................................................99
Summary ..........................................................................................................................101
5. Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations .................................................104
Research Question ...........................................................................................................105
Conclusions and Summary of Findings ...........................................................................105
Relevancy theoretical framework ..............................................................................106
Limitations .......................................................................................................................112
Implications for Practice ..................................................................................................112
Scheduling and flexibility ..........................................................................................112
Academic supports and resources ..............................................................................112
Professional development ..........................................................................................113
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Transition courses for adult learners ..........................................................................113
Specialized orientation ...............................................................................................113
Recommendations for Research ......................................................................................113
Summary of Study ...........................................................................................................114
References ........................................................................................................................116
Appendices .......................................................................................................................135
Appendix A-Informed Consent..................................................................................136
Appendix B-Interview Guide .....................................................................................140
Appendix C-Focus Group Facilitation Guide ............................................................144
Appendix D-Student Journal Questions.....................................................................147
Appendix E-Nomination Forms .................................................................................150
Appendix F-Memos and Sources ...............................................................................153
Appendix G-Development of Open Codes from Memoing Process .........................155
Appendix H-Examples of Coding Process ................................................................159
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Tables
Table 2.1 Summary of Institutional Barriers .....................................................................44
Table 2.2 Summary of Situational Barriers .......................................................................48
Table 2.3 Summary of Dispositional Barriers ...................................................................50
Table 4.1 Summary of Tennessee Reconnect Participants Characteristics .......................73
Figures
Figure 2.1 The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model .........................19
Figure 4.1 Example of coding answering the research question .....................................100
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Chapter One: Introduction
“We know that if we're going to remain economically competitive in the world, and
viable as a civic democracy, that we're going to have to get more people educated to higher
levels”-Margaret Spellings, U.S. Secretary of Education (U.S. Department of Education, 2007).
Understanding the retention of students is vital to those who work in higher education,
especially Tennessee educators. In Fall of 2017, Tennessee community colleges enrolled 20,950
adult students (Gonzales, 2018) of the colleges’ enrollment of more than 80,000 students
(Locker, 2018). Adult student enrollment increased by 17.4% to 24,592 for the 2018-2019
academic year (Gonzales, 2018). The National Conference of State Legislatures linked
postsecondary education to the economic development and job creation within a state (Rafool,
2017). As the needs of business and industry shift, postsecondary education must meet the needs
of business, industry, and students to provide qualified applications, as the economy shifts from
an industrial base to a knowledge base (“Workforce Development Initiatives,” 2014). The
education level of the population is a measure of the economic welfare of the community.
Realizing the connection between educational levels and economic development, in 2013,
Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam announced the Drive to 55 program with the mission of
workforce readiness (“Governor Bill Haslam Launches Drive to 55”, 2013). The program’s goal
was to increase the percentage of Tennessee residents with a postsecondary degree or certificate
to 55% by the year 2025. On the 2013 trajectory, Tennessee would reach 39% in 2025.
Governor Haslam and Tennessee leaders recognized that almost 70% of students entering
community colleges needed developmental classes before taking credit-bearing courses, and the
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percentage of Tennesseans earning college degrees was 20% below the national average
(“Governor Bill Haslam Launches Drive to 55,” 2013).
Two programs emerged to help with the Drive to 55 goal-Tennessee Promise and
Tennessee Reconnect. Tennessee Promise provides scholarship and mentoring to eligible high
school graduates to attend a Tennessee community college, college of applied technologies, or
other eligible institution by providing last dollars for tuition and mandatory fees over the
Tennessee Student Assistance Award, Pell grant, and Hope Scholarship (“Tennessee Promise,”
n.d.). The second initiative, Tennessee Reconnect, targeted adult learners by also providing last
dollars for tuition and mandatory fees (“Tennessee Reconnect,” n.d.). These programs
drastically increase access to postsecondary education for adult learners and enable Tennessee to
meet the goal of 871,000 Tennesseans with a degree.
With an increase in adult or nontraditional student enrollment of which many are
academically unprepared and face unique barriers, understanding how to retain and support these
students to completion is vitally important. This situation is compounded by the student
outcome-based funding formula of the Tennessee Higher Education Commission and Student
Assistance Cooperation for community colleges that partially funds (“THEC Outcomes-Based
Funding Formula,” n.d.).
As the community college populations of adult learners increases, the retention and
program completion of these students become more important. Understanding the unique
barriers, required supports, and motivators of an adult nontraditional student are helpful to
educational leaders in higher education in the retention of these students.
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Statement of the Problem
Research has been conducted regarding issues of attrition and retention of adult learners
or nontraditional students in undergraduate programs in community college, colleges, and
universities. Studies have been completed in rural, metropolitan, and urban settings. This study
focused on adults with characteristics of nontraditional students in a rural, Tennessee community
college. Studies have examined barriers to attrition and supports for retention; however, no
studies on this topic have been published since the implementation of Tennessee Reconnect.
Tennessee Reconnect provides tuition and mandatory fee funding to eligible adult and
nontraditional learners (“Tennessee Reconnect,” n.d.). This study gathered and analyzed data
about the retention of adult nontraditional learners with the potential barrier of tuition and
mandatory fee funding removed. Without understanding the barriers that persist and the needed
supports to ameliorate them, the Tennessee goal of 55% of its residents holding a postsecondary
certificate or diploma will not be reached.
Purpose and Significance of the Study
The Economic Policy Institute linked a well-educated workforce to state prosperity
because high wage states have an educated available workforce (Berger & Fisher, 2013). A
strong and positive relationship exists between the educational level of the workforce and the
median income of the state. However, this requires investment in education and increasing the
number of educated workers. The U.S. Department of Labor reported that by 2020, 65% of
those seeking work will need a degree or certificate for employment (“Unemployment Rates 2.5
Percent for College Grads, 7.7 Percent for High School Dropouts,” 2017). Those with only a
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high school diploma are more likely to experience unemployment and lack of health care
and a retirement plan (Silliman & Schleifer, 2018).
The Tennessee Chamber of Commerce asserted that the state’s economic growth is linked
to an educated workforce (“Workforce and Education,” 2018). This link exists for Tennessee
residents. Current economic development initiatives place Tennessee among the top 10 states
with the largest share of employment in occupations that most often require postsecondary
education, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (Torpey & Watson, 2013).
“Education is a powerful force for advancing opportunity, prosperity, and growth.”
(Schanzenbach, Boddy, Mumford, & Nantz, 2016, p. 1). Javed, Javed, and Khan (2016) stated
that there is “plenty” of evidence about the impact of education on the essential facets of an
individual’s life. The influences of quality of life included happiness, employment, income,
social status, and outlook on life.
The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that encourage adult nontraditional
students’ retention in a rural community college setting until they earn a certification or graduate
with a diploma. Support for retention demands understanding and identifying the factors that
create barriers to retention and may lead student attrition. If the barriers and supports are
identified, then programs and interventions can be designed to address the issues. These
purposes are academic and practical.
Research Question
One research question directed this qualitative study. This research question is closely
linked to the statement of the study and the purpose and significance of the study. The question
considers the variable sets of the Bean and Metzner Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student
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Attrition Model (1985) that lead to attrition, intention to leave and environmental stressors, and
those that lead to retention, past academic performance, and the student’s prior high school
achievement. The following research question guided this study:
Research question: What factors promote retention or become barriers in retention of
adult nontraditional students in the community college?
Theoretical Framework
The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model (Bean & Metzner, 1985)
described nontraditional students based on age, enrollment status (full-time or part-time),
educational goals, prior academic performance in high school, gender, and ethnicity. This model
includes four sets of variables that are risks to retention: (a) academic performance: grade point
average; (b) intention to leave: highly influenced by stress, commitment to goals, and utility; (c)
student’s prior high school achievement; (d) environment: finances, hours of employment,
outside encouragement, family responsibilities, and opportunity to transfer.
The theoretical framework based on the work of Bean and Metzner (1985) is supported
by Pierre Bourdieu's theoretical concept of educational strategy and how it relates to the
education of adult students (Powers, 1999). An adult engaging in education is considered a
strategic behavior. Social structures exist that constrain the actions of individuals. Individuals
also react against these forces. In situations of educational decisions, these forces direct
decision-making by developing practical and rational responses to challenges (Van Damme,
1999). Strategic behaviors include viewing education as a personal investment in human, social,
and cultural capital. Educational strategic behaviors occur in the individual household at a
specific time within social relationships. These strategic behaviors must be viewed through the
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individual's life experiences, family interactions, and societal conditions. As one gains strategic
learning competence, it leads to the ability to formulate practical and useful planning skills.
Conceptual Framework
The review of literature influenced the conceptual framework in the examination of
barriers leading to attrition and in the identification of the supports that promote retention of
adult nontraditional students. The review led to the identification of specific, recognized needs
of this segment of the community college population and the best practices in retention services.
Barriers included low self-confidence about the personal ability to return to school, social
disapproval resulting from integration with traditional students, situational barriers presented by
work schedules or lack of childcare or reliable transportation, minimal personal commitment to
completion, and negative attitudes.
An examination of current educational research concerning the needs and supports for
adult nontraditional learners identified needs that are unique to the individual and address
personal and academic needs. Supports to retention that address barriers include effective
orientation programs, adult-friendly advisement, flexibility in scheduling, adult-friendly
instruction, instructor support, learning supports, interventions and tutoring, and prior learning
assessment.
Rationale for the Study
This study can contribute to the elimination of a gap in the current literature. A review of
the literature reveals that much research has been conducted about adult learners and
nontraditional learners as they face barriers, and higher education creates programs to meet the
needs of these learners. However, no such research has occurred about Tennessee community
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colleges since the implementation of the Tennessee Reconnect program that removes one of the
economic barriers of these at-risk students.
Honest and transparent responses from the results of this study can assist in the
programming and services for these students, who may lead to higher retention rates. The results
of this study will assist in personal aspirations to offer the most effective support for adult
nontraditional students as coordinator of adult learners in a Tennessee community college.
Researcher Positionality Statement
A personal interest in the topic came from experiences working with a population of adult
nontraditional students in higher education. The impetus for the study came from encounters
with adult nontraditional students while serving as an embedded academic advisor with students
in healthcare programs and as a coordinator of adult learners in a Tennessee community college.
With this population growing and becoming a more significant portion of the enrollment, quickly
identifying their barriers to retention, creating effective interventions to assist with their
challenges, and understanding powerful motivations becomes more critical. Barriers are typical
for students in higher education, but the obstacles for adult nontraditional students appear
quickly and often result in attrition. Although Reconnect Tennessee, Pell Grants, and other
financial assistance programs help adult nontraditional students with some financial barriers,
they do not remove all barriers. These shifting times in Tennessee community colleges requires
a closer examination of these issues. These ideas result from experiences of serving hundreds of
adult nontraditional students enrolled on four community college campuses. Personal
experiences formed the thoughts, perspectives, and perceptions about this population’s barriers,
needed supports, and motivations.
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Personal experiences have the potential to create biases. However, the study used
methods of trustworthiness to address potential problems of bias. The methods of trustworthiness
included peer debriefing, triangulation, member checks, and the use of detailed descriptions of
context that were sufficiently “thick” and substantial.
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions
All research includes limitations, delimitations, and assumptions, and they are considered
in this study.
Limitations. Limitations are potential weaknesses in a study (Simon, 2011). However,
Theofanidis and Fountouki (2019) stated that limitations are generally out of the researcher’s
control. The study was conducted on the four campuses of one Tennessee community college, a
limited geographic region. The timeframe of the study is recognized as another limitation
because interviews were only conducted during the 2019-2020 school year. The participants and
their responses may be different from students in other academic years.
Delimitations. Simon (2011) described delimitations as decisions that limit the scope of
the study and are intentionally decided by the researcher (Theofanidis & Fountouki, 2019). The
selection of the population to study was a delimitation. Selected participants were adult learners,
as defined as 25 years old or older, and two characteristics of nontraditional students, which
meets the definition of an adult learner as described by Kasworm (2003). Different criteria could
have been used to select participants. The study was conducted in only one geographical region
that is rural. The results may not apply to urban community college adult nontraditional students.
The selection of the theoretical framework, the Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition
model of Bean and Metzner (1985), is another delimitation, and its focus on the variable sets that
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are a risk to student retention: academic performance, intention to leave, student prior
achievement, and environmental factors.
Assumptions. Although assumptions cannot be totally controlled, they add to validity
and credibility (Simon, 2011). It was assumed that participants provided honest answers, and the
process of selecting the participants was representative of the adult nontraditional learners
enrolled at the community college. Another assumption is that there was homogeneity in the
participants who were individually interviewed and participated in the focus group.
Definitions
The following terms are used throughout the study and are central to the research
questions:
Adult learner: An adult learner is defined as a student who is 25 years or older and
typically did not enter higher education immediately after high school graduation (Ross-Gordon,
2011).
Andragogy: Andragogy is a term coined by organizational development practitioners in
the creation of a new learning model that distinguished the specific needs of adult learning
separate from traditional pedagogy (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011).
Attrition: Attrition is a term that describes a student either delaying or terminating
enrollment and education in one institution (Snell & Makies, 1993).
External barriers: External barriers include those stressors to retention that are beyond
the control of the student, such as financial issues or lack of time, reliable childcare, and
transportation (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).
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Internal barriers: Internal barriers include those factors that reflect adult learners’
attitudes, commitment to complete, self-confidence, and resilience (Merriam, Caffarella, &
Baumgartner, 2007).
Learning supports: Learning supports are developmental courses that provide additional
academic and social skills for students who do not meet the minimum level of competencies, as
defined by the Tennessee Board of Regents, in reading comprehension, writing communication,
mathematics computation, and study skills (“Learning Support,” n.d).
Retention: Retention is a measure of the percentage of students who accrue course
credit in a college course (Ashby, 2004).
Nontraditional student: A nontraditional student is distinguished from other students
by one or more of the following traits: a delay of entry into postsecondary education by at least
one year following high school graduation; having one or more dependents; living as a single
parent; engaged in full-time employment; financially independent from parents or guardians;
attending college part-time; or entering college without a regular high school diploma (Ross-
Gordon, 2011).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters: Chapter One, Introduction; Chapter Two,
Literature Review; Chapter Three, Methodology; Chapter Four, Presentation of Findings; and
Chapter Five, Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations. Chapter One details a
discussion of the overview of the study through the inclusion of an introduction and background
of the study; a statement of the problem, the purpose and significance of the study, the theoretical
and conceptual framework that provides constructs for the study, the qualitative research
11
question, the rationale for the study, the positionality statement of the researcher; limitations,
delimitations, assumptions, definitions, and the organization of the study. Chapter Two includes
a review of the most relevant and current literature. The second chapter examines the historical
perspective of college retention, the theoretical framework provided by the Non-Traditional
Undergraduate Student Attrition Model of Bean and Metzner (1985), characteristics of adult and
nontraditional learners, andragogy, barriers to retention, and supports and motivators to
retention. Chapter Three includes the methodology and procedures of the study through a
discussion and description of the research design, setting and participants, instruments used to
gather data, data process and analysis, ethical considerations, and methods to increase validity
and credibility. The analysis of the data and the presentation of findings are found in Chapter
Four. Chapter Five reports the conclusions, implications, and recommendations of this research.
Summary
This qualitative study gathered the perceptions of the lived experiences of adult
nontraditional learners in a Tennessee community college regarding the barriers they face in
retention and the supports and motivations to their retention. The Non-Traditional Undergraduate
Student Attrition Model of John Bean and Barbara Metzner (1985) served as the theoretical
framework for the study and its analysis of data. The analysis and findings of this study provide
information to educational leaders in higher education to meet the needs of a growing segment of
the population of current colleges and universities-the adult nontraditional learner.
12
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
The landscape of colleges and universities contains a new and increasing demographic of
adult learners. Markle (2015) projected a 28% increase by 2019. Adult learners were identified
in the past by their age of 25 years or more and their delayed entry into postsecondary education.
The current definition of nontraditional students includes other factors that separate this group
from the traditional student who enters college directly from high school and is dependent on
family for financial support. Tennessee community college enrollment of this group has risen
dramatically as a result of the Tennessee Reconnect program, which removes many of the
financial burdens of obtaining a degree or certification. However, Markle noted that across the
nation, adult learners have a lower graduation rate than their traditional counterparts. Chen
(2017) identified nontraditional adult learners as the neglected sector in serving diversity in
postsecondary institutions. This study focused on the perceptions of adult learners in a Tennessee
community college regarding barriers to retention and what supports are most beneficial to their
retention. The study is grounded in the significant theory related to the retention of
nontraditional learners, the Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model of John
Bean and Barbara Metzner (1985).
Overview
The review of literature surveys and synthesizes relevant literature and provides an
analysis of the gathered information in a systematic manner. This chapter provides a broad
overview of current research relevant to the research questions that seek to identify barriers to
retention and supports and motivators to prevent attrition. It also considers the unique
characteristics of adult learners and non-traditional students.
13
Organization of the Chapter
The literature review provides an overview of the resources identified and explored in the
research of adult learner’s barriers and best practices for the retention of these learners. Chapter
Two includes seven major sections: an introduction; an overview of the organization of the
chapter; the methodology of the research of the topic; a historical perspective of efforts at college
retention of adult learners; the theoretical framework of the study; characteristics of adult
learners, nontraditional students, and andragogy; needs of adult learners; institutional, situational,
and dispositional barriers to persistence and retention; and institutional supports to the
persistence and retention of adult learners.
Methodology
A systematic approach was used in research for the literature review, focusing primarily
on peer-reviewed or juried articles, book chapters, e-books, books, dissertations, and reports.
Databases from several fields of study were searched, including EBSCO, Education Source,
Educational Administration Abstracts, ERIC, PsycINFO, and Teacher Reference Center. These
databases were searched by Boolean methods. Burns (2011) described a Boolean search as the
combing of words and phrases by using a Boolean operator, AND, OR, or NOT to refine a
search. The search included the following terms: adult learner, nontraditional student, Malcolm
Knowles, andragogy, barriers, college persistence, college retention, college retention strategies,
resilience, technology, Tennessee Board of Regents, Tennessee Reconnect, workforce
development, retention supports, community college, developmental studies, and faculty
perceptions. Results were sorted to list by the most recent to make sure that the most current
studies were included. The year range 2009-2019 and words to exclude from the search served
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as eliminators. Broader time ranges were used to research the historical perspective of retention
initiatives and for the theoretical foundations of the study. After the search of databases reached
saturation and became repetitive, Google Scholar was explored.
The research focused on identifying peer-reviewed articles in full text, studies that
focused on undergraduate students in institutions of higher education. Studies about graduate
student retention were eliminated. Books, Tennessee Board of Education and Tennessee
Department of Education websites, and literature reviews completed the review of the literature.
Historical Perspective of Retention Initiatives in Higher Education
The retention of students has been an issue for educational organizations and leaders
since the establishment of systems of education (Habley, Bloom, & Robbins, 2012; Seidman,
2005; Tinto, 1993). However, the focus of retention was for the survival of the institution rather
than for the persistence of the student because students seldom attended college to earn a degree
(Berger, Blanco-Ramrez, & Lyon, 2012). Berger et al. (2012) identified nine eras in the
development of retention studies: (a) retention pre-history (1600s-mid 1800s), (b) evolving
toward retention (mid 1800s-1900), (c) early developments (1900-1950), (d) dealing with
expansion (1950s), (e) preventing dropouts (1960s), (f) building theory (1970s), (g) managing
enrollments (1980s), (h) broadening horizons (1990s), and (h) current and future trends (early
21st Century) (pp. 10-11).
The first four periods comprise the pre-history of the retention movement. The first
colleges in the colonies, Harvard (1636), William and Mary (1693), and Yale (1701) were
extensions of organized religion to provide ministers and missionaries with two-thirds of their
graduates becoming ministers (Geiger, 1999). Before the Revolutionary War, Harvard’s largest
15
graduating class totaled 36 students; the total enrollment in the colonies was 750, making
retention efforts premature. From the mid-1800s to 1900, the number of earned degree
increased, and the average college enrolled 174 students of privilege (Berger, Blanco-Ramrez, &
Lyon, 2012). Campus life shifted to include more curricular, co-curricular, and social activities.
During this time, women’s colleges emerged such as Vassar, Smith, and Wellesley. In 1862, the
Morrill Land Grant Act was passed, providing at one college in each state to provide education
in agriculture and engineering.
From 1900-1950, college enrollment increased to 110,000 students in more than 1,000
college or universities (Goodchild & Wechsler, 1997). As enrollments continued to increase,
colleges became more selective in admission policies with a more diverse group of applicants,
and higher education experienced the emergence of retention efforts (Berger, Blanco-Ramrez, &
Lyon, 2012). Still, affluent students were given preference for enrollment, and selective school
attrition was seen as a mark of quality. Two events dramatically affected enrollment: the Great
Depression and World War II. Although the Great Depression focused attention away from
higher education, the period after World War II became a golden period for higher education. As
the country became more industrialized, higher education was a way to produce leaders and
managers, and education became more valuable to economic success.
By the 1960s, the value of the high school diploma decreased, making retention in
college more important. Diversity in enrollment increased with a low retention rate for minority
students. Research that focused on the personal characteristics of students (disposition,
motivation, and maturity) was conducted to determine the principal reasons for persistence and
non-persistence (Summerskill, 1962).
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Theories about student retention first emerged in the 1970s. The Spady (1971) model
examined the connections and interactions between individual student characteristics and the
elements of the campus environment. The major event of this era was the development of theory
of Vincent Tinto on the reasons for student departure from higher education (Berger, Blanco-
Ramrez, & Lyon, 2012). Tinto’s theory considered psychological and organizational models and
based this model on the characteristics of a student at entry in conjunction with the student’s
commitment to the institutions and to graduation influences the student’s decision to leave the
institution and not to persist (Tinto, 1975, 1993). Additionally, the early and continued
commitment of the institution positively affects academic performance and social integration
into the college community and increases student retention.
Interest in the study of retention in higher education expanded as management of
enrollment became more critical. Retention efforts diversified to address the needs of specific
student groups and institutional types. These studies explored racial and ethnic backgrounds of
students, first-generation college students, and students deemed nontraditional based on age, and
for the first time, retention at the community college and graduate students became a point of
interest (Berger, Blanco-Ramrez, & Lyon, 2012). Persistence and retention were first recognized
as separate issues.
With the increased accountability on institutions of higher education and funding based
on student-outcomes, the study of student retention remains vital for researchers (“Workforce
Development Initiatives,” 2014). In the 21st century, the retention of students is a major policy
issue among institutions of higher education, and retention efforts are common. Retention rates
are considered a metric of institutional effectiveness. Despite the efforts of the last 40 years,
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retention rate continues to be a problem, especially for minority students, economically
disadvantaged, and first-generation college students (Berger, Blanco-Ramrez, & Lyon, 2012).
Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework guides and supports a study’s philosophical, epistemological,
methodological, and analytical approach to the dissertation as a whole (Grant & Oslanloo, 2016).
It provides the lens for the study and assists in the analysis of the data. It influences all decisions
in the study. This requires a theory that is sound and related to the study. The literature review
provides the constructs of the study.
Limited study of student retention occurred before the 1970s, and these studies focused
on the individual characteristics, attributes, or shortcomings of the student (Aljohani, 2016). The
theoretical framework for this study is the Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition
Model of Bean and Metzner (1985). This theory builds on the previous theories of Spady, Tinto,
Bean, and Pascarella (Aljohani, 2016). Spady created the Undergraduate Dropout Process
Model, a sociological work, in 1970 and revised it in 1971. It was based on the generalizations
about the relationship between attrition and family characteristics, student ability, and academic
performance. Spady asserted that academics and the social systems of the institution determined
persistence.
Using the Spady model as a basis, Tinto published the Institutional Departure Model in
1975 and revised it in 1993 (Aljohani, 2016; Tinto, 1975, 1993). Tinto agreed that institutions of
higher education were composed of two systems: academic and social systems. The academic
system is measured by student grades and intellectual development, and social integrations are
comprised of interactions with faculty and peers (Aljohani, 2016). Tinto stated that the level of
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the two systems strengthens and weakens over time, and he added that the student’s external
commitments to his or her family and work also influences commitment to the student’s goals.
However, the Tinto model centered on traditional college students who were quickly
transitioning from high school to the community college or university (Yob, 2014).
Bean added to the work of Tinto in his Student Attrition Mode as he attempted to adjust
his model to apply to different types of institutions (Aljohani, 2016). Continuing the work of
Spady, Tinto, and Bean, Pascarella (1978) recognized in the Student-Faculty Informal Conduct
Model the importance of student-faculty informal interactions. His model included the type of
institution and student personalities, abilities, aspirations, prior achievement, family structure,
home environment, and educational experiences. Pascarella counted non-classroom college
experiences as important to retention.
Bean and Metzner (1985) authored the Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition
Model that asserted that previous attrition theoretical models did not include “commuter” or non-
residential students. The previous models heavily weighed social interactions; lack of social
interactions at the institution is a characteristic of nontraditional students. The external
environment is more influential to nontraditional students that on-campus activities and
socialization. The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model describes
nontraditional students based on age, enrollment status (fulltime or part-time), educational goals,
prior academic performance in high school, gender, and ethnicity. The model includes four
variable sets: (a) academic performance: grade point average; (b) intention to leave: highly
influenced by stress, commitment to goals, and utility; (c) student’s prior high school
achievement; (d) environment: finances, hours of employment, outside encouragement, family
19
responsibilities, and opportunity to transfer (Bean & Metzner, 1985). Figure 2.1 provides a
graphic representation of the Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model.
Figure 2.1. The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model
Figure 2.1. The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model graphically presents the
interactions of the model that leads to dropout. Adapted from Aljohani, O. (2016). A
comprehensive review of major studies and theoretical models of student retention in higher
education. Higher Education Studies, 6(2), 10. doi:10.5539/hes.v6n2p1
In the Bean and Metzner model (1985), integration is a positive force, but the
environmental forces resulting from lack of money or time are negative forces. Negative forces
inhibit the positive forces produced by academic integration. The Non-Traditional
Undergraduate Student Attrition Model recognizes that adults seek postsecondary education to
prepare for new jobs or to gain new skills and are likely more goal-oriented (Meyer,
Bruwelheide, & Poulin, 2009). Alijohani (2016) noted that in this model that nontraditional
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students with poor high school academic records are more likely to withdraw. However,
psychological issues are more influential to withdrawal than high school achievement. Although
prior academic achievement and personal goals support persistence, environmental factors are
most influential in the decision to withdraw or persist. These factors include work hours,
financial issues, encouragement from family and friends, and family responsibilities. The adult
nontraditional learner is unique from the traditional student who enters college immediately after
high school graduation.
Adult Learners and Nontraditional Students
The diversity of student demographics continues to increase. Chen (2017) pointed to the
increase in racial and ethnic diversity over the last 15 years, particularly in the number of adult or
nontraditional learners. However, he asserted that adult learners or nontraditional learners are
often overlooked. A state and national consensus exists that increasing the postsecondary
attainments of this segment of the population is critical to succeeding in a knowledge-based,
global economy (Florida College Access Network, 2012; “Workforce Development Initiatives,”
2014).
Adult learners. In the narrowest scope, the National Association of School Personnel
Administrators defined an adult learner as an undergraduate student between the ages of 25 and
64 years of age (Culp & Dungy, 2014). The Southern Regional Education Board (SREB)
described an adult learner as a student who is at least 25 years old and one that typically needs
flexibility in schedules, previously attended postsecondary education but opted out for a myriad
of reasons, and may need developmental course work (“Who is the Adult Learner,” 2016). These
students often have limited time, financial responsibilities for family and work, lack of academic
21
preparation, limited funds, and lack of understanding about how to navigate the college system
(Goto & Martin, 2009).
Nontraditional students. The National Association of Directors of Admission, an
organization focused on orientation, transition, and retention, described those students identified
as nontraditional as “vast, diverse, and evolving” (Fries, 2019, p. 1). Multiple, sometimes
conflicting, definitions exist. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) defined a
nontraditional student as “often” over 24 years old, as this variable captures a large portion of the
population who have work and family responsibilities (“Nontraditional Undergraduates:
Definitions and Data,” 2015). In many studies, age is the most common variable. Bean and
Metzner focused on age (1985); and Jones, Watson, and Collier (1990) included women, and
minorities, part-time students. MacDonald (2018) concurred with Collier (1990) that this
population tends to be female.
However, the NCES, rather than focusing on age, used other characteristics of the group
in its statistical research. These descriptors included enrollment patterns, financial and family
status, and high school graduation status. The selection of these variables results from their
influence on student choice and at-risk status for the student. However, interventions may assist
in resolving these needs (“Nontraditional Undergraduates: Definitions and Data,” 2015). An
enrollment pattern in which a student does not enroll in college fulltime after high school
graduation is considered nontraditional regardless of age. Any student, irrespective of age, who
is financially independent of his/her family, is a single parent, or has one or more dependents, is
a nontraditional student by NCES definition. Irrespective of age, a student who enters college
without a regular high school diploma but with a GED (General Equivalency Examination) is
22
considered a nontraditional student. Hurtado, Kurotsucchi, and Sharp (1996) concluded that the
students ages 20-24 should be considered traditional students.
The adult nontraditional learner. A review and analysis of the literature make clear
that the factors and variables used to describe the adult learner and nontraditional student overlap
in many instances. This learner is described by Best (2019) as the modern learner who goes
beyond past definitions of a traditional or a nontraditional learner. The National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES) continues to gather longitudinal data on this group of students. The
U.S. Department of Education has generated data on this student group over the following time
periods and most recently reported in 2015: 1995-1996, 1999-2000, 2003-2004, 2007-2008,
2011-2012 (“Demographic and Enrollment Characteristics of Nontraditional Undergraduates:
2011-2012,” 2015).
A clear definition must establish the parameters for this study. The U.S Department of
Education considered the numerous characteristics and developed a scale to describe the
nontraditional learner, who is also an adult learner. Accepting that an adult is 25 years of age
and older, the Department of Education identifies such a student with two or three characteristics
of a nontraditional student as moderately nontraditional (“Demographic and Enrollment
Characteristics of Nontraditional Undergraduates: 2011-2012,” 2015). The non-traditional
characteristics include the following: a delay of entry into postsecondary education by at least
one year following high school graduation; having one or more dependents; living as a single
parent; engaged in full-time employment; financially independent from parents or guardians;
attending college part-time; or entering college without a regular high school diploma (Ross-
Gordon, 2011). This definition captures 31.3% of all undergraduate student (“Demographic and
Enrollment Characteristics of Nontraditional Undergraduates: 2011-2012,” 2015). Considering
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all students at the age of 25 or more, 26.2% had no characteristics of nontraditional learners,
18.7% had one nontraditional characteristic, 31.3% had two or three nontraditional
characteristics, and 23.8% had four or more nontraditional characteristics (“Demographic and
Enrollment Characteristics of Nontraditional Undergraduates: 2011-2012,” 2015). Additionally,
this same data set reported that 51.3% are financially independent of families, 72.5% have
dependents, 84.8% are single with dependents, 91% hold a high school diploma, 34.2% delayed
college entry by at least one year, 43.4% attend part-time, and 36.4% work part-time, while
25.9% work fulltime.
There are other distinctions between traditional and nontraditional students beyond
demographic factors, including social and academic involvement, mindset, gender, and socio-
culture (Grabowski, 2016). Nontraditional students are less interested in the social side of
college, such as clubs and organizations. Instead, they seek academic and career mentors
because these mentors have more of a practical and vocational approach to their education. The
Student Affairs Leader emphasized that this does not mean that these are uninvolved individuals
but rather that involvements are with family, community, and employment (“Commuter
Students,” 2006). Nontraditional students also possess a more business-like mindset. As a
result, they expect customer service from the institution and consider costs as part of their
selection criteria of an institution. They enter with an expectation of return on their investment
(Grabowski, 2016). Although female students earn more degrees than their male counterparts
and are more motivated and academically engaged, they pursue more typical female programs
and are underrepresented in science, engineering, technology, and mathematics programs
(Gayles, 2014).
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The growing adult nontraditional student population. Despite the stressors of
attending school for adult nontraditional learners, the enrollment of this student group continues
to rise. The growth can be attributed to a backlash from the economic downturn of 2008,
stressful financial situations, the changes in the demands of the workplace, and the availability of
new resources for student tuition, including Tennessee Reconnect (Westervelt, 2016). In a
forecast study, Carnevale, Smith, and Strohl (2010) projected this increase in enrollment for
adult learners based on the fact that the two-thirds of the nation’s jobs would require
postsecondary education. However, the 2010 U.S. Census Bureau reported the results of the
American Community Survey indicated that 60% of Americans between 25-64 had no
postsecondary diploma or credential (“Census Bureau Releases 2010 American Community
Survey,” 2011). Soares (2013) stated that a prospective group of 80 million adult learners need
postsecondary education. Over the following decade, only 30 million students are expected to
graduate from high school. The need for educational leaders in higher education to understand
the specific needs of these nontraditional learners is critical for the success of the individuals, the
institution, and the economy. Gulley (2016) asserted that the programs, traditions, and
institutions of higher learning were not created for adult learners, and that presents a significant
challenge.
Adult learners are a diverse group. There are differences in age, socio-economic status,
race, ethnicity, life experiences, and work experience. They represent a spectrum of preparation
for postsecondary education but have defined values and beliefs. Their presence in the classroom
is voluntary and most often driven by career goals and desire for specific skills that results in a
pragmatic approach to higher education. They live complex lives with great demands on their
time exerted by family, work, and community responsibilities. As a result, their needs are
25
specific and perceived by adults as barriers (“Meeting the Needs of Adult Learners,” 2019). A
clearer understanding of how adults learn may help institutions prepare to meet the identified
needs of the adult nontraditional learner.
Meeting the Needs of the Adult Nontraditional Learner
Meeting the needs of the adult nontraditional learners begins with the realization that
children and adults learn differently (Irish, 2019). In the K-12 school, the students are of similar
ages, abilities, expertise, and they learn for the majority of the time that they are in school.
However, adults see the school experience differently. Adults learn when they value the
learning. This may be explained through an understanding of adult learning theories.
Adult learning theories. Although many adult learning theories exist, the most
prominent theories are transformative learning, experimental learning, self-directed learning, and
andragogy (Irish, 2019; Owen, 2002; Smith, 2002; “TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11,” 2011).
Several theories exist because no one theory adequately describes the learning of all adults.
Answering the question of how to make adults want to learn and how to make that experience
effective is at the heart of learning theories.
Transformative learning theory. Transformative learning theory holds the idea that
learning should change learners in terms of how they see the world and themselves (Irish, 2019;
“TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11,” 2011). It is viewed as a rational process and is achieved
through reflective engagement where one’s ideas, assumptions, and perspectives are challenged.
Sheared and Johnson-Bailey (2010) challenged this approach because it did not consider the
learner’s race, class, gender, or the context of the learning.
26
Experimental learning. The experimental learning theory is based on the work of David
Kolb (Gutierrez, 2018; MacLeod, 2017; Norwich, 2017). Adults learn best when they can make
sense of their learning through learning by doing (Irish, 2019). This learning cycle includes a
concrete experience followed by a period of review and reflection of the new experience. This
allows learners to conceptualize a new idea, which can be applied to their context and their world
(MacLeod, 2017). This cycle is also diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating.
However, Norwich (2017) stated that a learner may rely upon or use one of the components more
heavily than the other three components. Gutierrez (2018) asserted that this type of learning is
most appropriate for adult learners, rather than memorization of facts, numbers, and definitions.
Self-directed learning. The TEAL Center, supported by the U.S. Department of
Education as an authority on the education of adult learners, defined self-directed learning as a
process in which the learner takes the initiative independently to plan, execute, and evaluate his/
her learning (“TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11,” 2017). This method comprises 70% of adult
learning, and 90% of adults will use this method at least once a year. However, for those adult
learners with deficits in literacy, self-directed learning may produce barriers caused by low self-
confidence, motivation, resources, and independence. Thus, some adult learners do not prefer
self-directed learning, but it is important that adult learners must grow in their ability to self-
direct their learning, as it is associated with educational persistence.
Andragogy. Self-directed learning is associated with andragogy (Owens, 2002).
Andragogy combines many of the thoughts of transformative learning, experimental learning,
and self-directed learning. The term andragogy is reported to have first appeared in the literature
in 1833 in the writing of Alexander Kapp (Henschke, 2015). Through this term, Kapp described
the lifelong requirement for learning. Minimal attention was given the term, and from the 1830s
27
to the 1920s, it was considered little more than teaching adults. In a period from 1964-1970, the
term resurfaced, and Malcolm Knowles added his understandings from teaching adults to the
concept (Smith, 2002). Knowles published research on self-directed learning in 1975, and the
term pedagogy became identified as teacher-directed learning and andragogy as self-directed
learning (Henschke, 2015). Through this work, it was recognized that learners should be more
independent, learn to use resources, become accountable for their learning, make decisions about
choice and options, and emphasize experimental methods. The research of Henschke (2015)
extended the learning regarding andragogy and found that trust, empathy, sensitivity, and
reciprocity are the critical elements for developing a classroom culture where adult learners can
best learn.
Gutierrez (2018) stated that adult learners need to know why they are learning the
material and how the learning will help improve their lives and make their lives better. They are
motivated to learn when they see the value in learning the material. Smith (2002) identified two
other assumptions: self-concept as a self-directed person and a shift in orientation from self-
centeredness to a problem focus. Understanding adult learning theories provides insight into
these learners for those who design their learning experiences in higher education. These include
a cooperative climate; using the learner’s interests; creating activities aligned to the leaner’s
skills, needs, and interests; and scaffolding of assignments. Kenner and Weinerman (2011)
added that adult learners seek a close and cooperative relationship with instructors. Additionally,
educators should be aware that veterans who return to the college may have additional skills and
a higher level of maturity, but they may hold stronger and different perspectives of geopolitical
affairs than their traditional peers.
28
Welton and Grace offered criticisms of Knowles work (Henschke, 2008). First, they
asserted that this approach to adult education failed to promote democratic and social action.
Secondly, they stated that Knowles focused too much on an individualized approach. Adult
learning theories provide insights into how adult students learn best and point to the needs of
adult learners in higher education.
Needs of Adult Nontraditional Learners
Many of the needs of the adult non-traditional learners are not unique to these learners,
but some are. However, because of their delay in entering college and their varying academic
preparation, meeting the needs of these students is critical to their success and retention. This
section addresses the principal needs of adult learners as identified by the review of the
literature: effective teachers, financials, information, flexibility, and credit for past learning.
High quality, effective teachers. Every student deserves a high-quality teacher, but it is
critical that this caliber of teacher work with adult nontraditional learners. Minimal time is
needed for a student to determine the type of teacher leading the class. Dr. Harry Lewis (2006), a
former dean of Harvard University, reported his research in his book, Excellence Without a Soul:
Does Liberal Education Have a Future? Students watched a video of a lecture provided by their
instructor without audio and numerically rated the instructor on personality, optimism, and
confidence. These scores were positively correlated to the scores that students assigned to the
instructor for the evaluations at the end of the class. Students quickly form opinions about their
instructor and the instructor’s human qualities.
The Public Agenda repeated its 2013 research in 2015 to ascertain the difference in what
adults report when returning to college (Silliman & Schleifer, 2016). The results between the
29
two years were similar in identifying the essential need for caring instructors who know how to
teach. There was an 8% increase from the 2013 results to 76% of adult students reporting this as
a critical factor in their success as a student. However, the same report found that 50% of the
instructors in postsecondary education are graduate assistants, adjuncts, and non-tenured track
instructors. These at-risk learners in entry-level classes seldom experience the best of the
institution’s faculty.
Treadgold (2016) stated that teachers in higher education cannot be engaging and
stimulating to students unless they continue to grow in content knowledge. He asserted that a
focus on research and publishing may deprive time of working with students. The focus of all
research and publishing should be to enhance the learning of the student.
Hughes (2015) stated that there are three essential components of teaching excellence in
higher education: teaching, communication, and attitudes toward students. Hughes recognized
the attitude toward students as more important, especially with nontraditional students. These
students want to know the professor and develop a positive relationship. This benefits the
student’s work ethic and self-confidence in his/her ability to complete the required work.
Further, a positive relationship with the instructor was found to increase student attendance and
to increase the student’s willingness to ask for help outside of the classroom time. Karge,
Phillips, Jessee, and McCabe (2011) supported these findings and, found that when a positive
relationship was formed with the professor, the student perceived the instruction as more
effective. Hill (2014) identified three teacher traits that adult learners deemed as most beneficial
to their learning: competencies, positive student-instructor relationships, and teacher attitudes.
Adults considered the instructor’s competency to include relevant experience in practice. Adult
nontraditional learners need high quality, effective instructors who understand the role of
30
relationship in their delivery of content to adult learners. These traits and characteristics of the
instructor assist in producing what Keilor and Littlefield (2012) described the creation of a safe,
warm, and welcoming culture as a best practice in teaching adults. This, coupled with a personal
relationship with the instructor, meets the needs of adult learners. Applying the ideas of what is
known about how adults learn best is important to success in the classroom.
Application of adult learning theories in the mixed classroom. It is important to meet
the needs of the adult learners in the college classroom, but not all students in the classroom meet
the definition of an adult learner. Some states, including Kentucky, recognized the fact that adult
learners may be in any higher education classroom. As a result, the KALI (Kentucky Adult
Learner Initiative) was created to train instructors to be responsive to adult learners and
traditional college students in the classroom (Dunlap, Dudak, & Konty, 2013). Through the
KALI initiative, a model was created that blended the Adult Learning Theory of Knowles with
the learning model of Benjamin Bloom. Respecting the identified needs of adults, this Blended
Model of Adult Learning allows for a cycle of selection, reflection, application, and verification.
Adult learners who are more self-directed may be ready to move forward at this point. However,
this does not prevent the instructor from maintaining a focus on the traditional students and their
needs for more direction and support as required by the learner. However, Ross-Gordon (2011)
challenged this thinking by stating that while focusing on the needs of adult learners, it should be
remembered that each individual has unique needs. Many adult learners lack the needed self-
confidence when they enter or re-enter the college classroom. This population of students has a
variety of learning styles that are influenced by past experiences. This is especially true of adults
with disabilities and veterans.
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Differentiated approach to instruction. The lecture, a didactic teaching method, is a
common teaching method in many college classrooms. Pralhad-Sawant and Rizvi (2015)
described this method as passive and teacher-centered. However, they asserted that this method
is best used for students who cannot organize their learning, such as early elementary students
learning to read.
Although didactic teaching provides a formal structure that allows for questions to be
asked and answered, is does not support the needs of the adult learner, who seeks empowerment
(MacDonald, 2018). A teacher-centered classroom does not promote choice, which is favored by
the adult learner. Donnelly-Smith (2011) stated that adult learners desire to be treated as a co-
learner and to use prior life experiences and beliefs, and are then able to apply them in a practical
way to the assignment, rather than a one-size-fits-all assignment. However, Berling (2013)
stated that adults desire clear expectations from the beginning and for the teacher to provide
feedback with comment, both formally and informally. Using this approach helps adult learners
to comprehend the material better. In planning instruction to promote the success of these
learners, instructors should point to the practicality of the learning and include role-playing,
hands-on application, group discussion, and observations (MacDonald, 2018; Vandenberg,
2012). Metzner and Bean (1987) asserted that adult learners typically would take advantage of
the opportunities that are offered to them, but they are unlikely to ask for assistance.
Financial. Affordability is central to adult non-traditional students’ in returning to
school and continuing enrollment (Heagney & Benson, 2017). Silliman and Scheifer (2018), in a
report for the Public Agenda, reported that of all adult learners, only one-half who enter higher
education believe that it is a cost-effective action. Their findings also found that accruing debt
and balancing the demands of work and family presented adult students’ principal concern in the
32
return to school. This report compared the responses of adult students in 2013 and 2017. It
found that 67% of adult learners in both years ranked the fear of taking on too much debt as their
first concern. This is understandable, with 46% of adult learners with household incomes under
$40,000.
Concerns with the cost of higher education are true for Tennessee students and students
across the globe. The research of Saar, Täht, and Roosalu (2014) found that affordability in post-
Soviet countries provides a major barrier for adult learners. Conversely, lowest affordability
perceptions were found in countries that are considered liberal and social democratic nations,
such as the United Kingdom. This is linked to government support for these institutions. The
research of Bowers and Bergman (2016) supported these findings of affordability as the critical
barrier to adult learners.
The connection between education and economic success makes the affordability of
education for adult learners a priority of many states. The Lumina Foundation for Education and
its Kentucky Adult Learner Initiative (KALI) (2009) identified affordability as one of the three
crucial elements in moving the state toward its goals for Kentucky resident educational levels.
The KALI program recognized that tuition and fees continue to rise, although wages across the
nation remain stagnant. As a result, the Lumina Foundation for Education assigned the state of
Kentucky a failing grade in affordability.
Although Tennessee worked through many of the financial challenges with the Tennessee
Reconnect program that allows part-time enrollment and a last-dollar approach for funding of
tuition and mandatory fees after the learner applies for available federal aids and other
scholarships (Morris, 2017). Mandatory fees do not include all fees, textbooks, or other costs
33
associated with attending and succeeding in school. KALI (2009) recognized that adult learners
have many other demands competing for their discretionary funds. Secondly, understanding
about available funding and programs that make postsecondary education affordable demands
institutions of higher education provide the needed information to these students.
Michelau and Lane (2010) asserted that navigating the financial aid system may be
difficult for adult students to understand. These students do not have the school counselors
available to traditional students entering college from high school. As a result, colleges and
universities with well-informed campus “concierges” provide a way for adult students to receive
correct information or guidance to the correct source.
Goncalves and Trunk (2014) reported that a majority of non-traditional students’
interactions with the bursar’s office or financial affairs is often an unpleasant experience.
Students noted the lack of customer service and the inability of personnel in these offices to work
with the public. Common concerns included failure to return phone calls, failure to address a
student need unless the student physically went to the office to ask questions, or failure to
respond to emails. There was a common concern that traditional students received priority in
responding to issues. Some of the participants noted that they received valuable information from
these departments about available scholarships. Students often require assistance in completing
federal financial aid applications, specifically the Free Application for Federal Student Aid
(FAFSA) (Bowers & Bergman, 2016). These findings point to the need for learners to receive
on-time, correct, and responsive information.
Information. The Public Agenda (2013) conducted a comprehensive study based on
adult learners and these learners’ expectations on returning or entering higher education to
34
determine the needs vital needs of this segment of the college’s population. Understandably, the
needs of these students were found to be different from those of traditional students who are 18-
24 years old. Nontraditional students had less concrete information about the school and its
processes, services, and resources. Data compiled by the Public Agenda (2013) revealed that
traditional students access expert information from advisors, financial aid counselors,
handbooks, and the institution’s webpage more frequently than adult learners. This results in a
more informed traditional student attending orientation sessions. Meeting the needs of all
learners, but especially the nontraditional student requires effective orientation programs.
Gayle (2014) identified orientation programs as effective in meeting the needs of adult
learners in achieving academic and career goals, retaining students, and providing advisement
and needed information. Effective orientation positively affects student performance and
achievement. This level of effectiveness in orientation requires that specific needs for individual
students and groups of students are considered in planning and implementation (Espinoza &
Espinoza, 2012; Hollins, 2009; Karp et al., 2012; Kolenovic et al., 2013). Although Webster
(2016) found no significant difference in the self-reported self-efficacy of students who attended
orientation sessions and those students who did attend orientation, the qualitative portion of the
study found positive results of orientation programs. Orientation programs make a positive
contribution by providing information specific to career goals and individual needs. Students
identified sessions on developmental learning supports and learning skills as helpful to the adult
learner. Other helpful benefits of participation in orientation included access to an academic
advisor and study skills sessions offered several times through the academic year to provide just-
in-time information. Capps (2012) indicated that community college students varied in their
assessments of the value of the college advisor. If the advisor formed a personal connection with
35
the student, then the student viewed the advisor as personally and academically influential in
success. However, other students in this community college study mentioned uncaring advisors
among principal reasons that they left school and failed to persist.
Davis (2018) determined that orientation programs offered long- and short-term benefits
for the adult learner, including the opportunity to meet fellow adult learners and students and to
become aware of the information needed for success. However, the benefit of orientation
programs is determined by the student’s perception of the event’s benefit (Mayhew,
Vanderlinden, & Kim, 2010). Offering orientations at varied time, during the summer and
immediately before the onset of the school year affords options to students (White, 2016). The
adult, nontraditional student needs flexibility in scheduling.
Flexibility. As the learning population matures, individual differences increase among
the group. LeNoue et al. (2011) stated that those who work with adult learners must take care to
provide for these differences in learning styles, time, and pacing of the educational pursuit.
Adults thrive in educational settings with flexible scheduling and alternative formatting (Saar,
Täht, & Roosalu, 2014). Flexibility enables the nontraditional student to adapt to the
institutional life and recognizes that these students do not seek socialization from campus life
and that their learning is “episodic” and often part-time as this meets various demands of work
and family (Kasworm, 2014). Also, credit for prior learning outside of seat time for course work
is important in assisting adult learners progress as quickly as possible.
Flexible scheduling. Michelau and Lane (2010) found that time constraints exist for
most adult learners due to commitments outside of school responsibilities, such as family and
work. These time burdens require that institutions offer greater flexibility in the offering of
courses and the delivery methods available to students. Adult students may need more course
36
offerings in the evening or on the weekend (Bowers & Bergman, 2016). The University of
Northern Kentucky administered the Noel-Levitz Adult Learner Inventory in 2008 and 2012
(Berling, 2013). The results between the two administrations were largely unchanged. The
number one need revealed by the survey results was the need for flexible scheduling. This
included a choice of campuses on which courses were offered and choice in class times.
Programming schedule remained the primary concern even though more students were
unemployed in the 2012 administration of the survey. Berling suggested this likely resulted from
the responsibilities of children and home. Those employed need flexibility in scheduling as they
return to college to prepare for a new career or to advance in a current employment setting.
Flexibility extends beyond class schedules and methods of delivery. It includes the hours
of operation of university services, including admissions, advising, and support services (Capps,
2012). Flexibility allows students to meet obligations at home and work and to persist in college.
It may also include an understanding about the context in which the adult learner lives. This may
include assigning due dates that allow the student to complete them over the weekend rather than
assigned on Monday and due Friday at noon (Heagney & Benson, 2017). Adult students may
miss class due to illnesses of children or responsibilities for aging parents. Plageman and Sabina
(2010) suggested that publishing a syllabus with assignment due dates provides adult students
with the flexibility to plan their schedule accordingly. Adult students prefer due dates for
assignments on the weekend rather than on a weekday. Additionally, the availability of the
instructor immediately before and after class is respectful of the time constraints on adult
learners.
Alternative programming. The Kentucky Adult Learning Initiative (2009) suggested that
alternative programming to assist in the retention of adult learners include online or distance
37
learning or hybrid formatting to allow some class sessions to be conducted face-to-face and other
sessions through a technological application. This provides access and needed flexibility to time
demands.
Online learning use supports adult learning, as described by the adult learning theory (Ke
& Xie, 2011). It provides interactions with peers, collaboration, and immediate application of
learning. Additionally, it allows the learner to apply past learning and experiences to the current
work. Ke and Xie found that online learning provides opportunities for self-direction, self-
reflection, and self-regulation. The majority of two- and four-year institutions provide some form
of online learning. The National Center for Educational Statistics (2009) reported that 66% of
institutions offered some online courses. Ross-Gordon (2011) wrote that 61% of institutions
offered hybrid courses, and 32% of institutions offered programs completely online without face-
to-face interactions. Although online programs are attractive to adult learners, some highly
advertised programs are not accredited, nor grant recognized or transferable credits (Hardin,
2008). As a result, the adult learner may become a victim of recruiters who are most interested
in enrollment than the student’s best interest.
Full-time enrollment provides the optimal framework for student success, but this option
is seldom available to adult and nontraditional learners. However, programs that reduce or
compact contact hours are more responsive to the identified needs of adult students (Ross-
Gordon, 2011). Some criticism of such programs exists based on claims that such programs are
less rigorous to provide more convenience. Statistical outcomes are similar between adults
completing an accelerated program with the outcomes of traditional students in conventional
formats. Additionally, perception data from the two groups produce similar results for students
in both formats in terms of satisfaction and attitude.
38
Accelerated degree programs provide another option for the adult nontraditional student.
Kasworm (2014) identified 600 such programs. Although the majority of such programs are in
private, four-year institutions, more are appearing among community colleges. Such programs
offer one course at a time condensed into a four to five-week time span. Ivy Tech Community
College in Lawrenceburg, Indiana, offers a unique program for the acceleration of at-risk
students in poverty. Students attend school for six hours every other day and study on an off
day. Students are not allowed to work during the week, and living expenses are provided through
a scholarship with partners and foundations (Porter, 2013). Although adult learners seek
flexibility, it does not mean that they do not like structure within their programs (Ross-Gordon,
2011). Credit for past learning provides yet another option for accelerating program completion
and flexibility to these students.
Credit for past learning. Adult learners seek credit for past learning and experiences
gained through volunteerism and work. Berling (2013) suggested that this results from financial
and personal needs. Earning this credit reduces the cost of a program and the time to complete
the program. As a result, colleges and universities are expanding the number of courses for
which credit may be received through testing, a portfolio submission, or competency-based
methods (Berling, 2013; Michelau & Lane, 2010). The benefits for students can be immediate.
Other initiatives in this area include accepting credits based on the recommendations based on
CLEP (College Board College-Level Examination Program) and recommendations from the
American Council of Education’s CREDI College or the DANTES (Defense Activity for Non-
Traditional Education Support) that is used by the U.S. military (Bowers & Bergman, 2016).
Additionally, MOOC (massive online open courses) courses are expanding opportunities to learn
outside of the college walls. MOOC course are offered free to the public from respected and
39
accredited institutions, and if institutions provided transcribed credit for completion of these
courses, it would significantly remove the cost and time in earning a college degree.
As described by the Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Education (Kentucky Adult
Learning Initiative, 2009), credit for past learning boosts students’ confidence to enter school
with credits earned from previous experiences. For students attending school on tuition
reimbursement by employers, this reduces the cost to the organization (Berling, 2013; Kentucky
Adult Learning Initiative, 2009).
Other needs. Needs of adult nontraditional learners are varied, but some issues are
common to the group. These students have complex lives and unique needs to support retention
in higher education.
Family support and encouragement. Mature-aged students succeed in higher education
when they are well supported emotionally and physically by family and peers (Heagney &
Benson, 2017). Plageman and Sabina (2010) defined emotional support as having someone who
will talk, listen, empathize, care, and support with finances, childcare, and household duties.
This level of emotional support provides assistance as emergencies arise. Adult student family
commitments include not only care of children but also in some cases, the care of aging parents.
This level of support is crucial to the persistence of female students (Lin, 2016; Plageman
& Sabina, 2010). Without it, female students experience more anxiety and stress than their male
counterparts (Lin, 2016). Lack of childcare is often cited as a factor that leads to attrition or a
break in enrollment (Bowers & Bergman, 2016). Some institutions realize the need for childcare
and provide options for childcare. Although these services are not usually without the associated
cost, it provides options in crisis situations (Barrington, 2017). Positive family support is
40
significantly beneficial to female adult learners and identified as a stress reliever on female
students (Plageman & Sabina, 2010). Mothers play the most supportive role for female students
in their quest to pursue and persist in postsecondary education (Lin, 2016). Relationships are
important to the success of adult learners.
Peer relationships. Forming relationships with peers in the college helps students to
overcome feelings of isolation, and these friendships are based on the idea that they understand
each other’s roles as students. Friends who are not in school cannot share these feelings
(Heagney & Benson, 2017) or engage in conversations around educational topics (Lin, 2016).
Although the adult learner may conversationally interact with traditional students about common
learning and assignments, adult students often face generational gaps in their interaction Lin
reported that this may result in female adult learners experiencing feelings of marginalization
(2016), and recommended that sensitive college instructors should form working groups with
mixed aged students to encourage adult, female students to share their life experiences relevant
to the topic under discussion. This strategy would build supportive rapport among peers.
First-generation college students’ needs. Many among community college adult
learners represent the first generation within their families to attend postsecondary education.
Gibbons and Woodside (2014) asserted that the role of the father is most influential to first-
generation students and their reasoning and attitudes toward college attendance and in increasing
career opportunities, especially among low-income families. These students may adopt or
challenge the advice of the father, but these students need to see the connection between their
college persistence agrees with an aspect of the father’s philosophy of work ethic, enjoying
work, or financial independence. This study noted that female students identified mentoring as
critical to their success in retention, but it was less important to male students.
41
Transportation. Adult students are typically commuter students and require reliable
transportation to school (“Commuter Students,” 2006; Gotto & Martin, 2009). Transportation
continues to present a great barrier for many college students in rural or urban settings (Smith,
2016). This results from the need for gas money, fares on public transportation, or the
inconsistency of shared rides.
The identified needs of adult nontraditional students are numerous and specific to the
learner. They do not present as a homogeneous group. The literature on the topic indicated that
these students need efficient and talented teachers who apply the principles of the adult learning
theory to classroom assignments and activities. These teachers also use differentiation in
instruction. Finding a way to balance financial responsibilities for family and work with the costs
associated with postsecondary education presents the primary need of adult learners. These
students require correct and timely information from the college, need flexibility in scheduling
and programming, and credit for past learning and work experiences. Other needs identified in
the review of the literature included the support of friends and family, particularly mothers, who
may provide childcare, emotional, and financial support. First-generation college students
present additional, specific needs, including the ability to see how their pursuit of education
aligns with their father’s values of work ethic, desire to enjoy their work, and financial
independence. Failure to meet the needs of adult nontraditional students may create barriers to
postsecondary education persistence and retention.
Barriers to Retention
Understanding the real and perceived barriers of adult learners is important for
educational leaders in higher education. Kasworm (2003) asserted that faculty and administration
42
in colleges often fail to understand adult learners because these students are at a different point in
their lives and see the world and their futures differently from traditional students. Pusser et al.
(2007) added that although adult students earning degrees could produce the most significant
social and individual returns on investment, adult learners are pursuing an education in a system
designed for the traditional student. Cross (1981) provided seminal work to the discussion of
barriers of adult learners, and classified barriers into three categories: institutional barriers,
situational barriers, and dispositional barriers.
Institutional barriers. Cross defined institutional barriers as those that result from
institutional action, such as inflexible scheduling and locations of classes, charging part-time
students with fulltime fees, courses of study not relative to employment opportunities, and other
items (1981, p. 98). When adult learners encounter institutional barriers, they are less tolerant
and patient in resolving them (Hardin, 2008). Adult learners are interested in achieving
academic goals in the quickest timeframe (Donhardt, 2013). Hardin (2008) identified
institutional barriers as the distance between work and school; locations where classes are
offered; lack of evening, weekend, and online classes; faculty with limited day time office hours;
lack of daycare services; high quality academic advising with correct information; and quality
instruction (p. 51).
Academic-related barriers. Many adult learners enter college unprepared for the rigor of
college work (Hardin, 2008). Enrollment in community college is most helpful for this group of
adult learners who are underprepared for postsecondary education (Spellman, 2007). Delayed
entry puts a great deal of time between the students’ current situation and past formal education.
Degg (2011) identified academic-related barriers as a subset of institutional barriers and found
two major barriers that were academic-related understanding and using technology and the lack
43
of face-to-face interaction with the instructor and classmates. Other academic barriers included
lack of instructor feedback and coping with a learning disability. Although online classes provide
flexibility for students, these classes do not provide the level of interactions that some students
require. The use of a learning management system may be challenging for students to master.
Challenging for some students with a lack of academic preparation. Table 2.1presents a
summary of research on institutional barriers to retention.
44
Table 2.1. Summary of Institutional Barriers.
______________________________________________________________________________
Researcher and Date Research Type Identified Barriers
______________________________________________________________________________
Cross (1981) Qualitative 1. Flexible schedules
Degg (2011) Qualitative 1. Academic barriers
Deutsch and Schmertz Qualitative 1. Academic barriers
(2011)
Gotto and Martin (2009) Qualitative 1. Navigation of the system
2. Lack of information
Hardin (2008) Qualitative 1. Flexible schedules
2. Quality daycare
3. Quality instruction
4. Quality advisement
Kasworm (2010) Qualitative 1. Academic skill
2. Programming for
traditional students
___________________________________________________________________________
45
Situational barriers. Situational barriers include the barriers, which arise from life at
any time, such as loss of job, divorce, pregnancy, loss of childcare, lack of reliable
transportation, and other situations (Cross, 1981, p. 98). Flynn, Brown, Johnson, and Rodger
(2011) and Osam, Bergman, and Cumberland (2016) included family issues, health, finances,
scheduling conflicts with work schedules, and lack of transportation among situational barriers
with financial issues and family matters as most important in this category. Situational needs
may include affordable housing, legal aid, access to shelters for abused spouses, and needed food
(Hardin, 2008). The institution cannot resolve situational barriers, but by providing flexibility,
the institution may give time for the student to address role issues and then allow students to
resume academic requirements. Assuming that adult learners are financially independent is a
false concept because these learners need as much support and assistance as the traditional
student.
Gender and situational barriers. Situational barriers are influenced by gender. Female
students, because of their gender role as caregivers, are most easily affected by these barriers
(Grabowski, 2016; Osam, Bergman, & Cumberland, 2016). The quantitative research indicated
that this does not hinder female students who marry early in life, or becoming young mothers,
from enrolling, but this may present a barrier in retention. This study also found that women
who married early in life and became young mothers were more likely to enroll as an adult
learner than women who had not married early or became young mothers. Women with more
complex lives and heavy responsibilities were more likely to enter college as adults. Deutsch
and Schmertz’s (2011) qualitative study of adult women students found that the overwhelming
desire to complete a college program and earn a degree outweighed the combing forces of
outside responsibilities.
46
Males were 50% less likely to enroll in college as an adult if they had married early in
their lives (Osam, Bergman, and Cumberland, 2016). This may be the result of the cultural role
of men as the primary breadwinner. They cautioned against applying these conclusions to all
adult learners based on gender because of the individual differences among the group.
Cultural. Another type of situational barrier results from cultural differences. These
include immigrants, those with limited English proficiency and need English as Second
Language courses, first-generation students, and international students (Grabowski, 2016;
Spellman, 2007). Although colleges may have specific programs for these students to help meet
their needs, many of these students are reluctant to use the services to avoid stigmatization
(Spellman, 2007). Realization of these students’ hesitation to use services is important because,
since 2000, the enrollment of Hispanic students rose 230% from 2.8 % in 2000 to 8.6% in 2014,
while the White enrollment in Tennessee colleges declined (“Profiles and Trends in Higher
Education,” 2016).
Financial. Hardin (2008) reported that adult learners, who often live with low-waged
jobs, fear more debt. This may cause them to resist seeking student loans and often leads to
attrition. Saar, Täht, and Roosalu (2014) found that affordability provides a significant barrier
for adult learners
Career and job-related. Adult learners need supportive job sites. Degg (2011) identified
two barriers in this category: meeting job expectation and lack of support from the workplace in
working with the student’s schedule. Job demands can cause the student to fall behind in
meeting academic demands.
47
Other situational barriers. Other situational barriers include health problems,
disabilities, substance abuse, and criminal records (Spellman, 2007). Chronic illness may
present barriers for completion of programs. Similarly, students with certain disabilities may not
meet the physical requirement of a profession after completing a program. Students with
criminal records or issues with substance abuse may be unemployable in careers, especially
health science programs or education.
48
Table 2.2 presents a summary of research on situational barriers to retention.
Table 2.2. Summary of Situational Barriers.
Researcher and Date Research Type Identified Barriers
Degg (2011) Qualitative 1. Work and career
Deutsch and Schmertz (2011) Qualitative 1. Family responsibilities
2. Financial
3. Childcare
Flynn, Brown, Johnson, Qualitative 1. Family
responsibilities
and Rodger (2011) 2. Financial
Gotto and Martin (2009) Quantitative 1. Financial
2. Childcare
3. Work schedules
4. Health issues
5. Transportation
Grabowski (2014) Qualitative 1. Family responsibilities
Hardin (2008) Qualitative 1. Family responsibilities
2. Financial
Saar, Täht, and Roosalu (2014) Quantitative 1. Financial
2. Transportation
Spellman, (2007) Qualitative 1. Financial
2. Time management
49
Dispositional barriers. The attitudes and perceptions of the adult learner about self as a
learner provide dispositional barriers (Cross, 1981).
Intrapersonal barriers. Deggs (2011), in his qualitative study, identified intrapersonal
barriers that affect retention of the adult learner as a subset of dispositional barriers. These
include money management, the balancing of family responsibilities within the limits of time,
handling health and emotional challenges, and the fear of failure. Seeing intrapersonal barriers as
intrinsic, one participant in the study described the intrapersonal barriers as the barrier that “lies
within me” (p. 1547).
Psychological barriers. Psychological barriers include inadequate coping skills, lack of
self-efficacy, poor self-image, anxiety about the potential to do the academic work based on the
past academic failure, and negative expectations for positive academic outcomes (Hardin, 2008).
Adult learners are more at risk for psychological barriers than traditional students. The support of
family is critical to overcoming these feelings. Entering as an adult affects identity because the
learner may have been an expert in his/her work or trade, but upon enrolling, he/she becomes a
novice. Hardin identified activities that involve families and opportunities to interact with other
students with multiple roles as helpful to students as they encounter psychological barriers.
The convergence of barriers. Although separate barriers are identified in the research,
these factors most often present as inter-related and transcend the other areas of the student’s life
(Degg, 2011). Managing different roles applies stress for the management of time and meeting
the demands of work, family, and school with excellence. This convergence produces stress and
anxiety, prompting negative physical and emotional results. Table 2.3 presents a summary of
research on dispositional barriers to retention.
50
Table 2.3. Summary of Dispositional Barriers.
Researcher and Date Research Type Identified Barriers
Degg (2011) Qualitative 1. Intrapersonal barriers
2. Fear of failure
3. Physical and emotional
issues
Flynn, Brown, Johnson, and Qualitative 1. Differences in adult and
Rodger (2011) nontraditional students
Goto and Martin (2009) Qualitative 1. Fear of failure
2. Low self-efficacy
3. Previous school
experiences
4. Low self-esteem
Hardin (2008) Qualitative 1. Poor self-image
2. Identity crisis
3. Isolation
4. Academic deficits
5. Gaps in formal education
51
Institutional Efforts for the Retention of Adult Learners
Chen (2017) argued that colleges and universities are “youth-centric,” and the adult
learner becomes invisible in efforts to retain students (p. 1). As a result, nontraditional adult
students are a neglected element in the diversity of higher education. The research on this topic
provides implications and suggestions for institutions of higher education in addressing barriers,
but few programs of excellence have been identified (Chen, 2017).
Advisors. The availability of advisors for adult learners is essential. Early advising and
academic planning were positively linked to success and retention (“Community College Survey
of College Engagement,” 2014). In the same survey, intrusive advising for struggling students
was linked to persistence. However, based on Capps’ (2012) qualitative research, advisors are
only beneficial when the information that they provide is accurate, and the advisor is perceived
as caring and engaged. Gonclaves and Trunk (2014) reported that advisors sometimes make the
adult learner feel like a “loser” or a “dummy” (p. 167). Secondly, faculty advisors are most
effective when they go beyond helping the student to select an appropriate course and take on the
role of mentor (Capps, 2012). In the qualitative research of Gonclaves and Trunk (2014), 80%
of respondents indicated that advisors who specialized in working with adult learners or a
specialized team of adult learner advisors would be most helpful in their retention. Member
schools in the Lumina network suggested providing a single point of contact for adult learners to
assist with navigation of the college system and to provide emotional encouragement and support
as a best practice in retention (Lane, Michaleau, & Palmer, 2012).
Developmental placement and coursework. Disagreements exist about whether or not
developmental courses or learning supports should be required or suggested for students with
52
academic deficiencies. The requirement to take developmental courses prior to enrollment in
credit-bearing classes further delays graduation for students who are already entering college
after an extended period and who are likely to attend school on a part-time basis (Capps, 2012).
The Tennessee Board of Regents uses the term learning support rather than developmental
course (“Learning Support,” n.d.). These courses are designed to provide remediation to
students with learning deficits in mathematics, reading, writing, or study skills based on ACT
scores or other standardized tests. The qualitative research of Capps (2012) indicated that
students noted little improvement in academic skills as a result of developmental courses.
However, Hanover Research identified development courses as significant in retention and
student engagement (“Best Practices in Retention at Community Colleges,” 2014).
Learning communities. The use of learning communities is a practice within learning
support initiatives (Capps, 2012). This links developmental courses with credit-bearing classes in
English or mathematics to a specific learning support class, which removes the delay in accruing
credits (“Learning Supports,” n.d.). The Community College Survey of College Engagement
(2014) found that learning communities increased student performance but were not linked to
retention.
Early warning systems and interventions. MacDonald (2018) reported that nearly 50%
of adult learners entering postsecondary education need some type of remediation or intervention
to address fear, anxieties, and the potential of attrition. Required college orientation programs are
a widespread practice because of the success of this intervention. In 2018, 94% of all colleges
and universities inducted new students with a seminar course, but these are most effective when
they are required and carry three-hours of course credit (MacDonald, 2018). This is a dramatic
53
increase from only 43% of institutions requiring orientation in 2013 (“Community College
Survey of Student Engagement,” 2014).
Early warning systems attempt to intervene before it is too late to gain credit in a course
(Capps, 2012). When an early warning system is in place, instructors quickly notify others
linked to retention services and refer the student for tutoring, counseling, advising, or other
services. Capps (2012) qualitative study indicated that students expressed that if the instructor
reached out and offered help, it would have made a difference in their retention.
Tutoring. Tutoring provides instruction beyond that provided in the classroom and most
often occurs as an individual or small group session. The Center for Community College
Student Engagement, in its Community College Survey of Student Engagement (2014), found
mixed results for the efficacy of tutoring. Participating students in this study were only slightly
more likely to successfully complete a learning support class in English if they participated in
tutoring provided by the college. Female students receiving tutoring services increase self-
confidence linked to retention and increased connection to additional campus resources (Lin,
2016).
Wrap-around services. Community colleges across the nation struggle to retain adult
learners to help them resolve barriers to retention. The RAND corporation suggested that
community colleges provide one-stop services for nontraditional learners (“One-Stop Social
Services Efforts May Improve Community College Outcomes,” 2016). Such wrap-around
services or concierge models are currently in use within several community college systems
(Michelau & Lane, 2010). A key contact for adult learners is most helpful in navigating the
system, its processes, and barriers to success.
54
Gaps in the Literature
The review of the literature identifies the needs of adult learners and the barriers that they
face in retention. Studies conducted across the nation and internationally identify financial
barriers and the fear of accruing debt as the greatest barrier of adult nontraditional learners.
Tennessee is a national leader in making post-secondary education more accessible by providing
tuition and mandatory fees for qualifying, adult nontraditional students to attend postsecondary
through Tennessee Reconnect. However, no research has been conducted to identify barriers in
retention of Tennessee adult nontraditional learners since the initiation of the Tennessee
Reconnect program. In Beneath the Surface (2017), the State of Education in Tennessee Report
stated that although there has been progress in improving college enrollment and completion,
Tennessee’s system of higher education faces significant challenges in closing equity gaps with
adult learners. Nationwide, only 37.5% of adult students complete a degree from a community
college within six years; accessibility to college does not equal success in college, with
Tennessee ranking below the national average and ranked as 42nd in the percentage of residents
with an associate’s degree or more (Fredman, 2018).
Dr. Flora Tydings, Chancellor of the Tennessee Board of Regents (TBR), announced the
need for Tennessee community colleges to identify best programs in supporting and retaining
adult nontraditional students and then to replicate the effective strategies across the TBR system
(Morris, 2017). This research explored the barriers to retention after implementation of the
Tennessee Reconnect program removed principal financial burdens for tuition, mandatory fees,
and additional debt and the needed supports that adult nontraditional students identified as
beneficial in their retention. The results from the study will be helpful to leaders in community
55
colleges in designing interventions and supports to increase retention and reduce attrition of adult
nontraditional students.
Summary
Efforts to retain students in college principally arose in the 20th century with a focus on
the traditional student. In 1985, the Bean and Metzner model of the Non-Traditional
Undergraduate Student Attrition Model emerged, applicable to adult students in community
colleges. This model included four sets of variables that are risks to retention: (a) academic
performance: grade point average; (b) intention to leave: highly influenced by stress,
commitment to goals, and utility; (c) student’s prior high school achievement; (d) environment:
finances, hours of employment, outside encouragement, family responsibilities, and opportunity
to transfer. Adult nontraditional learners are not a homogeneous group, but they share many
common needs and experience similar barriers in retention. They are highly susceptible to
attrition when needs are not met by forces external to the college or effective program of
intervention and support within the institution.
Chapter Three describes the methodology of the study to identify factors that promote the
retention and factors that create barriers to retention in a Tennessee community college.
Included is a description of participants and setting, methods of data collection, ethical
considerations, and procedures for data analysis.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter provides an overview of the research methodology for this qualitative,
phenomenological study regarding the factors that promote retention, or become barriers to
retention, in adult nontraditional students in community colleges. This study allowed for a
deeper understanding of stressors and motivators of these students in Tennessee community
colleges when the Tennessee Reconnect initiative removed the financial barrier of tuition and
mandatory fees. The appropriateness of a qualitative phenomenological approach is discussed.
The research plan provided includes a discussion of the primary components of the
methodology: the setting and participants of the study; the procedures of data collection, sources
of data, and management of the data; coding systems; efforts to achieve trustworthiness,
credibility, transferability, and dependability; ethical consideration; the data analysis procedures,
and the influence of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
Research Question
One research question directed this qualitative, phenomenological study. The question is
closely aligned to the purpose of the study and the theoretical framework. The question
considers the variable sets of the Bean and Metzner Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student
Attrition Model (1985) that lead to attrition, intention to leave and environmental stressors, and
those that lead to retention, past academic performance and the student’s prior high school
achievement. Similarly, the question is relative to the conceptual framework generated by the
review of literature, particularly the work of Cross (1981), who categorized barriers of adult
nontraditional students as situational, institutional, or dispositional. The following research
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question guided this study: What factors promote retention or become barriers in the retention of
adult nontraditional students in the community college?
Qualitative Research Method
This study used a qualitative research process to pursue an in-depth understanding of
phenomena in a natural setting and sought to understand human experiences in the participants’
everyday lives (Cresswell, 1998). A qualitative study is appropriate based on the research
question and its intent. Polkinghorne (2005) referred to qualitative data as an “umbrella” term
under which a range of methods that utilize data in language form is gathered. The advantages
of qualitative methods are that they allow for the evaluation of existing theories through
deductive approaches, and they promote the creation of new theories through an inductive
approach.
Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker (2019) described qualitative research as basic
interpretive research. Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, and Namey (2005) depicted
qualitative research as naturalistic inquiry with the purpose of understanding phenomena in their
natural setting. Researchers, who seek to understand why rather than what, use qualitative
methods. This research seeks no statistical significance, but rather, the purpose is to make
meaning of human experience and phenomena.
Qualitative studies explore individuals, societies, and cultures. Qualitative research may
use different systems in an inquiry of examination of human experiences, such as grounded
theory, ethnography, discourse analysis, case study, biography, historical analysis, and
phenomenology; however, this study utilized a phenomenological approach to the study of
individuals. Neergard and Ulhoi (2007) asserted that qualitative methods are susceptible to
58
subjectivity, and as a result, this method demands efforts to avoid subjectivity influencing the
conclusions or findings. Anderson (2010) acknowledged the criticisms of bias, anecdotal data,
and the lack of rigor that qualitative research faces. However, when conducted correctly and with
fidelity, qualitative methods produce unbiased, deep, credible, valid, and reliable rigorous
results, Although the terms validity and reliability are most often linked to quantitative research,
these concepts are currently viewed as vital concepts in qualitative research as well.
All research methods include inherent strengths and weaknesses. Qualitative research is
appropriate in this study because it provides latitude to extend questions, flexibility, and
transferability to other similar settings. Additionally, qualitative research allows for the research
question to be studied in great detail and depth and generates data from human experiences based
on a few individuals that may be overlooked in a larger quantitative study. This chapter provides
information on the steps taken to overcome the limitations of qualitative research, including
researcher skills and bias, coding of data and analysis, confidentiality, and rigor.
Phenomenological Approach
According to the Center for Research and Teaching, phenomenology is based on the
work of Edmund Husseri and a 20th-Century philosophical movement (“Phenomenology
Research Overview,” n.d.). Phenomenology focuses on describing how human experience is a
phenomenon. It focuses on the perceptions, beliefs, and experiences of those individuals who
have lived the experience. This is typically achieved through the use of in-depth interviews with
a small sample of participants. Based on the analysis of the generated data, one can make
generalizations about the lived experiences of those who have experienced the phenomenon.
Phenomenological studies differ from other types of qualitative studies in that subjective
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experience is at the heart of the inquiry (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker, 2019). It moves from
“individual experience to a universal essence” (p. 409); “essence” refers to the intentionalities of
the world.
Description of the Specific Research Approach
Qualitative data are principally generated in oral or written language rather than in
numbers and measurements. Polkinghorne (2015) identified sources of typical data in qualitative
research, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts. These data sources are
appropriate for phenomenological research. This study collected data from adult nontraditional
students concerning their lived experiences through semi-structured interviews, a focus group,
and student journals.
Semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews present unique advantages and
disadvantages (Gay, 1999). Although time-consuming, expensive, and requiring a smaller
sample, these interviews are best suited for gathering information of a personal nature that
cannot be collected through multi-choice questions. Such interviews are flexible and allow for
probing of a complete answer. The individual interview setting provides a safe and private
environment for a participant to share opinions, insights, and feelings without the influence or
pollution of other’s ideas. If the interviewer can establish trust and rapport with the interviewee,
the level of information collected may be much deeper than that resulting from a questionnaire.
Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker (2019) identified the advantages of one-on-one interviews as
limiting bias to the moderator rather than other participants, greater individual input, a deeper
revelation of emotions, and being more appropriate with sensitive topics, such as the barriers that
adult nontraditional learners face in higher education.
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Participants, who provided informed consent, were sent text reminders three days before
the scheduled interview and the day of the interview. An informed consent form was provided to
participants (see Appendix A). Interview questions used to guide the semi-structured interviews
were influenced by the review of literature on best practices in serving adult and nontraditional
students, the theoretical framework provided by Bean and Metzner’s Model of Nontraditional
Undergraduate Student Attrition (1985), and the conceptual framework identified from the
literature review, particularly the barriers to retention. An interview guide (see Appendix B) was
utilized. Seven participants engaged in semi-structured interviews. At the end of each
interview, participants were asked if there was anything that was not asked that should have been
asked. Instructions were then provided about the journaling portion of data gathering.
The interviews were audiotaped with participant permission and immediately transcribed
verbatim after each interview. Descriptive field notes were taken in a journal during the
interview to supplement the audiotape and transcription. Reflective notes were added to the
journal after the interviews and after listening to the interview and reading the transcript
Focus group. The second form of data collected was produced from a focus group of
seven participants. Leung and Savithiri (2009) defined a focus group as a group of individuals
gathered to share personal attitudes about a “concept, product, or idea” (p. 218). The focus group
was comprised of the seven individuals who were individually interviewed, which met the size
guidelines suggested by Leung and Savithiri (2009, p. 218). A focus group is a group of
individuals who are guided in a discussion managed by a facilitator. In addition to gathering
additional data, this group provided an opportunity for member checks. In preparation for the
focus group, a focus group interview guide (see Appendix C) was constructed based on the
review of literature, the theoretical and conceptual frameworks, and data gathered from the semi-
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structured interviews. With the intent of producing an interactive environment for the
discussion, the participants interacted with the moderator and other participants during the focus
group. Focus group members were sent text reminders three days before the scheduled focus
group meeting and the day of the focus group. The focus group discussion was audiotaped with
participant permission. The audiotape was immediately transcribed verbatim after the meeting,
and field notes and reflective notes were made.
Student journals. After the semi-structured interviews, participants were provided a
journal to record ideas not shared in the interview or the focus group because they may not have
thought of the idea, something new happened to trigger a thought, or the information was too
private to share in the focus group. Student journals or diaries are a recognized qualitative
method of gathering the perspectives of participants and refining the beliefs, thoughts, and
answers (Janesick, 1999; Kenten, 2015; Polkinghorne, 2015). Also, a series of questions (see
Appendix D) were included in the journal to gather additional data about ideas and experiences
in the context of the college, perceived barriers, needs, and supports to retention. Students
journaled thoughts from the end of the semi-structured until two weeks after the conclusion of
the focus group.
Triangulation. Heale and Forbes (2010) stated that triangulation involves more than one
method in researching a question. The use of triangulation works to reduce researcher bias,
increase confidence in the study’s findings, and to increase the completeness of the data. This
study utilized the process of triangulation through the use of interviews, a focus group, and
student journaling and other data sources.
Description of the Study Participants and Setting
Carlsen and Glenton (2011) stated that the principal strength of qualitative research is
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that it explores a topic or phenomena at deep levels. Cleary, Horsfall, and Hayter (2014) added
that the selection of participants must be based on clear criteria. Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker
(2014) stipulated that qualitative studies do not attempt to identify a random sample, but rather,
participants who have the needed information are selected as participants. The participants must
be capable of providing “rich, dense, and focused” data relative to the research question (Cleary,
Horsfall, and Hayter, 2014, p. 473). They are selected based on their lived experiences under
investigation, and the participant's ability to share personal views and emotions (Ary, Jacobs,
Irvine, and Walker, 2019). This demands ethical consideration, such as which participants to
include and exclude. Too few participants may endanger the depth of the data, and too many
participants may endanger the quality of the study by producing shallow or trivial data as a result
of the volume of generated information. Cleary, Horsfall, and Hayter stated that data are
collected until it becomes a “redundancy of data or saturation” (p. 473). The majority of study
participants must be included in the presentation of data. The central principles in the selection
of participants include small numbers, purposeful selection, attention to the theoretical
framework, and rationale to selection.
This study was conducted in a rural Tennessee community college that serves students
across a 10-county region on four campuses. The college serves a combination of credit students
(6000 +) and noncredit students (4000+). The demographics of the student body include almost
20%, adult learners. Racially and ethnically, students self-identify as 89% White, 3% Black, 3%
Hispanic, and 1% Asian. Two percent identify as two or more races, and 1% are international
students. All participants were 25 years of age or older and possessed at least two traits of
nontraditional students: a delay of entry into postsecondary education by at least one year
following high school graduation, having one or more dependents, living as a single parent,
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engaged in full-time employment; financially independent from parents or guardians, attending
college part-time, or entering college without a regular high school diploma (Ross-Gordon,
2011).
These students are advised by 14 advisors, the coordinator of advising, and the
coordinator of adult learners. Advisors and coordinators nominated adult learners (at least 25
years of age), who possessed at least two traits of nontraditional as described by Ross-Gordon
(2011). Additionally, this purposeful sampling identified adult nontraditional learners who could
contribute rich, dense, and deep data to the study. A copy of the letter to the advisors and
coordinators is provided in Appendix E. From the nominees, seven adult nontraditional learners
were selected through quota sampling to represent the demographics of the college in terms of
gender, race, ethnicity, age, and nontraditional factors. The same group of seven students
participated in the focus group. All selected participants met the definition of an adult learner as
defined by Kasworm (2003) as 25 years old or older and two characteristics of nontraditional
students.
Data Collection Procedures
Data were collected through semi-structured interviews that allowed participants to share
their story and experiences. The interviews were conducted in a conference room to provide
privacy, anonymity, and to avoid interruptions. The audiotape of each interview was
immediately transcribed after the interview. Likewise, the focus group met in a conference room
to provide a comfortable place without interruption. Student journals were collected two weeks
after the focus group. Student writings were transcribed to facilitate coding.
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Management of data. Tapes of the interviews and focus group, all transcripts, field
notes, and reflective notes, and student journals were secured in a personally-owned locked filing
cabinet, and electronic materials were secured on a personal, password-protected computer.
Interview Protocols. Patton (2015) described an interview protocol as a list of questions
and issues considered in the course of an interview. He stated that the interview guide increases
the systematic process of interviewing multiple participants. Cooper (2014) suggested that
existing literature should influence the construction of research questions. Each research question
was linked to a citation in the literature review. Construction of the interview protocol was
influenced by the interview protocol of Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker (2019). The questions
began with demographic and personal information to put the participant at ease and to allow the
participant to hear his/her voice in the interview setting. Jacob and Furgerson (2012) stated that
the qualitative interviewer must also include in the protocol what will be said before beginning
the interview, the collection of the informed consent form, and what will be said at the end of the
interview. These items are included in the interview protocol and the focus group protocol. Also,
an item was included in the protocol to distribute the student journals at the end of the interview
and to remind participants about the collection of the journal in two weeks following the
conclusion of the focus group. Following the suggestions of Patton (2015), the interviews began
with the establishment of common meanings on the terms barriers, retention, attrition, and adult
nontraditional learner. The protocol then followed the flow described by Patton in asking
questions to assess the current situation, opportunities for improvement, the challenges faced by
others, and then asking participants to prioritize. Also, participants were asked to provide
information on any questions that were not asked that should have been asked, as well as other
comments.
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Data Analysis Procedures
Coding system. All interviews and the focus group were audiotaped and transcribed.
Student journals were transcribed. The contents of these transcriptions, supported by field notes
and reflective notes, provided the raw data for the study. Through open coding, the raw data was
converted to codes. This consolidated the data and linked the raw data to the research question.
These codes were categorized. Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker (2019) described open coding as
labeling and categorizing the phenomena in the raw data by grouping similar items and concepts
to develop core concepts, categories, or properties. It disaggregates the data with an open mind.
The open codes were examined, and the transcript reread to identify the patterns in the data in
considering the research question and the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. This process
of axial coding began to organize the data together by identifying patterns and developing
categories and subcategories. Finally, the axial codes were integrated into patterns that provided
the selective codes by review of the transcripts and axial codes, which ultimately answered the
research question. The research question and theoretical and conceptual frameworks were
considered at each of the three levels of coding. Through the process, the raw data were
deconstructed, organized, and analyzed (Priest, Roberts, & Woods, 2002). At each stage of
coding, efforts were made to retain the voice of the participants through the use of the
participants’ exact words.
Rigor and Ethics in Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves the interactions between researchers and participants. This
may produce situations of ethical concerns and challenges for researchers. As a result, it is
necessary for researchers to create a plan for ethical considerations (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad,
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Fomani, & Cheraghi, 2014). The methodology for this study included a plan for reliability
through trustworthiness and dependability to ensure proper rigor (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and
Walker, 2019). Credibility addressed the true value of the study, transferability the
generalization or applicability of the findings, trustworthiness or dependability the consistency of
the research, and confirmability the neutrality employed (p. 442).
Credibility. Anney (2014) defined credibility as the confidence held in the truthfulness
of the research findings. Credibility efforts included data triangulation from multiple data
sources (interviews, focus group, and student journals) that created structural corroboration (Ary,
Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker, 2019). Secondly, peer debriefing was utilized at multiple points in
the study. The peer debriefer was a professor of sociology and with significant experience in
qualitative methods. The peer debriefer provided insights regarding the selection of participants,
the interview protocols, coding, and analysis of the data, findings, and conclusions. Participants
provided feedback through member checks, which were incorporated into the focus group
discussion. This assured accuracy and clarified any misunderstanding or confusions. Low-
inference descriptors, such as verbatim, direct quotes, were recorded and used. Using the
participants exact words increased thick, rich descriptors. Understanding the risk of researcher
bias, efforts were undertaken to avoid bias in the collection of data and its analysis. The efforts
included self-reflection through reflexivity or positionality and the use of a peer debriefer.
Transferability. Transferability is the extent to which the findings of the study may be
applied or generalized to other contexts. In this study, the context includes adult nontraditional
students in rural Tennessee community colleges. This required detailed descriptions of the
participants, their context, and timeframe (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, and Walker, 2019, p. 445-446).
Comparisons of the participants in the study to participants in the literature review were
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considered, and limitations were described. The use of “thick descriptions and purposeful
sampling” increased transferability (Anney, 2014, p. 277). Using thick descriptions allows
others to see how closely the context of one study is aligned with another context. Purposive
sampling allowed for the selection of participants, who possessed the needed information, could
communicate that information, and were willing to participate in the study.
Dependability. Dependability includes the evaluation of the findings by participants
(Anney, 2014). A detailed audit trail was created and maintained through documentation, and
data triangulation provided corroboration (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker, 2019).
Confirmability. Confirmability is linked to neutrality and research that is free of bias in
the study’s process and analysis. The field notes included the journaling of reflections of the
influence of past experiences to shade or pollute neutrality (Anney, 2014). Also, a complete
audit trail was maintained, and corroboration was established through triangulation of data. The
contributions of the peer debriefer and attention to reflexivity assisted in the control of potential
bias (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker, 2019).
Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations were guided by the Collaborative Institutional Training (CITI)
guidelines on research with human subjects. Permission from the Carson-Newman University
IRB and the community college’s IRB were obtained before collection of any data. Participants
provided informed consent prior to participation in the study. The process included the rights of
participants, risks, the value of the research, the time involved in the study, and an opportunity to
ask questions. Participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they
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could withdraw from the study at any time. Informed consent forms were collected prior to
interviews. The forms are secured with other study data.
The identity of the college and the participants were protected to assure confidentiality.
Each participant received a pseudonym linked to the participant’s gender to provide anonymity.
Summary
This qualitative study was conducted in a rural Tennessee community college through a
phenomenological approach as the data sought was lived experiences and perceptions of the
participants. Participants were adults (25 years of age or older) and possessed two or more
characteristics of nontraditional students. The college’s advisors and coordinators of advising
and adult learners nominated participants. Through purposive sampling, seven participants were
selected and participated in the study with the assistance of the peer debriefer. Three data
sources-interviews, focus group, and student journals, provided data triangulation. Data
generated were used to answer the research question: What factors promote retention or become
barriers in retention of adult nontraditional students in the community college?
Interviews, a focus group, and student journal protocols were used to manage data. All
data and materials from the study were secured in a personal, locked filing cabinet, and
electronic items were stored on a personal computer protected by a password. Data were
analyzed inductively using open, axial, and selective coding and deductively using the theoretical
framework of Bean and Metzner (1985), as well as the conceptual framework detailed in the
literature review.
Techniques of qualitative trustworthiness were used to increase the rigor and ethics of the
study through methods of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Ethical
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considerations included applying the guidelines of CITI in research with human subjects and
obtaining permission from the IRBs of Carson-Newman University and the community college
where the study occurred prior to data collection. All participation was voluntary, and
participants provided informed consent prior to involvement in the study. Chapter Four provides
a description of the individual participants, a presentation of the data generated through data
collection, an analysis of the data through coding, and the results of the data analysis as it related
to the research question.
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Chapter Four: Presentation of the Findings
Chapter Four presents an analysis of findings resulting from the analysis of data in this
qualitative, phenomenological study that sought to identify barriers to retention and supports
needed to assist in the retention of adult learners with rural community colleges. The state of
Tennessee implemented Tennessee Reconnect, a program to assist the state in reaching its goal of
55% of residents possessing an associate degree or postsecondary certification by providing tuition
for qualifying adult students. The retention of adult non-traditional learners is critical to goal
achievement and related economic and social goals.
One research question guided this qualitative study. This research question is aligned to
the statement of the study and the purpose and significance of the study. The question considers
the variable sets of the Bean and Metzner Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition
Model (1985) that lead to attrition and those that lead to retention. The following research
question guided this study: What factors promote retention or become barriers in retention of
adult nontraditional students in the community college?
The chapter is organized into 10 major sections. These include the following: role of the
researcher, descriptive characteristics of participants, description of the setting, the research
methodology applied to data analysis, phenomenological analysis, data sources, data analysis,
emerging themes, trustworthiness techniques, and summary.
Role of the Researcher
Motivated by experience working in higher education with adult learners who encounter
challenges in completing their education, prompted the interest in this topic. Secondly, experience
in marketing and public relations provided experiences in interviewing and facilitating group
discussions to gather data. However, due to the potential for bias because of past experiences, a
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peer debriefer reviewed participant nomination processes and coding, participants reviewed results
through member checks during the focus group, data were triangulated through multiple data
source collections, and the peer debriefer challenged thinking after each semi-structured interview
and the focus group. The peer debriefer posed the following questions: What did you hear? What
surprised you? What agreed with your previous data collection? Did new ideas emerge, or did you
reach saturation?
Descriptive Characteristics of Participants
Purposive sampling was utilized, and nominations for potential participants were
provided by the 14 academic advisors and coordinators (Appendix E). Participant criteria
included at least 25 years of age, which is the classic definition of an adult learner, and possessed
two or more characteristics of non-traditional students (Ross-Gordon, 2011). These
characteristics include a delay of entry into postsecondary education by at least one year
following high school graduation; having one or more dependents; living as a single parent;
engaged in full-time employment; financially independent from parents or guardians; attending
college part-time; or entering college without a regular high school diploma. The 19 nominees
were reduced to seven to mirror the demographics of the college and to include all adult non-
traditional student characteristics. All participants received tuition assistance through the
Tennessee Reconnect program. All participants successfully completed two consecutive
semesters at the institution and were enrolled in their third semester. Working with the peer
debriefer, nominations were reviewed to select a participant group that reflected the diversity of
the community college.
Seven participants were identified as participants. Creswell (1998) recommended 5-25
participants for phenomenological studies, and Morse (1994) suggested a minimum of six. These
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recommendations can help a researcher estimate how many participants are needed, but
ultimately, the required number of participants depends on when saturation is reached. The
sample size of seven was adequate to reach saturation in data collection. Table 4.1, Summary of
Participant Adult and Non-traditional Student Characteristics, provides a visual representation of
the participant group characteristics.
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Table 4.1.
Summary of Tennessee Reconnect Participants Characteristics
___________________________________________________________________________
Participant
Tennessee Reconnect Participant
Characteristics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
___________________________________________________________________________
Race/Ethnicity B W W W H W W
Gender M F F F F F M
Age 51 47 47 28 44 26 40
Number of Enrollments in College 2 2 1 1 1 1 2
Number of Full-Time Jobs 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Number of Part-time Jobs 0 0 0 2 1 1 0
Delayed Entry N Y Y Y Y Y N
Financially Independent Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
One or More Dependents Y Y Y N Y Y Y
Single Parent Y N Y N Y Y N
Attending Part-time Y Y Y Y N N Y
Enter without High School Diploma N N N N Y N N
Note. Race/Ethnicity: W = White, B = Black, and H = Hispanic. Gender: M = Male, F = Female. Y =
Characteristic of participant, N = Non Characteristic of participant.
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Participants provided informed consent and were informed that their names, the name of
the institution, and the location would not be revealed (Appendix A). A number was assigned to
each participant to protect identity.
Participant 1. Participant 1 is a single parent of two children, one in high school and
one in college. He works days as a full-time, licensed practical nurse in a group home.
Immediately after high school, he entered college but withdrew because of academic reasons and
entered the armed services. Tennessee Reconnect funding enabled him to re-enroll.
Participant 2. Participant 2 married in high school and quickly assumed the role of a
mother. After a divorce, she enrolled in college to become a nurse, but realized that financially,
she could not continue enrollment and support her child and herself. She currently works full-
time in logistics and is seeking a degree in business management.
Participant 3. Participant 3 married during high school to escape an unhappy home life
and became a stay at home mother for many years to her daughter. She is currently a teacher’s
assistant in a local elementary school. With Tennessee Reconnect, she recognized the
opportunity to achieve a personal goal of becoming an elementary teacher.
Participant 4. Participant 4 was homeschooled and financially unable to attend college
immediately after high school. Since enrolling through Tennessee Reconnect, she has separated
from an unsupportive spouse. Participant 4 works one full-time and two part-time jobs to support
herself as she pursues a degree in business management.
Participant 5. Participant 5 is a single parent with one school-aged child. Participant 5
identifies as Hispanic. She did not attend college after high school because of family values. Her
family stressed the importance of work and contributing financially to the family. Her recently
widowed mother moved in with Participant 5 to assist with childcare and household expenses as
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Participant 5 pursues a degree as an occupational therapy assistant.
Participant 6. Participant 6 graduated high school pregnant with her first child. The
single mother of two desires to find a career rather than just a job. She is taking prerequisite
courses for acceptance into one of the health programs.
Participant 7. Participant 7, the son of two college graduates, attended college
immediately after high school on an athletic scholarship. Without clear goals, he dropped out and
went to work. Participant 7 has been divorced twice with one child from each marriage. He
works long hours in a manufacturing setting as a manager. His goal is to become a registered
nurse.
The seven participants who entered the study completed the study by participating in
semi-structured interviews, the focus group, and completing an individual student journal. Two
semi-structured interviews required rescheduling to accommodate participants’ work schedules.
The interviews and focus group were scheduled on campus at times convenient to the
participants and in places to avoid all interruptions and put the participants at ease.
Description of Setting
Data were gathered from adult non-traditional learners attending a rural Tennessee Board
of Regents community college through the financial assistance of the Tennessee Reconnect
program. All data collections occurred on the institution's multiple campuses. Additionally, the
institution was assigned the pseudonym of Tennessee Rural Community College or TRCC for
ethical consideration.
Research Methodology Applied to Data Analysis
Phenomenological research methods were applied to the data analysis of the generated
raw data, as described by Moustakas (1994). Phenomenological research methods seek
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comprehensive descriptions to provide the basis of analysis to portray the essential elements of
the lived experience. The original raw data, or what Moustakas described as naïve descriptors,
developed from open-ended questions in the semi-structured interviews, the focus group, and
student journals. The structures that emerged described the lived experiences of those who have
had the experience, as in this case, as an adult non-traditional learner in the community college.
This led to deriving general meaning. This data analysis methodology considers the noema, the
experience, and the noesis, the way it is experienced (Drummond, 2015). Using multiple data
sources, one may finally arrive at the nature of the phenomenon by uniting the noema or external
perceptions and the noesis or internal perception (Moustakas, 1994).
Phenomenological methods include epoche). Epoche requires careful attention to avoid
bias and attentive presence through what is described as bracketing. Every statement made by
participants is considered equal in value.
Phenomenological Analysis
The seven-step process of Coaizzi as described by Morrow, Rodriguez, & King (2015)
was used to analyze the data. Data were gathered from semi-structured interviews, a focus group,
student journals, and field notes. The Temi application was used to transcribe interviews and the
focus group. The transcripts were immediately reviewed to check for errors in transcription.
Student journals and field notes were transcribed manually for analysis as they were collected.
These steps included the following:
Familiarization. All transcripts were read multiple times. This provided a holistic
understanding of the collected data.
Identifying significant statements. Each participant was assigned a coding color, and
all relevant and significant statements relative to the research question were underlined in the
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transcripts in the assigned color for the participant. All identified statements were hand-written
on post-it notes of the assigned color. Using a coding scheme allowed for the identification of
quotes in terms of the participant and the data collection.
Formulating meanings. From the statements and memoing, in vivo codes from the
participant's quotes were identified. Forty-nine initial codes were identified from the four data
sources. Forty-five were initially identified from the semi-structured interviews, two from the
student journals, two from the focus group, and one from the field notes (Appendix F). All
relevant and significant quotes were categorized into the codes.
Cluster themes. Open codes were reviewed and merged through axial coding into
cluster themes to provide meaning from all data sources and participants. This produced 23 open
codes. Appendix G provides a summary of the development of open codes from the memoing
process. These open codes were merged into six axial codes. Three axial codes were barriers,
and three were supports to retention. The axial codes were further reduced to produce two
selective codes that answered the research question. The coding process was conducted twice
independently, followed by coding with the peer debriefer to assure a lack of bias in the coding
process.
Developing an exhaustive description. Full and inclusive descriptions of the lived
phenomenon of adult nontraditional students in the community college were developed. This
included all themes identified by clustering.
Producing the fundamental structure. Through selective coding, the themes that
identified the supports needed by adult nontraditional students to promote retention and the
barriers that may lead to attrition were identifed. This captured the important aspects essential to
structure of the phenomenon. Three barriers and three supports were identified
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Seeking verification of the fundamental structure. This was achieved by member
checks in the focus group and returning for checks with the participants at the end of the study.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
The analysis of the data was influenced by the variable sets of the Bean and Metzner
Non-Traditional Undergraduate Attrition Model (1985). The model identifies factors that lead to
retention or supports, past academic performance and high school achievement, and the factors
that lead to attrition, intention to leave, and environmental stressors. Additionally, the conceptual
framework from the review of literature influenced the coding.
Data Sources
Analysis from four data sources revealed three barriers and three supports: institutional,
situational, and dispositional. Supports and barriers are two sides of the same coin. Unaddressed
needed supports become barriers to retention.
Semi-structured Interviews. Seven semi-structured interviews were conducted. They
ranged in time from 52-73 minutes. Seven interviews were sufficient to achieve saturation to
promote reliability. The questions used in the interviews are located in Appendix B.
Focus Group. The seven participants participated in the focus group. Initial questions
for the focus group were slightly altered to provide clarification of items mentioned in the semi-
structured interviews (Appendix C). The focus group also served as a member check.
Student Journals. After the conclusion of the semi-structured interviews, participants
were given a bound notebook with six open-ended questions to complete before the focus group
(Appendix D). The final question provided an opportunity for participants to provide any
desired comments relative to the study.
Field Notes. Field notes were taken during the interviews and the focus group. Data
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from the four sources were coded and contributed to the analysis.
Data Analysis
Data were gathered and analyzed to answer one research question: What factors promote
retention or become barriers in retention of adult nontraditional students in the community
college? Data were generated from four data sources and organized into transcripts. The
transcripts were read through multiple times, relevant statements were underlined, and notes
were made in the margins. Themes, behaviors, and attitudes were identified. Related themes
were merged to allow for the interpretation. Examples of the coding process leading to the
identification of themes, behaviors, and attitudes are located in Appendix H.
Research Question. The following research question guided this study: What factors
promote retention or become barriers in the retention of adult nontraditional students in the
community college? The analysis of the all data sources indicated that Tennessee Reconnect
encourages enrollment. Effective instruction and instructional supports, coupled with supportive
relationships and personal strong self-efficacy and self-discipline, lead to retention. Lack of
needed supports become barriers to retention. Situational barriers of family responsibilities and
finances are most influential to attrition.
Emerging Themes
In answering the research question, two themes emerged. Tennessee Reconnect funding
encouraged enrollment. When effective instruction and instructional supports are coupled with
supportive relationships, trong self-efficacy, and self-discipline retentions increase. Lack of
needed supports become barriers to retention. Situational barriers of family responsibilities and
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finances are most influential to attrition. The two themes included three subthemes of barriers
and three subthemes of supports to retention.
Barriers. Barriers to retention that may lead to attrition include institutional supports,
situational barriers, and dispositional barriers. Institutional barriers arise from scheduling
decisions, issues with the regulations associated with Tennessee Reconnect, breakdown in
information concerns supports and resources available to students, methods employed in the
delivery of learning supports, and access to student services available to all students. Situational
barriers to students may arise at any time without notice. Identified sources of these barriers
included family responsibilities, financial issues, work demands, and lack of transportation.
Dispositional barriers from the adult nontraditional student involve personal fears, educational
deficits, math challenges, and toxic relationships.
Supports to retention are critical to meeting the needs of adult nontraditional students
who face great challenges in continued enrollment and academic progress. Analysis of the data
revealed three supports: institutional, situational, and dispositional. Participants indicated that
Tennessee Reconnect funding, instructional supports, effective instructors, learning supports and
tutoring services, adult learner workshops, college experience classes for adult learners, and
advisors are essential to the retention of adult nontraditional students. Family relationships and
supports from others provide situational supports. Power from with the student in the form of
personal goals and self-efficacy offer dispositional support.
Institutional Barriers. Participants identified institutional barriers as the primary barrier
to their retention. Institutional barriers are those that result from institutional actions or inactions
and within the control of the college. Within the theme of institutional barriers, five subthemes
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were identified: scheduling, Tennessee Reconnect issues, instruction, Learning Supports
(remedial courses), and access to various student services.
Scheduling. Participants agree that course scheduling presents a tremendous barrier to
their retention. The need for flexibility in course offerings and on which campus the course, if
offered, is critical for adult learners who are balancing the responsibilities of work and family
with school. For example, Participant 6 can only take morning classes because of family and
work commitments, and Participant 1 can only take evening classes to match his work schedule.
Participant 1 stated in his journal that it was “hard to develop a schedule conducive to balance.”
In his interview, he identified the issue with Microbiology, a prerequisite class for the nursing
program that is offered only one evening during the week at a satellite campus. In like manner,
Participant 5 and Participant 7 are also working toward admittance to a health program and
realize that adult learners who can only attend classes in the evenings cannot pursue a nursing,
occupational therapy, or other health program degree, because all of those classes are only
offered during the day. Participant 3 and Participant 1 mentioned the need for scheduling to
consider the required course of program and the progression in which they should be taken. As
these students are Tennessee Reconnect students, they must take six hours per semester.
However, if a course is not offered in their program, it presents a challenge with finances as
students on Tennessee Reconnect, or Pell Grant cannot take courses outside of the program. The
participants prefer to take six hours each semester, including the summer term. The focus group,
Participant 3, and Participant 4 pinpointed the lack of course offerings in the summer as a barrier
in their academic progress. They suggested additional offerings in “DVC classes,” which are
synchronous classes delivered virtually as a way to increase offering and to assist with adult
learners across the 10-county service area. Students mentioned driving 45 minutes one-way for
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one class at night. Participant 3 was adamant that she saw no reason for driving to class for her
hybrid class. It was her position that she could have learned as much sitting at home engaged
synchronously as she would in the classroom for some sessions. Flexibility in scheduling is a
critical need for adult learners.
Tennessee Reconnect. While Tennessee Reconnect was incredibly helpful in removing
financial barriers, participants identified several failings in the program. First, the cost of
textbooks is not covered by the program. This places a great burden on students, as does the lack
of funding for laboratory fees. Depending on the major, lab fees may be as much as $400 for
these students. Participants identified issues when Tennessee Reconnect funding is delayed.
Although Participant 7 was able to pay his tuition costs and then was reimbursed, he stated that
many adult learners are operating on a “shoestring” and if there were delays, most adult learners
would be forced to leave school.
Information. Adult learners perceive information as power but do not feel that they have
the information that is needed to be more successful. Terminology, acronyms, and internal terms
are barriers in this regard. Based on feedback from multiple data sources and participants,
, it is evident that institutional jargon is not understood by the adult nontraditional student.
Participants agree that the college provides many excellent resources to support students,
but information about the resources or how to access them is not readily available. As Participant
4 said, “We have a lot of excellent resources, but maybe the promotion or awareness of them
may need to be highlighted.” Participant 4 is a student worker who was aware of the number of
four-year institutions with representatives who visit the campus regularly for those interested in
transferring. However, she asserted that most students are unaware of their presence. Likewise,
she stated that she would not have known that tutoring services were available if she had not
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attended the adult learner workshops and never knew about the “math lab until halfway into the
semester.” While acknowledging that the information might have been available on the college’s
website, she only learned about it from a family member who worked at the college. Participant
7 shared that in classes, many of his adult peers ask him questions about points used in ranking
for admission to health programs and pre-requisites. He offered this as evidence of the general
lack of informational knowledge by most adult-nontraditional students. He described one of the
keys to success is to “find someone who knows what is going on.” He added that those who do
not find such a resource do not stay enrolled. Participant 5 inserted that she felt uninformed
about the process used by health programs in the ranking. The first time she applied for the
program, she completed the 30 hours of observations required. When she was not admitted, she
learned that 30 hours of observations was the minimum requirement, and those who had
completed more than 30-hours were ranked higher. She viewed this as a lack of transparency in
the process.
The participants recognized that all students have access to an advisor with particular
information about programs and majors. However, they do not consider all advisors as equally
valuable in sharing information to assist the student in navigating the college experience.
Participant 1 mentioned that advisors are not always readily available on demand. Participant 6
shared a story of a struggling student who eventually dropped out of school, although the student
went to her advisor for assistance. In hindsight, Participant 6 believed that the advisor should
have advised the student to drop a class or two to better increase the student’s chance of
retention. The student became overwhelmed and left school.
Information about career guidance is a need for adult non-traditional students. While they
desire the assistance, they are unaware of its availability, or it is unavailable because of the hours
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of service.
Participants are resentful of the information pathway from retention services. They
reported the current practice of retention services notifying the student if there is the potential for
failure in a course. They see it as the role of the teacher to “reach out” if the teacher observes a
student struggling before the teacher submits a negative progress report to retention services.
Several students noted that they never missed a class and believed that the teacher saw their
homework, quizzes, and tests, and had many opportunities to mention something to the student
or to offer help or resources before the student received an official notice from retention services.
Instructional. Consistently, all participants realize their uniqueness as adult learners in a system
primarily designed for students immediately entering postsecondary education after high school
graduation. Walking into the classroom filled with traditional students is the first difficulty they
faced. As Participant 2 said, “Getting over that was the worst part... it’s intimidating.” Participant
1 shared that he feared being the oldest person in the room. Adult non-traditional students
viewed traditional students as advantaged by having more time to spend on campus and the
flexibility that it provided. Additionally, the lack of responsibilities for traditional students
viewed as an advantage. Participant 3 and Participant 4 added a sense of resentment at the
distraction of learning by some traditional students. Adult learners recognize that their thought
processes are different from traditional learners in part because of lived experiences. Participant
4 offered that “we’ve had our fun; we’re here to learn.” As a result, they are serious about
classroom time, appreciative of the instructor’s time, and annoyed by traditional student antics
such as talking on cell phones during class or talking among themselves as the instructor
attempts to teach. The situations are disturbing for adult nontraditional students who view
themselves as more dedicated and committed to their educational outcomes than their 18-19-year-old
classmates.
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Teachers. Participants identified the role of the instructor as critical to their academic
success. Participant 3 stated that one could immediately discern when one enters the room if the
teacher is passionate about what they are teaching and passionate about their students. The focus
group agreed that teachers need to take an uplifting approach with adult learners, and while these
learners may never ask for “leniency,” they need to feel that it would be there if needed. Adult
learners do not always perceive this from their professors. They want their teachers to understand
what it is like to be an adult student. They acknowledged that there might be gaps in their
understanding of a “certain field,” but their life experiences are greater than some students and
even the instructor. The participants expressed feeling defeated and treated like a child when
reprimanded by teachers, particularly newer teachers. Newer teachers, as Participant 5 stated,
“They’re not just addressing people straight out of high school,” and Participant 3 added, “Newer
teachers struggle with meeting the needs of adult learners.”
Adult learners seek direct instruction from their professors. Five expressed frustration
with teachers who do no more than read the PowerPoint. This was confirmed in student journals
and in the focus group. Without direct instruction, they found no clarification and expressed that
they were required to learn on their own. Instructions to go to YouTube to find the needed
answer was viewed as insulting. Teachers should clarify and identify the location of helpful
resources. They viewed teachers who relied heavily on PowerPoint as not wanting questions and
simply wanted to push through material and give a test. Additional frustration was reported in
that once the test was over, these students believed that learning was also over because of no
feedback on what were the correct answers. Often a disconnect existed in lab courses between
lecture and lab content. For example, when seeking, they do not understand why bones are
addressed early in the semester in the lab and late in the course in the lecture.
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Finally, goal-driven adult learners want teachers to stay firmly on the topic of the lesson.
They are unappreciative when teachers complain about “life or anything like that.” As
Participant 4 stated, she does not want the teacher to use class time for a “therapy session.” Her
focus is to learn the concepts and wants teachers to “stick to the curriculum.” The focus group
expressed the belief that many teachers would benefit from professional development in working
with adult learners.
Technology. Technology presents barriers for adult learners, as detailed by six of the
participants. Participant 1 shared that the first time he attended college, there were no personal
computers or online classes-just paper, pencils, and notebooks. In this era, he had to learn
Microsoft Office Suite and how to submit his homework online. He described this as a
challenging project. Adult learners were forced to learn how to study and how to master the new
technological expectations, and this was difficult for them. Participant 5 noted that it took her
two classes to “figure out” how e-learn, the learning management system, worked. Several
participants identified an information technology class as helpful in overcoming the barrier of
Microsoft Office, but other challenges remain. Depending on the discipline and the publisher of
the textbook, students are required to learn to navigate multiple platforms and systems. This is
difficult for digital immigrants.
These students reported that they were not alone in technology challenges. Participants
stated that many of their teachers also struggled with the learning management system (LMS),
and this affected the faculty member's ability to use the LMS to maximize its use for instruction.
Consistency. Five of the seven participants identified consistency as a barrier to their
academic success. They view the syllabus as a “contract” between the student and instructor and
resent when changes in dates appear to be made on a “whim.” With family and work
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responsibilities, scheduling schoolwork and assignments are critical. Participant 3 and Participant
5 shared in interviews and student journals that after the initial syllabus was released, the
instructor announced on the first day of class that all tests would be administered outside of class
hours. Students were required to be in class an hour before the scheduled class time. It was
several weeks before the administration of a test. Participant 5’s practice was to drop her child at
school, travel to campus, and arrive about 20 minutes before class began. She had forgotten
about the change announced the first week of class, and without a reminder or notice on the
LMS, she only had 20 minutes to take the test. She shared that if a student missed the class
where the announcement was made about a different testing time, they would have no idea about
change. As Participant 3 added in the focus group, “Don’t ask me to come to school outside of
class time!”
Related to the teacher’s attention to detail or technological skills with the LMS, students
spoke of frustrations when dates for assignments were changed orally in class, but the instructor
failed to make changes to the course calendar or dates on dropboxes. It is difficult for some adult
learners to meet the individual demands of instructors in where an item should be submitted, how
it is to be presented, and how it should be labeled. Consistency supported by clear
communication is needed with tight schedules and for planning to meet academic requirements.
Learning Supports. Five of the seven participants attended one or more learning
support. However, each of the five took math learning support classes. Math was identified by all
seven participants as a struggle in returning to school. They attribute this to the differences in the
ways they were taught math and new approaches that they deemed as “Common Core.” They
identified the need for a more “hands-on” approach to learning math. What they identified as
“hand-on” was the need to know how and why a problem was solved. The use of the calculator
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was a barrier for some. They reviewed math learning support as learning by rote, which “buttons
to push” to get the answer, rather than how to solve the problem with paper and pencil.
Resistance to providing them the paper and pencil approach to understanding was interpreted as
“frustrating” by students.
Access to Student Services. Five of the seven participants only attend evening classes
because of work schedules. Many college offices and services are only open or available until
4:30 PM on Monday to Friday. Participant 7, who works as a manufacturing manager, goes to
work at 6:30 AM and works until 5:30 PM. As a result, many services and resources are not
available to him or other adult learners.
As math struggles continue as an issue for many adult learners, access to tutoring is vital
to academic progress. Those participants who can attend found it beneficial, but those who work
during the day are unable to attend if they have a Monday evening class. Participants viewed the
hours of tutoring as not friendly for adult learners and desire access to tutoring on Saturday or
Sunday, which are typically non-working days for them.
Likewise, these students do not have access to financial aid offices. They want to interact
face-to-face rather than through email. In many cases, they must find a friend or relative to take
the required documents to the financial aid offices during work hours. Access to the financial aid
office to work through problems is essential for adult learners who stated that they could not
continue enrollment without financial assistance. Access was also identified as an issue with the
bookstore and the library. Library access is critical for those who need reliable internet service,
as many lack home wi-fi or live in regions where only dial-up services are available.
Participants also mentioned that they often come straight from work to school for an evening
class. The school’s food services close at 2:00 PM, providing no access to food outside of
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vending machines.
Situational Barriers. Analysis of the data identified situational barriers as hindrances to
the retention of adult nontraditional students. Situational barriers are individual and may arise at
any time. The ability of the college to address these issues is limited. The analysis revealed four
sub-themes of situational barriers: family responsibilities, finances, work, and transportation.
These are exacerbated as they produce scheduling conflicts or strain finances.
Family responsibilities. Each of the participants shared that family was a priority ahead
of school. Participant 1, a single parent with custody of two sons, described these responsibilities
as “weight” and intergenerational, including responsibilities for the student’s spouse, children,
and parents. Participant 5 indicated that shouldering family responsibilities demonstrated one’s
“values.” Participant 2 and Participant 4 reported that family responsibilities had been their
greatest barrier in retention. Participant 4 and Participant 6 told stories of female students who
were not retained because of responsibilities as parents with children who were sick or lacked
childcare to attend classes or childcare to study and complete homework. Some family members
will provide childcare for a parent to wok but not for school attendance or study time. Participant
5 and Participant 3 indicated that the community college’s lack of available childcare services is
a barrier for many students in attending class and in completing observation hours for various
programs.
Finances. Participants described that financial situations as “a house of cards.”
Participant 1 is “just trying to hold the funding together” to attend school and “praying that
nobody gets sick.” Participant 4 stated, “If financially something comes up, you’ve got to make
a choice-do we feed the family?” Participant 1, Participant 3, Participant 4, and Participant 7
were only able to come to school because of Tennessee Reconnect. As Participant 3 shared in the
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focus group, “Finances were a barrier that kept me from going initially to college.” Although
Participant 4 works one full-time and two part-time jobs, she said finances are still a struggle for
her in attending school with the extra expenses that go beyond Tennessee Reconnect funding. In
her interview, Participant 3 shared a story of a friend who quit his job and closed his 401K to
finish school and pay his bills.
Attending schools bring other stressors to an already tight budget through the costs of
textbooks, the cost of internet services required to submit online assignments, and the cost for the
technology itself. Participant 1 shared in his interview and Participant 2 and Participant 4 in their
student journals that the need for a new laptop had been an unplanned financial burden since
returning to school.
Financial struggles are increased as students work less or shift to part-time jobs to be able
to attend school. Participant 4 suggested that she needs to know at registration what the “extra
costs are going to be.” Knowing fees not covered by Tennessee Reconnect, book costs, and other
incidentals as soon as possible would help her and others to budget for these costs.
Work. Participant 7 has continued to work 50-60 hours per week while going to school.
Participant 5 tried working 40 or more hours per week, but she found that she could not handle
the school load and failed Anatomy and Physiology as a result. Not working as much strains
family finances, but she tries to “realize that this is temporary.” Participant 1 described work as
supportive, but in his work at the group home, he cannot leave until his relief worker arrives. As
his schedule changes from semester to semester, this places him at the mercy of the relief's
willingness to cooperate. Participant 2 has kept her return to school as a secret from her work
peers. Her supervisor knows she has enrolled, but he is a family friend outside of work. She has
not shared her enrollment because “it’s my burden and my responsibility; I don’t want them to
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think school will come before work, or I will not fulfill my job responsibilities.” Participant 6
shifted from working on weekdays to working on weekends and 2-3 days a week. Participant 4
shifted to multiple part-time jobs that had internet access because she has none at home. The
barrier in work arises when the student is asked to pick up extra shifts or stay longer than normal.
Given a choice to meet the demands of work or go to class, students choose work as the financial
support of themselves and their families is imperative.
Finding balance in family responsibilities, work, and school. All seven participants
shared in interviews, student journals, or the focus group the difficulty in finding balance among
their responsibilities as a student, parent, and worker. The three responsibilities were priortizied
in this order: family, work, and school. It “hard to juggle work, school, and home.” Participant 4
stated, “You’re on a schedule and have to stay on task, especially with three jobs to make sure
you are on time. Participant 2 reported that it was challenging at work because she was
“worrying about am I going to be able to get out of here on time?”
Transportation. Although none of the participants had experiences issues with a lack of
reliable transportation, each could share a story about someone who left school because
transportation was unavailable. Participant 2 shared feelings of guilt about one such student.
“She kept asking around the room if anyone could give her a ride. . . I felt bad, but it was like I
can barely get here on time myself. I felt bad about it.” Similarly, Participant 2 and Participant 4
reported that they knew students who were only able to attend riding the “E.T.H.R.A. wagon,”
but the student had trouble finding a ride home because of the hours of E.T.H.R.A operations.
E.T.H.R.A. (East Tennessee Human Resource Agency) provides public transportation for $3
one-way trips and $3 for each county line crossed. In the focus group, participants reinforced
transportation as an issue for many, especially those without a car, those who shared a car, or
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when a car repair was too expensive for the student.
Dispositional Barriers. Analysis of the collected data from the four sources revealed
that the attitudes and perceptions of the participants about self as a learner produced dispositional
barriers. These barriers are interpersonal and psychological barriers from within the adult
nontraditional student. Four sub-themes emerged from the data analysis: fear, educational
deficits, math, and toxic relationships.
Fear. Four of the participants identified specific fears they experienced as students and
their ability to succeed. Participant 5, a high school dropout who enrolled with a GED,
acknowledged that she lacked confidence because of her lack of academic preparation. “As a
high school dropout, I think I wrote maybe a paper or a 3-page book report. That’s all that I have
ever written.” Participant 3 described herself as “scared to death.” Although she has attended for
four semesters, she revealed that “we’ll get toward ¾ of the way through the semester, and I’m
thinking what in the world am I doing here.” Participant 7 shared that he stays in fear of the
unknown and being unsure of his career path. The fears described are more than the common
anxiety experienced by students from time to time.
Educational deficits. The participants were quick to identify their educational deficits.
Participant 1 and Participant 7 entered college immediately after high school, but they had been
away from the classroom for many years. Participant 4’s experience was homeschooling, where
it was self-paced, and she never experienced the load of homework and deadlines she was
currently experiencing. Participant 5, a mother in high school, entered college with a GED. For
Participant 2, her experiences in an immigrant family taught her that school was nice but
unnecessary. Work and financially contributing to the household was the most important
premise. As a group, these students lacked many academic, study, and organizational skills. They
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assessed their greatest deficit in mathematics.
Math. Participants quickly identified math as the greatest academic struggle, but they
could not identify why it was so difficult for them. They believe that math is a common struggle
for most students. They understand that they have low scores on ACT exams or placement tests,
but they cannot identify the concepts with which they struggle. However, Participant 3 described
the new approach to mathematics as “culture shock.” She does not believe that the desire is for
students to understand how to work a problem, but rather, the intent is to teach students which
calculator keys to press to generate a correct answer. The struggle with mathematics is
exacerbated by multiple assignments due on the same day in math class.
Toxic relationships. Toxic relationships with spouses presented great barriers for women
who desired to attend college. Participant 4 numerated many ways that her spouse attempted to
“sabotage” her study time, and as she would try to complete homework assignments. Although it
has presented financial problems for her, she decided to separate from her husband and
expressed that she believes this will lead to a divorce. She stated, “He may not be in the equation
much longer.” Similar experiences presented barriers for Participant 5 and Participant 2. Like
Participant 4, they decided to end the marriages in divorce to pursue an education.
Supports. Through the collection of data from multiple sources and its analysis,
participants identified supports that they asserted were helpful to them in retention at the
community college. Three themes of supports emerged: institutional supports, situational
supports, and dispositional supports.
Institutional Supports. Institutional supports were identified by participants as actions
or services that are helpful to adult nontraditional learners in their retention to completion in the
community college. Within the theme of institutional supports, seven sub-themes emerged:
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Tennessee Reconnect funding, instructional supports, instructors, learning supports and tutoring
services, adult learner workshops, college experience classes for adult learners, and advisors.
Tennessee Reconnect. From all data sources and all participants, it was evident that the
availability of Tennessee Reconnect was the primary impetus that participants identified as the
reason they returned to school at this time. They found that Tennessee Reconnect removed many
financial barriers. Participant 4 identified Tennessee Reconnect as a motivator in her continued
enrollment. She stated, “I think that one motivator comes from Tennessee Reconnect. It looms
over me that because of the Tennessee Reconnect stipulation if you stop and funding stops. So,
you are committed ‘till you are done!”
Instructors. Veteran teachers are viewed as strong and effective institutional supports for
adult students. These teachers are observed, “working with other people to make
accommodations for adult learners when there is family sickness, or they have to pick up another
shift or whatever.” Adult learners appreciate those instructors who understand the challenges
they face in returning to school. They described this type of instructor as “ethical and
reasonable” and “empathetic.” Although the students take night classes without experience with
daytime classes, they identify the evening instructors as those who are best in working with adult
learners. They expressed the belief that if a situation arose in their personal lives, their teachers
were understanding and would work with them to resolve the issue. They identified teachers who
were making a difference in their lives as students. Participant 3 shared that in high school, she
did not enjoy history. However, at her first orientation meeting, a history professor led her group
and provided an “inspiring” talk for the group. After speaking to her individually, he suggested
that she might qualify for Tennessee Reconnect. He then walked her to the library to a person
with knowledge of the program and stayed with her while she gathered the needed information.
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She qualified for the funding, and in registration, selected the history teacher who demonstrated
kindness. She takes every course he teaches and history is now interesting for her. Through
kindness, this teacher demonstrated that the institution’s faculty cared for its students and their
success.
Regarding instructional settings, Participant 4 and Participant 7 identified small class
sizes of 20-25 students as ideal. Small classes make them more comfortable to ask questions and
form relationships with other students and the instructor.
Learning Supports and Tutoring Services. Students who can attend tutoring or math lab
find it essential in overcoming struggles with math content. Tutoring made learning easier
because of the one-on-one instruction and targeted in-depth instruction.
Adult Learner Workshops. The five female participants attended the adult learner
workshops as they entered college through Tennessee Reconnect. They considered it extremely
beneficial in orienting them to college work and allowing them to work and test-out of the
remedial coursework requirement based on their previous academic preparation. The workshops
built academic skills and fostered confidence in the learner. As Participant 2 stated, “After the
workshops, I knew I could do the work.” Participant 4 added to this sentiment, “The instructors
in the workshops were so encouraging to me.” It also introduced e-learn, the learning
management system, to her. Participants identified the small class size of the adult learner
workshops as conducive to learning and praised the workshops for allowing them to make
connections with similar students. The friends that Participant 3 made in the adult learner
workshops were identified as continuing supports. “The workshops were where you could be
with a whole bunch of other adult learners who were feeling exactly the same way as I did.”
College experience class. Participants desire a class much like the college experience
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class for adult learners only. The curriculum of the class would include study skills, organization
skills, introduction to the learning management system and other requ ired systems, information
about institutional resources, and an overview of the campus. Another identified purpose of the
class was to serve as a support group for adult students.
Advisors. Excellence in advising is highly valued by adult nontraditional students.
Consistently, participants identified a strong advisor as a critical element in success and
retention. The Student Success office was identified as a place one could always get help.
Participant 3 stressed the role of the advisor in talking through the problem and providing
encouragement to continue. Participant 7 identified the advisors as working well with adult
learners and assisting in selecting a proper course and good matches in personalities and
teaching-learning styles of professors and students. He stressed that just meeting with the advisor
to register was not enough. He meets with his advisor before, during, and after the semester. This
has led to a strong working relationship with the advisor and working with the student’s needs
for flexibility as an adult learner.
Situational Supports. Situations arise unannounced and unplanned that require the
support of others for adult nontraditional students to continue enrollment in the community
college. Participants identified profound support from family, friends, other students, and their
faith.
Family relationships. Although Participant 7 has divorced in the last semester, he
reported that his ex-wife is very supportive of his desire to return to school and makes
accommodations for him with visitation of their child. Likewise, Participant 3 is married to her
high school sweetheart, expressed how her husband encouraged her and “picked up the slack”
when she needs to study. “He’s so proud of me!” Participant 2 found needed support from her
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son and step-son. “They tell me I do not have an option; I am going to finish.” They make
flashcards and drill her for tests. Participant 6 expressed similar support from her son.
Support from others. Adult nontraditional students realize that having a support system
outside of family relations is helpful in retention. Participant 3 said that she has “real-life friends
and college friends,” and they are her “cheerleaders.” Participant 4 indicated that traditional
students make friends more easily as they have “networks from high school.” Participant 2 and
Participant 7 noted that they form “school friendships” with students “like them” or adult
nontraditional students. They added that these students are more mature and serious about the
work. Participant 1 and Participant 7 detailed that relationships with other students are limited to
school. However, Participant 1 emphasized his reliance on his faith and God in supporting him
through the various challenges he encounters; “God is my provider.”
Dispositional Supports. Throughout interviews, journaling, and participating in the
focus group, the participants accepted personal responsibility for their successes and failures.
Within each participant, there was a message of self-efficacy, self-discipline, and personal goals.
Self-efficacy. Although participants shared personal fears in their ability to reach
graduation, six of the seven asserted self-efficacies. Participant 1 has “never considered dropping
out.” Participant 6 said that dropping out is not an option. She firmly stated, “You’ve gotta keep
your head up and deal with things in stride. Participant 3 just keeps “putting one foot in front of
the other.” Participant 5 uses self-talk in times of doubt. “You know, you just remember who
you are and that you are an adult.” Participant 4 described her thought process in moments of
adversities as remembering that she is doing the best that she can and not to “beat herself up.”
“I’m finishing this thing strong!”
Self-discipline. Self-discipline and delayed gratification were identified by the five
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female participants in interviews and confirmed in journaling and the focus group. As Tennessee
Reconnect is assisting with funding, Participant 4 stated that her meltdowns would have to wait
five years, and she recognized that sacrifices must be made. She is driven by her commitment.
Participant 5 added that this is the time, and that is what she hears from other adult students. She
described her ability to manage the multiple demands as “I’m kind of always just been the
juggling chainsaws kind of persons. So, I managed to survive with my limbs intact.”
Participant 5 addressed the issues of time management. As Participant 4 added, “ I live by
my planner. . . I make a checklist. They make things easier for my schedule. School has
designated hours, and work has designated hours. . . Regardless of what happens, education is
my #1 priority.”
Participant 3 acknowledged delayed gratification in stating, “You’re missing out on this
and that. . . I am committed. The first semester [I did not do] anything online ‘cause I was afraid
of my own discipline-you know-forcing myself to go in and do what I needed to do. Online
classes are not as bad as I thought. I can do it.”
Personal goals. The female participants identified personal goals related to family and
childhood aspirations. Participant 6 and Participant 3 seek education to better provide for
themselves and their children. Participant 3 will become the first college graduate in her family,
and the other females have always wanted to become nurses, teachers, or advance in their current
work, but the education itself is the personal goal.
Male participants labeled their personal goals related to a move from a job to a career.
Earning a degree was associated with their personal work and respect in the workplace.
Trustworthiness Techniques
Specific strategies, protocols, and actions were taken to ensure the accuracy and
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trustworthiness of the data.
Credibility. Structural corroboration from semi-structured interviews, student journals,
focus group, and field notes provided credibility. A peer review by the peer debriefer added
consensus. Referential evidence of validity was based on member checks with the focus group
and with participants at the end of the study. The use of low-inference descriptors further
enhanced this via the use of direct quotes from participants. Theory triangulation was achieved
by utilizing the theoretical framework, The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition
Model (1985), and theories from the review of literature, including Adult Learning Theories and
the Cross Model of Barriers to Adult Learning (1981) to influence coding decisions. The use of
the peer debriefer assisted in the control of bias.
Transferability. Thick-rich descriptors were used to allow readers to determine if the
situations and participants described in this study are applicable to the reader’s context.
Dependability. A detailed audit trail was maintained, including audio tapes, transcripts,
student journals, field notes, post-it notes used in coding, and photographs of coding activities.
Coding occurred on three occassions, twice independently and once with the peer debriefer.
Coding agreement was achieved. Triangulation provided corroboration.
Confirmability. Confirmability was established through the documentation of the data
collection and the analysis through the audit trail, corroboration through data triangulation and
the peer debriefer, and bias control through personal reflexivity and interactions with the peer
debriefer.
Coding Table
Figure 4.1, Example of coding answering the research question: What factors promote
retention or become barriers n retention of adult nontraditional students in the community
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college?, graphically organizes examples of the raw data and its sources, as well as the generated
open codes, axial codes, and selective code.
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Figure 4.1. Example of coding answering the research question: What factors promote retention or become
barriers n retention of adult nontraditional students in the community college?
Raw Data and Source Open Axial Selective
(Interview) Continue to find a way to work around all of
that.
(Focus Group) It’s time management.
(Student Journal) I always wanted a college education.
(Interview) I didn’t know about math lab until halfway
into the semester.
(Student Journal) Tennessee Reconnect does not cover
fees.
(Student Journal) There was only one A/P course offered
on four campuses.
(Interview) Teachers need to do more than just reading
off the PowerPoint.
(Student Journal) The library needs better hours.
(Interview) I was scared to death.
(Interview) I was a high school dropout. I think I wrote
one paper and maybe a three-page book report was all
that I had ever written.
(Student Journal) I lacked self-confidence.
(Student Journal) He would do things to keep me from
studying.
(Student Journal) It’s hard balancing work, home, and
studying.
(Student Journal) Family responsibilities are the biggest
barrier.
(Field Notes) Students would use a daycare to do
observation or practicums
Student Journal) I still need more income.
(Field Notes) Finances were initial barrier to enrollment.
(Interview) Reconnect removed a big hindrance.
(Student Journal) The workshops were helpful
emotionally and boost confidence.
(Student Journal) I like small classes.
(Interview) I had some really good teachers and a good
advisor that put me in the right class with the right
teacher that would understand my situation.
(Interview) The learning supports were very helpful.
(Student Journal) I have a supportive spouse.
(Interview) My sister. . .she really pushed it and helped
me a lot.
(Interview) My parents have been very supportive.
(Interview) Us adult learners kind of stick together.
(Student Journal) Friends are cheerleaders.
Scheduling
TN Reconnect
Information
Instruction
Learning Supports
Access to Services
Institutional
Barriers
Family Relationships
Support from Others
Tennessee
Reconnect
Instructional
Supports
Teachers
Learning Supports
Adult Learner
Workshop
College Experience
Class
Advisors
Fear
Educational Deficits
Toxic Relationships
Finding Balance
Family
Responsibilities
Finances
Self-efficacy
Self-discipline
Personal Goals
Dispositional
Supports
Situational
Supports
Institutional
Supports
Dispositional
Barriers
Situational
Barriers
Tennessee
Reconnect
encouraged
enrollment and
effective
instruction and
instructional
supports coupled
with supportive
relationships and
strong self-
efficacy and self-
discipline lead to
retention.
Lack of needed
supports become
barriers to
retention.
Situational
barriers of family
responsibilities
and finances are
most influential
to attrition.
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Summary
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to answer the research
question: What factors promote retention or become barriers in the retention of adult
nontraditional students in the community college? Significant research has been conducted on
factors that lead to attrition or promote the retention of adult non-traditional students. However,
limited research has occurred concerning how the availability of Tennessee Reconnect funding
for tuition for these students changes primary barriers to retention in rural Tennessee community
colleges. The challenges and supports of adult non-traditional learners were examined through
the lens of their lived experiences of purposively selected participants to represent the diversity
of the community college. Through the integration of the theoretical framework, The Non-
Traditional Undergraduate Attrition Model (1985), and the conceptual framework provided by
Adult Learning Theories and the Cross Model of Barriers to Adult Learning (1981), three
supports to retention and three barriers leading to attrition emerged as themes from the data
analysis.
Barriers and supports are closely related. Unaddressed needed supports become barriers.
The three barriers are institutional barriers, situational barriers, and dispositional barriers of the
student. Participants need flexibility in scheduling to progress in their programs and find it
difficult to come to campus outside of class time because other responsibilities must be met.
Likewise, they have limited to no access to tutoring services. While Tennessee Reconnect is
essential in their return to college, failure to receive this funding “on time” or those costs such as
textbooks and other fees not covered become a great financial burden. Adult learners described
themselves as distinct from traditional students and view themselves as more serious and
focused. They are resentful of the immaturity of traditional students that may disrupt class time.
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Additionally, technology is a barrier for these students in navigating the learning management
system, textbook platforms, and understanding the Microsoft Office suite. They desire to interact
face-to-face with student services, but because they attend principally at night, college offices are
closed.
Situational barriers may arise at any time for these students who desire to complete their
education but have responsibilities for families and work. Lack of childcare, responsibilities in
family illness, or changes in work schedules were reported as causing these students to miss
classes and not have time to devote to assignments or study for tests. Finding balance among
their responsibilities is a constant stressor. Often students reduced the number of hours they
work or moved to multiple part-time jobs to manage the requirements of school
The participants identified their fears in attending college and the educational deficits
they bring as a student as an example of the dispositional barriers of this group. Consistently
mathematics was identified. They saw a disconnect in the way that they were taught and the way
they learned to the approach of learning supports and mathematics classes. They expressed the
need to understand how to solve a problem and why that was the way to solve it rather than just
memorizing a pattern of “buttons” to push on the calculator. Toxic relationships were found to be
a dispositional barrier. However, the participants were taking actions, such as divorce, to remove
these dispositional barriers.
Supports for retention are essential to adult non-traditional student success and
overcoming the barriers they face. The institution provides several of these supports. First,
without Tennessee Reconnect, they could not or would not have considered enrolling in the
community college because of the cost of tuition. They reported instructors who teach in the
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evening as most knowledgeable of adult learners. Although they have not asked for special
favors because of the burdens presented by work or family, they believed their teachers would
work to help and accommodate their situations. If their schedule allowed them to attend tutoring
on the one night it is available, they saw it as tremendously helpful, as they also viewed their
participation in the adult learner workshops in easing their transition to college. Finally, their
college advisors are valued for the ability to direct them to resources and services, help them in
selecting courses and teachers, and in the encouragement they provide.
While family responsibilities may present challenges, strong family encouragement
provided situational support. Supportive spouses with words of pride for the student’s
accomplishments, children who assist in the study, and mothers who provide childcare were
reported as essential. Successful adult learners were also “cheered on” by their friends.
Friendships are compartmentalized as college friends and real-life friends with different purposes
for adult learners.
Most profound in the participants who have demonstrated resilience in maintaining
enrollment through three semesters were their dispositional supports resulting from their self-
efficacy, self-discipline, and personal goals. They increased self-efficacy through self-talk and
reminders that “this is the time”, and “emotional meltdowns” must be delayed. With multiple
demands on their time, scheduling, prioritizing, and delayed gratification were critical to their
success. Finally, personal goals were reported to be related to furthering careers, achieving
childhood dreams, and to increasing their ability to provide for themselves and their children.
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Chapter Four presented the collected and analyzed data. The interpretation of these
findings are presented in Chapter Five. Chapter Five includes a summary of the critical analysis
and a discussion of the six themes.
Chapter Five: Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study was to identify factors that
promote retention or may lead to the attrition of adult nontraditional students in a rural
community college. The conclusions, implications, and recommendations from the study draw
importance from the forecast study of Carnevale, Smith, and Strohl (2010), who predicted that
2/3 of the nation’s future jobs would require postsecondary educations. The need for a workforce
with postsecondary education is especially critical for Tennessee as the Tennessee Chamber of
Commerce (“Workforce and Education,” 2018) and the Bureau of Labor and Statistics (Torpey
& Watson, 2013) reported that Tennessee is among the top 10 states with jobs requiring
postsecondary education. Understanding the connection between economic growth and the
education level of citizens, Governor Bill Haslam implemented his Drive to 55 initiative
(“Governor Bill Haslam Launches Drive to 55”, 2013). Drive to 55 included two programs,
Tennessee Promise for traditional students entering college immediately after high school
graduation and Tennessee Reconnect for adult and nontraditional students enrolling for an
associate degree. Adult nontraditional students are at-risk because of educational deficits and
other at-risk factors associated with adult nontraditional learners (Ross-Gordon, 2012).
This chapter is organized into six major sections: the research question, conclusions and
summary of the findings, limitations, implications for practice, recommendation for research,
and a summary of the study. The findings are reviewed through the lens of the theoretical
framework provided by The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model of Bean
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and Metzner (1985) and its variables. The discussion in the chapter included the major findings
as aligned to the conceptual framework and review of literature on the needs of adult learners
promoting retention and barriers that may influence attrition.
Research Question
The qualitative question that guided the study was closely aligned to the purpose of the
study and the theoretical framework. The question considers the variable sets of the Bean and
Metzner Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student Attrition Model that lead to attrition, intention
to leave and environmental stressors, and those that lead to retention, past academic
performance, and the student’s prior high school achievement. The following research question
directed this study: What factors promote retention or become barriers in the retention of adult
nontraditional students in the community college? Analysis of the data revealed that three
barriers increase the risk of attrition: institutional barriers, situational barriers, and dispositional
barriers. The supports increase the retention of students in rural community colleges:
institutional supports, situational supports and dispositional supports. Tennessee Reconnect
encouraged enrollment and effective instruction and instructional supports, coupled with
supportive relationships, strong self-efficacy, and self-discipline lead to retention. Lack of
needed supports becomes a barrier to retention. Situational barriers of family responsibilities and
finances are most influential to attrition.
Conclusions and Summary of Findings
Although the participants shared many of the characteristics of adult nontraditional
students, their life experiences, stressors, and needs were unique to the individual. However, they
shared common experiences in facing institutional, situational, and dispositional barriers to
retention. They found common ground in identifying their needs for success in the community
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college as institutional, situational, and dispositional supports. The relevancy to the theoretical
framework and the six themes that answered the research question are described in detail within
this section.
Relevancy theoretical framework. The Non-Traditional Undergraduate Student
Attrition Model of Bean and Metzner (1985) was particularly applicable to this study because it
included “commuter” and “non-residential students.” As the model considered factors of age,
enrollment status, educational goals, prior academic performance in high school, gender, and
ethnicity, it aligned well with the definition of an adult learner and a nontraditional student.
Bean and Metzner considered the (a) academic performance: grade point average; (b) intention
to leave: highly influenced by stress, commitment to goals, and utility; (c) student’s prior high
school achievement; and (d) environment: finances, hours of employment, outside
encouragement, family responsibilities, and opportunity to transfer. The first competing effect is
between environmental variables and academic variables. In adult nontraditional students,
environmental variables are considered more influential. This suggests three situations that were
supported by the findings of the study. Students are more likely to be retained in the college
when the environment and academic variables are both good. However, students are likely to
drop out if both of the variables are bad. Secondly, students are more likely to leave if the
environmental variables are poor, although the academic variables are good. Just doing well
academically in school is not enough to retain the student. Also, as confirmed by this study,
although a student is not performing academically well, if the environmental variables are
positive, the student is more likely to be retained.
Barriers. Data analysis revealed that three barriers to retention emerged: institutional
barriers, situational barriers, and dispositional barriers. Institutional barriers are under the control
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of the institution and result from the action or inaction of the institution and its leadership. These
barriers include scheduling, issues with Tennessee Reconnect stipulations, information,
instruction, learning supports, and access to student services at the college.
Institutional barriers. Time is a limited commodity of adult nontraditional students with
family responsibilities and work. Course offerings, the campus on which courses are offered, and
the format in which they are offered may present tremendous barriers. Although the students are
part-time students, they desire to finish their programs as quickly as possible and use Tennessee
Reconnect funding to cover as much as the costs of their education as possible. Not having
course options in their academic programs is an impediment, as Tennessee Reconnect will not
pay for courses not within the requirements of their programs. The availability of certain health
programs as exclusively daytime course offerings presents another barrier requiring students to
either quit their jobs, find alternative shift schedules, or change programs. This need for greater
flexibility in scheduling is supported by the work of Kasworm (2014) and Saar, Thät, and
Roosalu (2014).
While Tennessee Reconnect is the primary reason that participants decided to enter
college at this time, the stipulations of the program are motivators to stay in school, but also
facilitate financial barriers as there are multiple fees, depending on the program, that are not
covered by the Tennessee Reconnect program. Tennessee Reconnect removes significant
financial barriers but not all burdens. A need for clarity in which the financial obligations for
students on Tennessee Reconnect should be provided to students. This would assist with
budgeting, and they meet one of the desires of participants for information.
Participants indicated that the college has excellent resources. However, the availability
of resources is not widely understood by adult learners. They learn about them through “the
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grapevine” rather than from the college. Gotto and Martin (2009) established that this
information is critical to empowering the student to navigate the college system. Likewise, the
wide use of acronyms or other terminology is not easily understood. This finding agrees with the
research of Espinoza and Espinoza (2012), who stated that adult learners need specialized
orientations for information about the college.
Adult nontraditional learners face many challenges to entering college but bring with
them maturity and focus to their academic work. In classes with some traditional students, adult
nontraditional students may become frustrated by traditional student engaging in talking in class
or use of cell phones, as these distract the instructor and reduce the time for instruction. They do
not want special favors or considerations because of their job or family responsibilities.
However,they are encouraged when instructors make them fell that if an emergency should
arise, the teacher would understand. They are discouraged when an instructor sees them struggle
with a concept, homework, or test but does not offer to help. They expressed the belief that the
teacher should say something to them about a lack of academic progress before notifying
retention services. Additionally, they desire direct instruction and clarification in instruction.
Teachers who relied heavily on PowerPoint presentations were viewed as ineffective. Gonclaves
and Trunk (2014) noted that unpleasant frustrations with campus services might lead to attrition.
Instructionally, technology presented great challenges for adult students. Due to the gaps
in their formal education, many were not equipped to use Microsoft Office products or use
learning management systems. This impeded their ability to submit homework and manage
academic work. While information technology classes are available, there is a lack of support to
bridge this need.
As part-time students who principally attend evening classes, they desire greater access to
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student services. They desire face-to-face interaction with the financial aid office, as found by
Degg (2011) and greater availability to tutoring services. Those who are able to attend tutoring
services find it helpful in their greatest academic barrier, mathematics. As many students lack
reliable internet, they identified the need for more availability of the library on weekends.
Situational barriers. Situational barriers are environmental stressors, as described by
Bean and Metzner (1985), in the theoretical model as the most influential in attrition. In
agreement with the work of Spellman (2007), adult nontraditional students found a balance
between family responsibilities, work, and school difficult to achieve. When stressors arise,
students would leave school to meet family or work needs. Work was seen as a means to take
care of the family. Family responsibilities were also identified by Grabowski (2014) and Deutsch
and Schmertz (2011) as a situational barrier. Students miss class without reliable childcare or
during illnesses of children. Grotto and Martin (2009) identified the need for childcare for adult
learners in retention.
Work and work schedules presented obstacles to attendance and retention as employers
may change work schedules with short notification, or another worker must be on time to relieve
a student to attend class. The research of Degg (2011) and Gotto and Martin (2009) reached
similar conclusions.
Financial problems also present situational barriers. These included medical bills, car
repairs, divorce, or moving from full-time to part-time employment. Flynn, Brown, Johnson, and
Rodgers (2011) reached similar conclusions.
Although the college has no control over situational barriers that adult nontraditional
students may encounter at any time, if relationships are in place and latitude is provided, it may
allow the student short-term flexibility needed to maintain enrollment. This is critical because
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situational barriers are most influential in retention.
Dispositional barriers. Adult nontraditional students are more likely to enter with
dispositional barriers, as Degg (2011) described as the barrier “that lies within.” Because of
extended delays in entering college after high school, academic deficits, particularly in
mathematics, or lack of self-efficacy, anxiety, and fear of failure may result. This may be
compounded by immediate interaction with traditional students, as the adult nontraditional
students viewed them as more prepared to do the academic work of college.
Supports. It is important for college personnel to identify the needs of adult
nontraditional students in retention as assisting these students in earning a degree or certificate is
critical to economic development. It also positively affects students’ lives, and helps meet the
college’s goals. Identifying needed supports and providing those within the college’s ability is
critical to the retention of these at-risk students. While the college may not be able to provide
situational supports or dispositional supports, effective advising and access to community
supports may help students work through challenges as they arise.
Institutional supports. Tennessee Reconnect is a strong incentive in the enrollment of
adult learners. However, as many of the students enter school with academic deficits, it is critical
that institutions provide needed supports for these students. Remediation through learning
supports courses is effective, as identified in the “Best Practices in Retention at the Community
College” (2014). Also, tutoring is helpful to these students if their schedule allows them to
attend. Communication is another key element. These communications include making students
aware of available resources and supports provided by the college. In many cases, efficient
advisors can provide this information, help students navigate the system, and make wise course
selection decisions. As this segment of the college population continues to grow, professional
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development is needed to better equip facult and advisors to work with adult nontraditional
students and to assist in the development of positive relationships.
Situational supports. As situational barriers are most influential in attrition, as noted by
Bean and Metzner (1985), situational supports provided by spouses, family members, friends,
and peers are important to retention. Although one of the characteristics of an adult
nontraditional students is financial independence, it is a false concept because these students
need as much support and assistance as traditional students. This is particularly true for female
students with children, as found by Lin (2016). Situational supports allow students to attend class
regularly or study.
Dispositional supports. All participants were in their third semester of study. They had
faced multiple challenges and frustrations in continued enrollment. Five of the seven were
required to do remedial work. Those who did not required learning supports had previously
experienced academic failure. However, it was evident that all participants had strong self-
efficacy and believed that they were able to do the work, not doubting that they would finish
their degree. With self-efficacy, they also developed needed self-discipline to do the required
work. Strong personal goals to improve themselves and to improve the lives of their children
fuels their drive to succeed.
Limitations
It is acknowledged that there were potential weaknesses in the study. The study was
conducted in one rural community college in the Tennessee Board of Regents system. Although
the study included students within the four campuses of the college, it was conducted in a limited
geographic region. The timeframe of the study, the 2019-2020 school year, presented another
limitation. Although the participants were purposefully sampled to reflect the demographics of
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the college, the responses may have been different from other students and in other academic
years.
Implications for Practice
Student retention and persistence have become areas of intense focus for college leaders
and administrators in recent years. Community colleges are able, with the assistance of
Tennessee Reconnect, to play an influential role in providing assistance for upward economic
mobility to a large number of students who may be low-income, minority or at risk students from
other situations. Five implications for practice were identified: scheduling and flexibility,
academic supports, professional development, transition courses for adult learners, and
specialized orientation.
Scheduling and flexibility. There is a need to coordinate class offerings across
departments to provide courses in rotation to support progress through degree plans. Students
who receive financial assistance through Tennessee Reconnect, Pell Grant, or other federal
funding cannot use their financial aid. Lack of course offerings presents a major barrier,
especially for night students. The 10-county service area is large. When only one section of a
course is offered at night, consideration should be given to offering that course on the main
campus to make its location more central for the entire service area. More consideration should
be given to offering a course online in the evenings. This would address the needs for flexibility
identified by Cross (1981) and other issues with transportation and travel across the service area,
as noted by Smith (2016).
Academic supports and resources. Academic supports of tutoring and academic labs
are available. Students who use these services find them helpful. However, many adult
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nontraditional students are not aware of the availability of these services. Efforts should be taken
to identify the resources available to support students and provide information about times of
services and contact information in a central location. Information about these resources should
be published and distributed through multiple media. Further, consideration should be given to
providing additional access to tutoring by offering it on more than one evening or consider using
technological applications to provide tutoring or homework help. This would remove barriers
presented by work hours, childcare, and transportation needs and costs.
Professional development. Data indicate that this population, adult nontraditional
students, is a growing segment of the college community. Educators, advisors, and those who
provide services to these students should receive professional development on how to effectively
instruct, communicate, and serve these students to increase learning and retention.
Transition courses for adult learners. Many of the participants in the study
participated in the Adult Learner Workshops that were provided through grant funding and
identified the workshops as helpful in the transition, a good source of information about services,
and helpful in forming bonds with other nontraditional students. Consideration should be given
to creating a college experience course for adult nontraditional learners who have needs and
concerns that differ from traditional students.
Specialized orientation. Fear in returning to college as an adult and fear of traditional
students are common for adult nontraditional when they enroll. Orientation is recognized as
effective support for the retention of all students (Gayle, 2014). Orientation sessions designed
exclusively for adult learners would place these students in settings where they realize that there
are other students like them enrolling in school. Specialized orientations would also provide
opportunities for information needed by these students to be communicated in a safe
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environment.
Recommendations for Research
Numerous gaps in knowledge around the barriers and supports to the retention of adult
nontraditional students in community colleges remain after the conclusion of this study. Future
research to extend this research would be helpful in the following three areas. First, this study
should be replicated across the Tennessee Board of Regents network of community colleges.
This would address the limitation of this study, which occurred within one rural community
college within one academic year. This would gather data from rural, metropolitan, and urban
campuses in other academic years. Secondly, the participants in this study were Tennessee
Reconnect students who were retained through three consecutive semesters. These participants
faced barriers and developed ways of working through challenges. A study should be conducted
with a group of Tennessee Reconnect participants who dropped out of a community college to
determine what the institution could do to remove barriers and increase retention. Finally, a study
should be conducted to identify if a disconnect exists between what adult nontraditional students
believe are essential supports and barriers to their retention and what administrators, instructors,
and advisors believe are needed supports to overcome barriers in retention.
Summary of the Study
This qualitative, phenomenological study focused on identifying the factors that promote
retention of becoming barriers to the retention of adult nontraditional students in the community
college. The participants in the study received Tennessee Reconnect funding to pay for tuition
and mandatory fees, but not all fees. Past students indicated that financial barriers and fear of
additional debt were the greatest barriers to adult and nontraditional students. The analysis of all
data sources indicated that Tennessee Reconnect encourages enrollment of these students.
116
Effective instruction and instructional supports, coupled with supportive relationships with
family and friends, promote retention. Successful adult nontraditional students demonstrate
strong self-efficacy and self-discipline that also supports retention. When these needed supports
are not present, these lead to barriers to retention. Situational barriers arising from family
responsibilities or finances are the most influential in a student’s decision regarding attrition.
117
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Appendices
137
Appendix A
Informed Consent Form
138
Informed Consent Document
PROJECT TITLE- Factors Promoting Retention of Adult Nontraditional Students in the
Community College
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR:
Erin Dean
423.231.8384
INTRODUCTION
I am a doctoral student at Carson-Newman University. You are invited to join a research study
to look at the factors that act as barriers and to identify those things that promote the retention of
adult nontraditional students in the community college. You were invited to participate in the
study because you are an adult learner (25 years of age or older) and possess at least two
characteristics of nontraditional students (working full-time, financially independent from
parents, attends college part-time, has one or more dependents, a single parent, delayed entry into
post-secondary education at least one year after high school, or entered college with a GED).
You may discuss your decision of joining the study with family, friends, or anyone else. Your
participation in the study is completely voluntary.
WHAT IS INVOLVED IN THE STUDY?
If you decide to participate you will be asked to participate in the following;
• an open-ended semi-structured interview, which will take approximately 45-60 minutes;
• a focus group, which will take approximately 45-60 minutes; and
• respond in a student journal, which will take 30-45 minutes.
The semi-structured interview and the focus group will be audiotaped so that it may be
transcribed.
The investigator may stop the study or remove you from the study at any time if it is determined
to be in your best interest. You may stop participating at any time. If you stop you will not lose
any benefits or services.
139
RISKS
There are no risks involving this study. The IRB (International Review Board) of Carson-
Newman University has given permission for this study. Additionally, this community college
granted permission for the study to take place.
BENEFITS TO TAKING PART IN THE STUDY
It is reasonable to expect the following benefits from this research: (1.) gain a better
understanding of the challenges faced by adult nontraditional students like you, and (2.) and an
opportunity for you to share your thoughts on how the college can better serve adult
nontraditional student needs. However, there is no guarantee that you will personally experience
benefits from participating in this study. Other institutions or students may benefit in the future
from the findings of this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The following steps will be taken to ensure the confidentiality of your information and to protect
it from
from unauthorized disclosure, tampering, or damage:
• Your name will not be used or revealed. You will receive a pseudonym based on
your gender.
• The name of this college will not be used or revealed.
• A number rather than a name will be used to identify your student journal.
• All electronic data will be stored on a personal, password protected computer.
• All hardcopies of notes, transcripts, or other pieces of data will be stored in a
personal filing cabinet with key lock.
• Materials will be maintained under this security for a period of five-years. At the
end of that time, the materials will be destroyed.
INCENTIVES
No incentives will be used in this study.
YOUR RIGHTS AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right not to participate at all or to leave the
study at any time. Deciding not to participate or choosing to leave the study will not result in any
penalty or loss of benefits or services to which you are entitled, and it will not harm your
relationship with the researcher or anyone involved in the study.
CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS
Call 423.231.8384 or by email at [email protected], if you have questions about the study, any
140
problems, unexpected physical or psychological discomforts, any injuries, or think that
something unusual or unexpected is happening.
The chair of this study may also be contacted:
Dr. Julia Price
Director of the Carson-Newman University Advanced Programs
Thank you.
CONSENT
YOU ARE MAKING A DECISION WHETHER OR NOT TO PARTICIPATE IN A
RESEARCH STUDY. YOUR SIGNATURE BELOW INDICATES THAT YOU HAVE
DECIDED TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY AFTER READING ALL OF THE
INFORMATION ABOVE ANDYOU UNDERSTAND THE INFORMATION IN THIS FORM,
HAVE HAD ANY QUESTIONS ANSWERED AND HAVE RECEIVED A COPY OF THIS
FORM FOR YOU TO KEEP.
Signature ________________________________ Date ____________ Research Participant
Signature ________________________________ Date _____________ Interviewer
141
Appendix B
Interview Guide
142
Factors Promoting Retention of Adult Nontraditional Students in the Community College
Interview Guide and Protocol
*Reminder: Collect the Informed Consent Form and answer any questions.
Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. I want to assure you that your identity will
remain anonymous, as will the name of our community college. I hope that the results will help
our community college and other colleges make changes that will better support students like
you in reaching your educational goals.
In my study, I am looking for the things that might hinder or be a barrier in your continued
enrollment in college. I am also interested in learning your suggestions for how the college
could better support you and other students who are adult nontraditional students in continuing
your enrollment.
If my questions are unclear to you, just ask me to restate the questions in other words. I want
your honest answers.
Demographic Questions:
Age _____ Major ________________________________________________
How many times entered or re-entered college? _________________________
Current Situation
143
• What were the situations that prevented you from entering college immediately after high
school or staying in school at that time?
• What led you to enroll in college now?
• What were your fears about enrolling as an adult? How did you work through them and
what helped?
• Have family and friends been supportive of your decision to return to school? How?
• What are your challenges in balancing your responsibilities of school, work, and home?
• Have these challenges ever caused your to miss class or consider dropping out of school?
What happened? How did you work through it?
Opportunities for Improvement
• What do you wish your teachers new about what it’s like to be an adult nontraditional
learner in their classes?
• What could teachers do to make it easier for you to remain in school?
• What could the college and its departments do to be more helpful to you and other adult
nontraditional students?
Challenges Faced by Others
• Thinking about other adult nontraditional students like you, what have been their
challenges in remaining in school?
• Were they able to resolve the issues? How did the college help this student? What could
the college have done to help them?
144
Prioritize
• Thinking about yourself and other adult nontraditional students, what three changes
would you make in the college to improve the ability of students like you to stay in
school?
• If only one change could be made, what would it be?
• What advice would you give to other adult nontraditional students who are entering
college for the first time or returning to college after a period of time?
Information about Focus Group
Thank you so much for talking with me today and participating in my study. I am going to send
a “Doodle Poll” to you through your school email. The “Doodle Poll” will help us to find a
convenient time for you and the other participants to meet for a group meeting. I will send you
information about the meeting time and place.
Student Journal
This is a journal. You will find a couple of questions in it that I would like for you to answer in
the next few days. There are also places for you to jot down things that may come to you later
about the questions and situations that we discussed today. The information that you have to
share is important. Please bring this journal back to our group meeting. Just like the things that
you shared, today, this information will be held confidential. Please do not write your name on
the journal. I have placed a number on it, so I will know it’s your journal and that I have
collected all journals at the end of the study.
Again, I sincerely appreciate your help and your time!
145
Appendix C
Focus Group Facilitation Guide
146
Factors Promoting Retention of Adult Nontraditional Students in the Community College
Focus Group Facilitation Guide and Protocol
I want to remind you that you participation in the study in voluntary and that you can decide to
withdraw at any time. I thank you for the time and information that you have shared with me in
your interviews. It is very helpful to me in understanding your situations and needs and how the
college and I could better help you reach your education goals.
Today, I want to revisit some of the things that we talked about in the interviews to make sure I
fully understand the things that you said and that I “have it right”. I need to fully understand and
tell your story. So, if I don’t have it right, please correct me. That is one of the purposes of our
meeting today.
Provide summary of collected data to this point.
Ask for corrections or clarifications.
• When you enrolled what were some of your fears about doing the academic work? What
has been helpful in working through those fears?
• What was the role of Tennessee Reconnect in your enrollment in college at this time?
• What were some of your financial fears about returning to college? How have you
managed those fears?
• What changes in college process or procedures would be most helpful to you?
• Being as specific as possible, if you had your diploma in hand, what changes would you
make in our college to better serve students like you? What would you not change?
• If you had a magic wand, what one change would you make?
147
* Reminder: Discuss the return of student journals.
Thank you, again, for your honest answers. This information will be critically important to this
community college, other institutions, and me in making sure that we do all that we can do in
making sure that adult, nontraditional students are successful in realizing their educational goals.
When the study is completed, I will forward to you an executive study of the findings.
148
Appendix D
Student Journal Questions
149
Factors Promoting Retention of Adult Nontraditional Students in the Community College
Student Journal Questions
I sincerely appreciate you sharing your time and thoughts with me in this study. In this journal,
you will find six questions. The questions have no right or wrong answers. All that I ask is that
you answer them truthfully, as this feedback is critical to the study and to community colleges
that seek to be more supportive of adult learners and help them to overcome barriers to staying in
school. If you have questions or concerns, I may be reached at [email protected] or by phone at
423.231.8384.
Thank you, again,
Erin Dean
1. Did you participate in learning support classes? Did you find them helpful or not? Why?
Based on your experiences or what others have told you, how could they be improved?
2. As you consider the things that work to hinder your continued enrollment, which of these
is the greatest barrier:
• lack of academic preparation
• self-confidence
• financial issues
• family responsibilities?
• Why did you select this item?
3. Academically, what were the most significant challenges you faced in returning to
college?
4. Who or what gives you the confidence or determination to continue achieve your
academic goals?
5. What were your experiences in returning to school regarding the following?
• Expected. Technology skills with the learning management system, e-learn?
• Word, Excel, PowerPoint, etc.?
• Access to reliable internet services?
150
• Needed devices (computer/iPad/etc.)?
6. What have I not asked that you believe would make this college more “user-friendly” for
adult learners like you?
151
Appendix E
Nomination Forms
152
Nomination of Students for Study on Retention and Attrition of Adult Nontraditional
Learners
Dear Colleague:
I am a doctoral student at Carson-Newman University and conducting a study Factors
Promoting Retention of Adult Nontraditional Students in the Community College. I am seeking
your assistance in identifying potential participants for the study. As an advisor, you are keenly
aware of your advisee’s challenges and ability to articulate those challenges. Ideal candidates
will be able and willing to describe and share the challenges that adult nontraditional student face
in continuing enrollment and offer suggestions of how the college may be more supportive to
their retention. I encourage you to nominate multiple participants. Please use a separate form
for each nominee. There is no need for you to contact the nominee. Please call me at
423.231.8384 or email me at [email protected] if you have additional questions. Thank you for
your assistance.
Sincerely,
Erin Dean
Participants must possess the following characteristics:
1. 25 years old or older
2. Are currently enrolled and were enrolled in the 2019 Spring and/or Summer semester
3. May be attending full-time or part-time
AND
4. Possess two or more of the following characteristics (Please check all that apply):
______ Delayed entry into post-secondary education at least one year after high school
153
______ Has one or more dependents
______ Living as a single parent
______ Works full-time
______ Financially independent from parents
______ Attends college part-time
______ Entered college with a GED
Name of the Student______________________________________ W-Number
___________________
Additionally, I am seeking a pool of participants who reflect the diversity of the college. Please
circle the demographic factors that match this nominee.
Gender: Male Female
Age: 25-30 31-40 41-50 51 or older
Race/Ethnicity: Black White Hispanic Two or More Races
Name of Advisor: _________________________________________
154
Appendix F
Memos and Sources
155
Memos Data Sources Participants
Inte
rvie
ws
Stu
den
t Jo
urn
als
Fo
cus
Gro
up
Fie
ld N
ote
s
#
So
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es
Par
tici
pan
t 1
Par
tici
pan
t 2
Par
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pan
t 3
Par
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pan
t 4
Par
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pan
t 5
Par
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t 6
Par
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pan
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# P
arti
cip
ants
Advisors X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Academic Struggles X X 2 X X X 3
Access to Student Services X X X 3 X X X 3
Adult Learner Workshops X X X 3 X X 2
Advice X X 2 X X X X 4
Books (Textbooks) X X X 3 X X X 3
Bookstore X X 2 X X 2
Career Guidance and Advice X X X 3 X X X 3
Children X X 2 X X X X 4
Class Scheduling/Offerings X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Consistency X X X X 4 X X X 3
Daycare X X 2 X X 2
Early Marriage X X 2 X X X 3
Faith X X 2 X X 2
Family Responsiblities X X X 3 X X X X X 5
Family Support X X 2 X X X X X 5
Fear of Returning X X 2 X X X X X X 6
Finances X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7
Financial Aid X X X 3 X X X 3
Finding Balance in Family/Life/Work X X X X 4 X X 2
Food X X 2 X X 2
Friends X X 2 X X X 2
Information for Adult Learners X X X X 4 X X X X X X 5
Information for Budgeting X X X 2 X X 2
Instruction X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Internet Accessibility X 2 X X 2
Laptop X X 2 X X X 4
Learning Supports X X 2 X X X 3
Library X X 2 X X 2
Math X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6
Motivators X X 2 X X 2
Personal Goals X X 2 X X X X X X 6
Relevance X X 2 X X 2
Respect for Life Experiences X X X 3 X X X 3
Retention Services X X 2 X X 2
Self-Discipline X X 2 X X X X X X 6
Self-Efficacy
X X X 3 X X X X X 5
Small Classes X X 2 X X X 3
156
Appendix G
Development of Open Codes from Memoing Process
156
Open Codes and Supporting
Memos
Inte
rvie
ws
Stu
den
t J
ou
rna
ls
Fo
cus
Gro
up
Fie
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#
So
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es
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
1
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
2
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
3
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
4
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
5
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
6
Pa
rtic
ipa
nt
7
# P
art
icip
an
ts
Scheduling and Course
Offerings X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Scheduling/Course Offerings X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Summer Course Offerings X X 2 X X 2
Tennessee Reconnect Barriers X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7 Tennessee Reconnect X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7
Information X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6 Career Guidance and Advice X X X 3 X X X 3
Information for Adult Learner X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6
Information for Budgeting X X X 2 X X 2
Instruction X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7
Consistency X X X X 4 X X X 3
Instruction X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Relevancy X X 2 X X 2
Respect for Life Experiences X X X 3 X X X 3
Retention Services X X 2 X X 2
Small class size X X 2 X X X 3
Traditional Students X X 2 X X X X X 5
Learning Supports X X X X 4 X X X X X 5 Learning Supports X X 2 X X X 3
Tutoring Services and Labs X X X X 4 X X X X 4
Access to Student Services X X X 3 X X X X X X X 7
Access to Student Services X X X 3 X X X 3
Bookstore X X 2 X X 2
Financial Aid X X X 3 X X X 3
Food X X 2 X X 2
Access to Internet X 2 X X 2
Library X X 2 X X 2
Tutoring Services and Lab X X X X 4 X X X X 4
Finding Balance X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7 Finding Balance-Family Life, Work X X X X 4 X X 2
Work X X X 3 X X X X X X 6
Finding Balance X X X X 4 X X 2
Family Responsibilities X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6
Children X X 2 X X X X 4
Daycare X X 2 X X 2
Family Responsibilities X X X 3 X X X X X 5
Finding Balance-Family Life, Work X X X X 4 X X 2
In te rv ie ws
St
ud
en t Jo
ur
na
ls
Fo
cu s G ro up
Fi
el d
N ot
es
#
So
ur
ce s Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 1
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 2
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 3
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 4
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 5
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 6
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt 7
#
Pa
rti
ci pa
nt s
157
Open Codes and Supporting
Memos
Finances X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7
Textbooks X X X 3 X X X 3
Finances X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7
Internet Accessibility X X 2 X X X 5
Laptop X X 2 X X X 4
Transportation X X 2 X X X 3
Fear X X 2 X X X X X X X 7
Fear of Returning X X 2 X X X X X X 6
Traditional Students X X 2 X X X X X 5
Educational Deficits X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6 Academic Struggles X X 2 X X X 3
Math X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6
Time Gaps in Learning X X 2 X X X 3
Toxic relationships X X X 3 X X X X 4 Early Marriages X X 2 X X X 3
Spouses X X 2 X X 2
Tennessee Reconnect Support X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7 Tennessee Reconnect X X X X 4 X X X X X X X 7
Instructional Supports X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6 Streaming Supports X X 2 X X 2
Technology X X 2 X X X X X X 6
Teachers X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6 Teachers X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6
Learning Supports X X 2 X X X 3
Learning Supports X X 2 X X X 3
Adult Learner Workshop Adult Learner Workshops X X X 3 X X 2
College Experience Class X X X 3 X X 2
Information for Adult Learners X X X X 4 X X X X X X 5
Information for Budgeting X X X 2 X X 2
Advisors X X X X 4 X X X X X X 6 Advisors X X X X 4 X X X X X 5
Advice X X 2 X X X X 4
Family Relationships X X 2 X X X X X 5
Family Supports X X 2 X X X X X 5
158
Open Codes and Supporting
Memos
Inte
rvie
ws
Stu
den
t Jo
urn
als
Fo
cus
Gro
up
Fie
ld N
ote
s
#
So
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es
Par
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pan
t 1
Par
tici
pan
t 2
Par
tici
pan
t 3
Par
tici
pan
t 4
Par
tici
pan
t 5
Par
tici
pan
t 6
Par
tici
pan
t 7
# P
arti
cip
ants
Support from Others X X 2 X X X X X 5
Faith X X 2 X X 2
Friends X X 2 X X X 2
Support from Others X X 2 X X 2
Self-efficacy X X X 3 X X X X X 5
Self-efficacy X X X 3 X X X X X 5
Self-discipline X X 2 X X 2 Self-discipline X X 2 X X 2
Personal Goals X X 2 X X X X X X X 7 Motivators X X 2 X X 2
Personal Goals X X 2 X X X X X X 6
159
Appendix H
Examples of Coding Process
160
Coding Process-Subtheme 1-Institutional Barriers
Raw Data and Sources
Memo Open Code Axial Code
(Student Journal) There was only one A/P course offered
on four campuses.
(Interview) Everything else was remedial that I could take
at night.
(Interview) Nursing and OT classes are only offered
during the day.
(Field Notes) Campus on which courses are offered is an
issue.
Class schedule and
offerings
Scheduling
Institutional
Barriers
(Interview) Have broader things available in the summer.
(Interview) In my major there was nothing I could take.
(Interview) There’s a problem with the availability of
summer classes.
(Field Notes) Problems with summer course offerings too
limited.
Summer Course
Offerings
(Student Journal) Tennessee Reconnect does not cover
fees.
(Interview) I have a good job and can wait on
reimbursements when there is a hitch in Tennessee
Reconnect. Others are living on a shoestring and dropout
when financial aid does not come through.
(Interview) It still kind of looms just because of the
Reconnect stipulation.
Tennessee
Reconnect
Tennessee
Reconnect
(Interview) I need career guidance and advice.
(Interview) I don’t know if I have picked a good major.
(Field Notes) Need career guidance.
Career Guidance
and Advice
Information
(Student Journal) Stress finding available resources.
(Interview) I never knew there was that resource until my
sister told me.
(Interview) I didn’t know about math lab until halfway
into the semester.
(Field Notes) They do not understand our terminology-
acronyms.
(Interview) I know resources but maybe promotion or
awareness of them may need to be highlighted.
Information for
Adult Learners
(Student Journal) If I knew which book the course would
be using, I could try to find it or budget for it.
(Interview)We need to know what the fees are that
Tennessee Reconnect will not pay for the course when we
register.
Information for
Budgeting
(Interview) I want to understand how to solve it and not
just push the right buttons.
(Interview)They should remember that we have life
experiences.
Instruction
Instruction
(Focus Group) Teachers need to take an uplifting
approach
(Interview) Teachers need to do more than just reading off
the PowerPoint.
(Student Journal) Stop telling us to go to YouTube.
(Focus Group) Newer teachers struggle with meeting the
needs of adult learners.
(Focus Group) Teachers need to do more than read the
PowerPoint.
(Student Journal) Be consistent.
Teachers
161
(Focus Group) Don’t ask me to come to school outside of
class time.
(Field Notes) Students view syllabus as a contract
(Interview) When you change the syllabus or assignment
date. Send a reminder and change it everywhere in e-
learn.
(Focus Group) Teachers should clarify the available
resources.
(Focus Group) New teachers need professional
development on teaching adult learners.
(Interview) You can tell when somebody is passionate
about what they are teaching and if they are passionate
about their students.
(Interview) I would prefer the teacher to contact me before
retention services.
(Interview) The teacher should reach out before it goes on
a progress report.
Retention Services
(Interview) I am here to learn. I appreciate the instructor
and don’t like it when the 18 and 19 year old are on their
phones and talking.
(Interview) Things are important to them that are not
important to me.
(Interview) It intimidates me to be in a class with a bunch
of young people.
Traditional
Students
(Student Journal) It was hard to learn how to submit
homework.
(Student Journal) It took me two classes to figure out e-
learn.
Technology
(Student Journal) Learning supports could be more hands-
on.
(Interview) He said that we really don’t expect you to
pass.
(Interview) She pushed back when I asked her to explain it
to me.
Learning Supports
Learning
Supports
(Interview) We all struggle with math.
(Student Journal) The way they teach it is so different
from how we were taught.
Math
(Interview) I can never talk to any one face-to-face.
Everything closes here at 4:30 PM.
(Interview) I go to work at 6:30 AM and get off at 5:30
PM. I can never talk to anyone.
Access to Student
Services
Access to
Student
Services
(Interview) The bookstore is not an option for me.
(Student Journal) The thing closes at 4:30 PM.
Bookstore
(Interview) My biggest issues have been with the
Financial Aid Office.
(Interview) Financial Aid is always going to be an area for
improvement.
Financial Aid
(Interview) There is no food for evening students except a
vending machine for evening students.
(Student Journal) I come straight from work. Why can’t
we have an occasional food truck?
Food
(Student Journal) The library needs better hours.
(Interview)I need the library to be open to have internet
access.
Library
162
(Student Journal) We need better hours for the library.
(Student Journal) It’s an asset that is not available to you.
(Focus Group) If you have a Monday night class, you are
out of luck.
(Focus Group) We need tutoring in other subjects besides
English and Math.
Tutoring Lab
Coding Process-Subtheme 2-Situational Barriers
Raw Data and Sources
Memo Open Code Axial Code
(Student Journal) It’s hard balancing work, home, and
studying.
(Student Journal) Balancing everything with a heavy
homework load is hard.
(Interview) Trying to balance a full-time job, school, having
my children, and everything else that you had to do as
mother, it was very hard.
Finding Balance
Family
Responsibilities
Situational
Barriers
(Student Journal) I am a single parent.
(Interview) One of the girls did all of the workshops with
me. She wasn’t able to actually start because her daughter
had surgery. She completed the workshop but missed the
final due to the surgery.
(Interview) I can’t find someone to watch him.
(Interview) I’ve missed class because my kids were sick.
Children
(Field Notes) Students would use a daycare to do
observation hours or practicum hours.
(Field Notes) Daycare for childcare.
(Interview) Our students could go in and assess the daycare
students, help work, and learn.
(Interview) Childcare would make a difference.
Daycare
(Interview) I was married before I left high school.
(Interview) I was a mother before I graduated.
Early Marriage
(Interview) We got a lot of weight on us.
(Interview) We have families, spouses, children, moms,
dads, and all of that.
(Student Journal) Family responsibilities have been a
struggle.
(Student Journal) Family responsibilities are the biggest
barrier.
Family
Responsibilities
(Interview) That really doesn’t work. So one of the people
that I know is going to quit his job and pull out his 401K and
live off that to pay his bills in order to finish.
(Student Journal) I still need more income.
(Field Notes) Finances were initial barrier to enrollment.
(Interview) Because of surgery, unable to come to school
and had to get a job to pay medical bills.
Finances
Finances
(Student Journal) Internet access is a financial burden.
(Student Journal) Access to reliable internet is an issue.
(Student Journal) Internet access is a hurdle.
Internet
accessibility
(Focus Group) I knew textbooks would be expensive.
(Interview) I found books through Facebook groups, past
students, and eBay or whatever.
Books
163
(Interview) I went ahead and did the unlimited which covers
you for two years and gives you access to Chegg, also.
(Interview) The computer was a big one.
(Student Journal) Had to buy a new laptop.
(Student Journal) My laptop was too old and slow.
(Interview) When my computer died, I couldn’t submit my
homework.
Laptop
(Student Journal) I had to learn Microsoft Office.
(Student Journal) When I went to school before, there were
no personal computers, only paper, pencil, and a notebook.
(Interview). It took me two courses to figure out e-learn.
Technology
(Focus Group) I worked so many hours that I flunked A/P.
(Interview) If the relief nurse came in early on those days.
(Interview). Hopefully, my relief was on time.’
(Interview) A truck had just come in and I couldn’t leave
work.
(Student Journal) I work three jobs.
(Interview) I have not told anybody at work.
(Interview) It’s my burden and my responsibility. I don’t
want them to think school will come before work and not
fulfill job responsibilities.
Work
Work
(Interview) Not working as much, that’s a hinderance.
Finances and trying to balance all of that is not easy.
Finding Balance
(Interview) Some people do not have transportation.
(Interview) Someone told me about the ETHRA wagon.
(Interview) Sharing a car.
Transportation
Transportation
\ Coding Process-Subtheme 3-Dispositional Barriers
Raw Data and Source
Memo Open Code Axial Code
(Student Journal) My fear is a lack of academic preparation.
(Interview) I was scared to death.
(Interview) I was a high school dropout. I think I wrote one
paper and maybe a three-page book report was all that I had
ever written.
(Student Journal) I lacked self-confidence.
(Interview) We’ll get toward ¾ the way through the semester
and I’m thinking, what in the world am I doing?
Fear
Fear
Dispositional
Barriers
(Interview) We all struggle with math.
(Student Journal) I am terrible with math.
(Interview) I was homeschooled through high school, so I
didn’t have the block of classes and certain loads of
homework.
Academic
Struggles
Educational
Deficits
(Interview) We all struggle with math.
(Student Journal) I am terrible with math.
(Interview) I know that math has consistently been hard for a
lot of people .
(Student Journal) Math and science are struggles.
Math
164
(Focus Group) Math is struggle for the participants.
(Interview) They teach you how to punch numbers in the
calculator.
(Interview) I am not remembering-not retaining. I guess
being so long out of school and then going back is the
problem.
(Interview) School is different than it was.
(Interview) I had been out of school for ten years.
(Student Journals) Adult learners have to relearn or
completely learn.
Time Gaps in
Learning
(Student Journal) He would do things to keep me from
studying.
(Student Journal) He may not be around much longer.
Spouses
Toxic
Relationships
Coding Process-Subtheme 4-Institutional Supports
Raw Data and Source
Memo Open Code Axial Code
(Interview) I started back with the first class of
Tennessee Reconnect. .
(Interview) Reconnect is a big factor.
(Interview) Reconnect removed a big hindrance.
(Interview) Reconnect was going to pay for my
degree or the majority of my degree.
(Focus Group) Reconnect removed barriers.
(Student Journal) Tennessee Reconnect provided
the opportunity.
Tennessee
Reconnect
Tennessee
Reconnect
Institutional
Supports
(Interview) I wanted to put my knowledge to work
here.
(Interview) I’m trying to pick positions and jobs
that are supportive of what I am learning and kind
of help me to build up my resume in a sense.
Relevance
Instructional
Supports
(Interview) You have experience and you’ve gone
through a lot of things and leaned a lot of lessons
that they have not.
(Student Journal) Respect the responsibilities that
we have outside of school.
(Focus Group) Recognize our life experiences.
(Focus Group) Be respectful of us and our
experience.
Respect for
Life
Experiences
(Interview) I like my classes. I am in a small class
setting of 20 to 24 people.
(Student Journal) I like small classes.
Small classes
165
(Interviews) Online classes were not as hard I
thought.
(Interview) I took a DVC class and liked it.
(Focus Group) If me can stream classes, why can’t
we videoconference with the offices here or
tutoring?
Streaming
Classes
(Interview) If every instructor could be that and
get students excited about learning-GOSH! You’d
be-They’d be breaking down your doors!
(Interview) As far as I know, the college has been
really understanding and worked with people.
(Interview) Teachers who have been doing this a
while didn’t have a problem with them [adult
learners].
(Interview) I haven’t had any leniency. I haven’t
need. If I had the need, I feel if this came up, they
would be understanding.
(Interview) Teachers all have been understanding.
(Interview) I think teachers who teach at night
understand adults better.
(Interview) The teacher was empathetic.
(Interview) I have had amazing teachers.
Teachers
Instructors
(Interview) The learning supports were very
helpful.
(Interview) I took the Math learning support and it
helped me to do better in class.
(Student Journal) My learning support teacher was
very knowledgeable.
Learning
Supports
Learning
Supports and
Tutoring
(Interview) In the adult learner workshops, I have
made some friends that have carried me through to
where I am now.
(Interview) The adult learner workshops allowed
us to make connections.
(Interview)The workshops were where you could
be with a whole bunch of other adult learners who
were feeling exactly the same as you.
(Student Journal) The workshops were helpful
emotionally and boost confidence.
(Student Journal) Adult learner workshops were
helpful.
Adult
Learner
Workshop
Adult
Learner
Workshops
(Interview) We need a class. I know that the
college experience class teachers you to go to
college. We need one for just adult learners.
(Interview) Maybe we could have a class and then
it could become our group-our support group. We
could help each other out.
College
Experience
Class
College
Experience
Class
166
(Interview) Anytime I have walked into Student
Success, I’ve got help.
(Interview) They do a good job with adults
coming back.
(Interview) I had some really good teachers and a
good advisor that put me in the right class with the
right teacher that would understand my situation.
(Interview) I have been guided.
(Interview) I always get with my advisor before,
during, and after all three semesters, and they’ve
all worked with me and trying to make up a test or
get whatever I need.
(Student Journal) My advisor is encouraging.
Advisors Advisors
Coding Table Subtheme 5-Situational Supports
Raw Data and Source
Memo Open Code Axial Code
(Interview) I have to work on this paper, or I have to do
homework, and he completely understands. My husband
has been phenomenal.
(Student Journal) I have a supportive spouse.
(Interview) My husband always tells me how proud that he
is of me.
Spouse
Family
Relationships
Situational
Supports
(Interview) Full disclosure-family and friends-yes, they
support.
(Interview) My sister. . .she really pushed it and helped me
a lot.
(Interview) Everyone has been supportive, especially my
family.
(Interview) My grandmother, she really helped, too.
(Interview) There were like OK, if that’s what you really
want to do.
(Interview) Mom takes care of a lot of responsibilities.
(Interview) Mom said we will move in together and take
care of each other.
(Interview) My parents have been very supportive and
make sure that I have time to study.
Family Supports
(Student Journal) Friends are cheerleaders.
(Interview) I have real friends and college friends.
(Interview) I made friends in the adult learner workshops
that are still with me today.
(Interview) My relationships with my college friends are
strictly school related. I don’t have an outside relationship
with any of them.
Friends
Support from
Others
(Interview) Us adult learners kind of stick together.
(Interview) I made connections with other adult learners
like me in the workshops.
Support of Other
Students
Student Journal). My God is my provider. Faith
167
Coding Table Subtheme 6: Dispositional Supports
Raw Data and Source
Memo Open Code Axial Code
(Interview) You walk in like you would in high school and
everybody looks at you, and you know, you remember who
you are and you’re an adult!
(Student Journal). I’m finishing strong.
(Interview). Do the best you can do and don’t beat yourself
up.
(Interview) I’ve never considered dropping out.
(Interview) I just kept putting one foot in front of the other.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
Dispositional
Supports
(Field Notes) Be fully committed.
(Interview) Continue to find a way to work around all of
that.
(Interview) You gotta keep your head up and deal with it and
take it in stride.
Advice
(Interview) I am the type I have to have a schedule. I need
structure.
(Interview) I live by my planner.
(Focus Group) It’s time management.
(Focus Group) Just make it a priority.
Self-discipline Self-discipline
(Student Journal) I always wanted a college education.
(Interview). Ever since I was a little girl, I wanted to be a
teacher.
(Interview) I am going back to school for a career.
Personal Goals
Personal Goals
(Student Journal) My motivator is wanting to provide for my
daughter and myself.
(Interview). I knew I was going to get my education and be
able to better myself for them.
Motivators
Selective Themes
Tennessee Reconnect encouraged enrollment and effective instruction and instructional supports coupled with supportive
relationships and strong self-efficacy and self-discipline lead to retention.
Lack of needed supports become barriers to retention. Situational barriers of family responsibilities and finances are most
influential to attrition.