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DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPORAL RAINFALL PATTERNS FOR
SABAH AND SARAWAK
Mohd.Azkarmin Bin Mohd.Adenan
Bachelor of Engineering with Honours
(Civil Engineering)
2010
Faculty of Engineering
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS
Judul: DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPORAL RAINFALL PATTERNS
FOR SABAH AND SARAWAK
SESI PENGAJIAN: 2005/2006
Saya MOHD.AZKARMIN BIN MOHD.ADENAN
(HURUF BESAR)
mengaku membenarkan tesis * ini disimpan di Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut:
1. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
2. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk
tujuan pengajian sahaja.
3. Membuat pendigitan untuk membangunkan Pangkalan Data Kandungan Tempatan.
4. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis
ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi.
5. ** Sila tandakan ( ) di kotak yang berkenaan
SULIT (Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan
Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972).
TERHAD (Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh organisasi/
badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan).
TIDAK TERHAD
Disahkan oleh
(TANDATANGAN PENULIS) (TANDATANGAN PENYELIA)
Alamat tetap: QTRS. NO. 68, KM 2 ½,
JALAN OYA, 96400
MUKAH,SARAWAK. PN ROSMINA AHMAD BUSTAMI
(Nama Penyelia)
Tarikh: Tarikh:
CATATAN * Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah, Sarjana dan Sarjana Muda.
** Jika tesis ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada pihak berkuasa/organisasi
berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh tesis ini perlu dikelaskan sebagai
SULIT dan TERHAD.
APPROVAL SHEET
Final Year Project Report below:
Title : Development of Temporal Rainfall Patterns for Sabah and Sarawak
Author : Mohd.Azkarmin Bin Mohd.Adenan
Metric No. : 14531
This thesis been read and certified by:
__________________________ ________________________
Pn. Rosmina Ahmad Bustami Date
Supervisor
DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPORAL RAINFALL PATTERNS FOR
SABAH AND SARAWAK
MOHD.AZKARMIN BIN MOHD.ADENAN
This project is submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering with
Honours (Civil Engineering)
ii
Dedication to......
My Father and Mother,
Mohd.Adenan& Habsah
My Sibling sisters,
Especially my late sister, Kak Azizah
All my friends,
Especially Lukman and UNIMAS community
My Dear,
Thanks for supporting me with love and encouragement,
May Allah S.W.T blessed all of us…
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah, Thank you to Allah S.W.T for blessing, the lesson, the
tears and the joy. Firstly, I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude
to my supervisor, Mdm Rosmina Bt Ahmad Bustami. Her wide knowledge and
her logical way of thinking have been of great value for me. Without her help
and kindness it is impossible to complete this report. Thank you again.
I am grateful to all my family members, who played the major role in
giving me an endless guidance and support throughout my study in UNIMAS.
Without their encouragement and understanding it would have been impossible
for me to finish this paper. My acknowledgment also goes to Department of
Irrigation and Drainage (DID) Sabah and Sarawak for providing me the data.
Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge each and every person
who has contributed directly or indirectly to the success of this report. Thank
you from the bottom of my heart and May Allah bless you all.
iv
ABSTRAK
Umumnya, purata hujan tahunan bagi Sabah dan Sarawak di antara 1500mm-
4000mm yakni sekurang-kurangnya 20% hingga 40% lebih hujan daripada
Semenanjung Malaysia. Kajian ini dijalankan dengan tujuan membangunkan
corak hujan ‘temporal’ untuk Sabah dan Sarawak kerana tidak sesuai
merekabentuk sistem perparitan banjir berpandukan corak hujan ‘temporal’
Semenanjung Malaysia. Data hujan 5 minit selama 2000-2008 diperolehi dan
dianalisa untuk menyediakan corak hujan temporal melalui ‘Method of Average
Variability’ yang digunapakai dari Australian Rainfall and Runoff (AR&R) 1987
dan cara dalam Hydrological Procedure No.1-1982. 11 stesen kaji hujan yang
terdiri daripada 5 stesen dari Sabah dan 6 stesen dari Sarawak dipilih
berdasarkan kelengkapan dan pertindihan data dari segi pekali tersedia dan
tempoh rekod yang panjang. Beberapa kriteria dalam pemilihan stesen utama
dibuat bagi merekabentuk dan menghasilkan corak yang lebih persis. Hasil dari
kajian ini menunjukkan corak hujan temporal di antara Pantai Timur
Semenanjung Malaysia dengan Sabah dan Sarawak adalah sangat berbeza iaitu
kira-kira 10% perbezaan perbandingan. Apabila jumlah keseluruhan hujan
secara relatifnya tinggi, perbezaan itu memberi kesan yang ketara. Maka,
penghasilan corak hujan temporal untuk Sabah dan Sarawak disyorkan kerana
ianya lebih relevan dan mewakili kawasan ini secara khusus.
v
ABSTRACT
In general, average annual rainfall for Sabah and Sarawak ranges from 1,500
mm to 4,000 mm which are about 20 % to 40 % more rainfall than Peninsular
Malaysia. This study carried out in order to develop temporal rainfall pattern
for Sabah and Sarawak as it is not applicable for designation of Sabah and
Sarawak flood drainage system in accordance to Peninsular Malaysia temporal
pattern. 5 minutes rainfall dataset in period of 2000-2008 collected and analyzed
to determine temporal rainfall pattern through Average Variability Method
(AVM) which utilized from Australian Rainfall and Runoff (AR&R) 1987 and
method in Hydrological Procedure No.1-1982. 11 rainfall stations which consist
of 5 stations from Sabah and 6 stations from Sarawak were selected with
complete and overlapping data in terms of available variables and long period of
observation. Several criteria for choosing the key stations were made in order to
precisely construct and generate the patterns. The result of this study showed
that the temporal rainfall patterns between East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
with Sabah& Sarawak was very much different which indicates roughly about
10% in comparison. When the total rainfall amount is relatively high, this
difference will give significant impact. Thus, the development of temporal
rainfall pattern for Sabah and Sarawak would be best recommended as it is
more relevant and represent the region specifically.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Dedication ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstrak iv
Abstract v
Table of Content vi
List of Tables ix
List of Figures xi
List of Abbreviations and Notations xv
List of Appendices xvi
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction of Study 1
1.2 Objective 3
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Temporal Rainfall Pattern Based on
Regionalization Zone 5
1.5 Outline of Chapters 6
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 General Overview 7
2.2 Rainfall 8
2.3 Rainfall Characteristics 9
2.3.1 Size and Shape 9
2.3.2 Intensity and Duration 9
vii
2.3.3 Intensity and Area 10
2.3.4 Intensity and Drop Size 10
2.3.5 Drop Size and Terminal Velocity 10
2.3.6 Rainfall Distribution and Supply 10
2.4 Rainfall Scenario in Malaysia 10
2.4.1 Monsoon Rains 11
2.4.2 The North East Monsoon 12
2.5 Design Rainfall Temporal Patterns 13
2.6 Temporal Rainfall Pattern in Malaysia 14
2.7 Temporal Pattern for Standard Duration 17
2.8 Methods Applied 24
2.9 Regionalization Zone of Temporal Rainfall
Pattern 32
2.10 Summary of Literature Review 35
Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Overview of the Research Methodology 36
3.2 Scope of Study 37
3.3 Record of Rainfall Data 41
3.4 Rainfall Duration 43
3.5 Extraction of Data 43
3.6 Designing Temporal Rainfall Patterns 46
3.7 Application of Average Variability M ethod
(AVM) 47
3.8 Comparison of Temporal Rainfall Patterns 51
3.9 Summary of Methodology 51
viii
Chapter 4 Result and Analysis
4.1 Rainfall Data Analysis 53
4.2 Derivation by using Method of Average
Variability 54
4.3 Mean Temporal Rainfall Patterns for Sabah
and Sarawak 67
4.4 Temporal Rainfall Pattern Comparison 84
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion 97
5.2 Recommendation 100
References 102
Appendix A 105
Appendix B 111
Appendix C 115
Appendix D 126
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Categorization of Rainfall Intensity 13
2.2 Standard Durations for Urban Stormwater
Drainage
17
2.3 Time interval for distribution of rainfall 19
2.4 Temporal Rainfall Patterns of Peninsular
Malaysia (West Coast)
21
2.5 Temporal Rainfall Patterns of Peninsular
Malaysia (East Coast)
22
2.6 AR&R 1987 temporal patterns for 30
minutes duration
25
2.7 Method of Average Variability (Pilgrim et
al., 1969)
27
2.8 Temporal rainfall pattern for Sarawak 31
2.9 Regional climatic groups of Borneo 33
3.1 Selected rainfall stations 39
3.2 First ten ranked storm for Kuching Third
Mile Rainfall Station (1503083)
45
3.3 Method of Average Variability for 15
minutes Duration of Sri Aman Airport
Rainfall Station
50
4.1 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (10 minutes duration)
55
4.2 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (15 minutes duration)
56
4.3 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (30 minutes duration)
57
4.4 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (60 minutes duration)
59
x
4.5 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (120 minutes
duration)
61
4.6 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (180minutes duration)
63
4.7 Percentage (%) Rainfall in each time period
for individual station (360 minutes
duration)
65
4.8 Temporal Rainfall Patterns for 11 selected
Rainfall Stations of Sabah and Sarawak
69
4.9 Temporal Rainfall Patterns for 5 selected
Rainfall Stations of Sabah
74
4.10 Temporal Rainfall Patterns for 6 selected
Rainfall Stations of Sarawak
79
4.11 Comparison of Temporal Rainfall Patterns
between Sabah & Sarawak and East Cost of
Peninsular
86
5.1 Temporal Rainfall Patterns for Sabah and
Sarawak
99
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Example of the under-estimation of a
Hydrograph by Discretisation
16
2.2 Rainfall stations used in the temporal storm
pattern study
18
2.3 Work Breakdown Structure for Developing the
Temporal Rainfall Patterns
29
2.4 Final regional climatic groups for Borneo 34
3.1 Sabah and Sarawak River Basins 38
3.2
Location of Selected Rainfall Station in Sabah
and Sarawak
40
3.3 Methodology Flow Chart 52
4.1
Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 10 minutes
duration for individual station
55
4.2
Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 15 minutes
duration for individual station
56
4.3 Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 30 minutes
duration for individual station
58
4.4 Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 60 minutes
duration for individual station
60
4.5 Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 120 minutes
duration for individual station
62
4.6 Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 180 minutes
duration for individual station
64
4.7 Temporal Rainfall Patterns in 360 minutes
duration for individual station
66
4.8 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns
for 10 minutes duration
70
4.9 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns
for 15 minutes duration
70
4.10 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns 71
xii
for 30 minutes duration
4.11 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns
for 60 minutes duration
71
4.12 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns
for 120 minutes duration
72
4.13 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns
for 180 minutes duration
72
4.14 Sabah and Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns
for 360 minutes duration
73
4.15 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 10
minutes duration
75
4.16 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 15
minutes duration
75
4.17 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 30
minutes duration
76
4.18 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 60
minutes duration
76
4.19 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 120
minutes duration
77
4.20 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 180
minutes duration
77
4.21 Sabah temporal Rainfall Patterns for 360
minutes duration
78
4.22 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 10
minutes duration
80
4.23 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 15
minutes duration
80
4.24 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 30
minutes duration
81
4.25 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 60
minutes duration
81
4.26 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 120
minutes duration
82
4.27 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 180
minutes duration
82
xiii
4.28 Sarawak temporal Rainfall Patterns for 360
minutes duration
83
4.29 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 10 minutes
87
4.30 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 15 minutes
87
4.31 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 30 minutes
88
4.32 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 60 minutes
88
4.33 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 120 minutes
89
4.34 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 180 minutes
89
4.35 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah and Sarawak to east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 360 minutes
90
4.36 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 10 minutes
92
4.37 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 15 minutes
93
4.38 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 30 minutes
93
4.39 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 60 minutes
94
4.40 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 120 minutes
94
xiv
4.41 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 180 minutes
95
4.42 Comparison of temporal rainfall pattern for
Sabah, Sarawak and east coast of peninsular
Malaysia for 360 minutes
95
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS
ARI Average Recurrence Interval
AR&R 1987 Australian Rainfall and Runoff 1987
AVM Average Variability Method
DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage
HP Hydrological Procedure
MASMA Manual Saliran Mesra Alam Malaysia
MMD Malaysian Meteorological Department
min Minute
mm Millimeters
WRP Water Resources Publication
˚C Degree Celsius
No. Number
% Percent
m2 Meter square
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A Temporal Patterns for Peninsular Malaysia
(Hydrological Procedure No. 1) 105
Appendix B Temporal Patterns - West Coast and
East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (MASMA) 111
Appendix C First 10 ranked storm for each duration
for selected rainfall station 115
Appendix D Method of average variability for each
duration for selected rainfall station 126
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of Study
In meteorology, precipitation is any kind of water that falls from the sky
as part of the weather. This includes snow, rain, sleet, freezing rain and hail.
Precipitation is a major part of the hydrologic cycle, and is responsible for
depositing most of the fresh water on the planet.
Rainfall is one of the most important atmospheric phenomena. It has a
strong impact on the global-scale atmospheric circulation as well as on local
weather. As Rahman, A. et al. (2005) stated, a rainfall event is distinguished by
its rainfall duration, average rainfall intensity of a particular average
recurrence interval (ARI) and rainfall temporal pattern.
2
A temporal rainfall pattern is the distribution of total rainfall depth over
certain time interval within a given rainfall duration. Temporal rainfall pattern
is important in flood estimation study. In an engineering field of work, It is very
useful in practically such as designing of hydrology structures, studies of
irrigation or drainage, flood emaciation and flood insurance studies.
According to MASMA (2000), the temporal distribution of rainfall within
the design rainstorm is an important factor that affects the runoff volume and
the magnitude and the timing of the peak discharge. Rainfall temporal patterns
design is used to represent the typical variation of rainfall intensities during a
typical storm burst. In preparing an adequate drainage and stormwater
management designs, there is a need to know and studies of rainfall processes
and the significance of the rainfall design data is a necessary.
Malaysia has much higher frequency and intensity of rainfall compared
in most countries, especially those with temperate climates. As Ramzah D. and
Jones, P. (2008) stated, a regional climate classification is an attempt to divide a
region into several homogenous groups based on long-term average climatic
behavior. The changes in climate should not affect the result of the regional
classification. Temporal classification is to group each individual day into one of
several identified modes. These modes, which will be changing on daily basis,
are described by specific spatial patterns of climatic variables which are
precipitation and temperature. Although these two classifications are created
from different variables and different methods, they are mutually
3
complementary and describe the local climate in Borneo that includes Sabah
and Sarawak. Certain types of weather might be more associated with certain
groups of climatic divisions.
1.2 Objective
The objectives of this project are:
a) To develop a temporal rainfall pattern for Sabah and Sarawak
b) To compare it with temporal rainfall patterns for East Coast of
Peninsular Malaysia.
1.3 Problem Statement
Malaysia consists of two large land masses separated over 500 km apart,
by the South China Sea. West Malaysia or peninsular Malaysia is a continuum
of the Asia continent while East Malaysia, comprising the states of Sabah,
Sarawak and the Federal Territory of Labuan, is situated on the island of
Borneo. The country occupies about 330,000 km2 of land area, of which 40% is
the Peninsula and 60% East Malaysia. (River Basin Initiative Malaysia, 2002)
4
As River Basin Initiative Malaysia (2002) stated, the annual mean
rainfall in Peninsular Malaysia is approximately 2,540 mm, with most
precipitation occurring during the southwest monsoon (September to December)
as opposed to East Malaysia which receives most of its rainfall during the
northeast monsoon (October to February). Sabah's average rainfall is 2,630 mm
and Sarawak's is approximately 3,850 mm.
As MASMA (2000) stated, no temporal pattern data is available in
Hydrological Procedure No. 26 for Sabah and Sarawak (1983) (HP No. 26).
MASMA (2000) explained that as the climatic behavior for Sabah and Sarawak
are nearest to the East Coast than the West Coast, the pattern for the East
Coast could be used as for preliminary studies. However, In general, Sabah and
Sarawak receive a greater amount of rainfall than Peninsular Malaysia (Ayu
W.A. et al, 2008). As International Commission on Irrigation & Drainage, ICID
(2009) stated, average annual rainfall for Sabah and Sarawak ranges from 1,500
mm to 4,000 mm which are about 20 % to 40 % more rainfall than Peninsular
Malaysia. Thus, it is not applicable for designation of Sabah and Sarawak flood
drainage system in accordance to East Coast temporal rainfall pattern. Sabah
and Sarawak, with an average annual rainfall of 3000 mm (Jesselton
Communications, 2000) indicates that there is a need for further study on the
design rainfall event in this region.
5
1.4 Temporal Rainfall Pattern Based on Regionalization Zone.
Rainfall distribution is a result of many factors, including the
atmospheric circulation, the continental pattern, the coastal design, the location
of major mountainous massifs, the distance from the ocean, and other site
factors. (Descroix, L. et al, 2001)
The regionalization of precipitation has been the subject of much
research for almost all types of climates. The influence of zonal and regional
factors is also determined in regional monographs where the role of local
variables such as relief, vegetation, general roughness of landscape and others,
is described in relation to the large-scale circulation scheme.
A regionalization zone is an attempt to spatially divide Sabah and
Sarawak into several climatic divisions according on distinct surface climatic
features. On the other hand, temporal classification is to determine the most
significant weather features on daily basis, thus classify all days into one of the
identified modes.