Student Number: 11026790 Name: Joshua Neale Phillips

What are the reasons for such a Negative perception towards Wind farms in rural Pembrokeshire?

Contents

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2-51.2 Methodology ….……………………………………………………………………………………………… 6-81.3 Questionnaire …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Chapter 2 - The Age of Renewables

2.1 Sustainability .…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 102.2 Fuel Depletion ..………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11 2.3 Pollutant Emissions & Environmental Impact .……….…………………………………… 11-122.4 Renewable Energy ……………………………………………………………………………………… 12-132.5 Renewable Energy in the UK ……………………………………………………………………….13-172.6 Wind Energy in the UK ………………………………………………………………………………. 17-18

Chapter 3 - A Welsh Dimension

3.1 The Welsh Government & Renewables …………………………………………………………… 193.2 Energy for Wales: A Low Carbon Transition ………………………………………………… 19-21 3.3 Wind Energy in Wales ……………………………………………………………….………………. 21-22

Chapter 4 – A close look at the possible reasons for a negative attitudes towards wind turbines

4.1 Noise Annoyance ………………………………………………………………………..……………… 23-274.2 Disruption of Wildlife ………………………………………………………………………………... 27-294.3 Visual Impact …………………………………………………………………………………..………… 29-314.4 Not Cost-effective …………………………………………………………………………….……….. 31-334.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34- 36

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37- 39

Appendix ……………….……………………………………………………………………………………………… 40

Abstract___________________________________________________________

Sustainability as a way of thinking is something which has risen to prominence in

recent times. Renewable energy is something which is closely associated with

sustainability, a number of different factors have contributed to an increased need

for the implementation of renewable energy technologies. Currently wind energy is

leading the way when compared to its renewable energy counterparts such as hydro

and solar power. However, wind energy receives a great deal of opposition and there

are a number of reasons as why this might be. The aim of this investigation is to

evaluate the reasons behind people’s negative perceptions towards wind turbines

and to see whether these reasons are justifiable. The reasons which this particular

investigation examines includes whether wind turbines cause noise annoyance, have

a visual impact upon the landscape, disrupt local wildlife and as to whether people

deem such a technology cost-effective. The findings suggest that out of the given

impacts some are viewed as a greater concern than others for example both noise

annoyance and the visual impact wind turbines have upon a landscape can be

considered as the major reason as to why so many people oppose wind energy as an

alternative energy source. There are however, a number of ways in which these

impacts can be minimised in the case of noise annoyance both the mechanical noise

and aerodynamic noise can be reduced during the design phase of the turbines.

Locating the wind turbines away from residential can also reduce the effects of noise

annoyance. Choosing suitable sites for wind farms can also reduce the impact they

have on wildlife and in particular bird populations, as sites should be located away

from bird sensitive areas.

1

Chapter 1_____________________________________________________________________

1.1 Introduction

The transference away from using Fossil fuels is something which is becoming of

increasing significance; fossil fuels are finite resources and will inevitably run out.

The movement towards using renewable energy will help to decrease the reliance on

fossil fuels which currently is the primary form of energy production, this is poses a

number of problems for the future; one of in particular is the affect that they have

on the environment, not only when extracting the fossil fuels but also when we burn

them as a fuel source, this leads on to the threat which climate change can

potentially pose to future generations. The UK for example has plentiful supply of

various clean energies sourced from Wind, Waves and tides. This shift can be seen as

being integral if there is to be a reduction in the reliance on using fossil fuels and this

in turn will also decrease the impacts of climate change.

Welsh government has a significant role to play in the shift to renewables, Wales

having once been the predominant stakeholder in carbon based energy. The

government is now looking to emulate this by doing the same with low carbon

energy. The governments more recent ‘Energy Wales: A low carbon transition’ is a

great indication that Wales is prepared to take steps to insure its transition takes

place sooner rather than later, in order to secure Wales’ long term energy future.

Currently Wales’ renewable energy production comes primarily from sources such as

2

wind and Solar; this is a statistic which the Welsh government is looking to increase

considerably in the future. The first ministers insistence on being at the forefront

clean energy production one form which the welsh government is eager to explore,

is the possibility of harnessing the energy from the sea, the Severn estuary is a

particular point of interest with the development of the Severn barrage being

something which the Welsh government is considering, however this would pose a

number of challenges not only financially but environmental as well, (Welsh

Government, (2013).

Greater emphasis is being placed on small-scale renewable schemes by the Welsh

government, this means that small-scale renewable and low carbon energy

equipment, and this includes things such as:

Solar panels for Walls/Roof

Standalone Wind Turbines

Flues

Water/Air Heat Pumps

By ensuring that renewable technologies are being developed on a domestic front,

this helps facilitate the progression of renewable energy in Wales and it also helps

the Welsh government fulfil its goals which were established in ‘Energy Wales: A low

Carbon transition’.

3

One form of energy in particular is that of onshore wind. This type of renewable

energy is something which gathered a lot of momentum in recent times. Wind

energy now contributes the largest share of renewable energy in the UK, this is

because of the UK’s high capacity to support onshore wind, (Renewable Energy,

(2013). Despite the demand for the use of alternative energy forms, wind energy is

something which creates a great deal of conflict, with people opposing wind farm

developments especially in rural areas. With there being both positive and negative

environmental impacts, this will have a bearing on the scale of its future

implementation, as there will need to be greater focus on enhancing the exposure of

the positives whilst minimizing the negatives of wind turbine developments. The

government’s policy for renewable energy is something which has a significant

influence on onshore wind turbine developments, with the government’s insistence

on increasing Wales’s renewable energy contribution.

Despite wind energy being an obvious energy alternative there is still great conflict

surrounding it, there are a number of different reasons for the consumers reluctance

to accept it as a viable source of energy. This is something which not only applies to

wind energy but renewable energy as a whole, (Sardianou et al, (2013). There are

various reasons as to why people are apprehensive towards wind turbine

developments; whether it be because of Noise pollution, disruption of wildlife, visual

impact, whether it is cost effective and if they are causing the countryside to become

despoilt.

4

The objective of the investigation is to determine the reasons as to why there is such

a negative perception towards wind farms in rural Pembrokeshire. This is something

which has previously had relatively little study (Knopper et al,(2011) and a study such

as this one would be integral in evaluating the specific causes behind peoples

pessimistic viewpoints, and in doing so would ensure the future development and

construction of wind farms in Wales if these issues were to be addressed.

5

1.2 Methodology

As part of the investigation a survey will be conducted in Narberth, which is situated

in rural Pembrokeshire.

Questionnaires will be the primary source of data collection, as it is a widely

accepted research instrument. However in order yield a high return rate of valid data

which can be used in the investigation the questionnaire needs to be carefully

planned and designed.

There are a number of positives to using a questionnaire as a research instrument, it

allows for the target audience to be clearly identified also because it is quantitative

data it is relatively straightforward when analysing the data, because questionnaires

tend to consist of primarily closed questions and in this instance implementing a

scale indicating their degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement it also

assures that it is made clear what is being asked of the respondents.

There are however a number of disadvantages to using questionnaires, this is

dependent on the respondent whether they have adequate literacy skills to

understand what is being asked of them, a visual impairment or if they are non-

English speakers all of these variables can determine the success of a questionnaire.

As is the case with this particular questionnaire there is little opportunity for the

respondent to present their perspective on the issues being discussed because of the

lack of open questions, however in this instance closed questions provide greater

6

assistance in identifying the causes for peoples negative perceptions towards wind

turbines because it allows for straightforward data interpretation, (Marshall, G

(2005).

The questionnaires will be distributed in the rural market town of Narberth, this can

be seen as an ideal location because it is considered as a hub for many of the

neighbouring towns and villages and will allow for greater scope with regards to

peoples responses.

The research will be quantitative, taking a close look at the various views and

opinions given by the population, a large sample will be used, which will consist of

random respondent house owners and pedestrians, this will allow for a wider range

of results, the questionnaire will include both open and closed questions aimed at

identifying the reasons behind such a negative perception, a number of key reasons

have been identified as to why people do not approve of wind farm developments

these include:

Noise Annoyance,

Disruption of Wildlife,

Visual Impact and

Not cost-effective

The information gathered from the questionnaires will assist in evaluating each of

these factors and to see whether any of them are a real cause for concern. The

7

primary data will be supplemented with a number of secondary sources in order to

come to a conclusion on why there is such a negative perception towards wind

turbines and whether it is warranted.

1.3 Questionnaire

8

Reasons for such a Negative perception towards Wind farms in rural Pembrokeshire?

The purpose of this questionnaire is to see what the general perception towards Wind farm developments in Pembrokeshire. If you could take the time to complete the questionnaire it would be much appreciated. The information gathered will only be used as part of my undergraduate Geography Dissertation. __________________________________________________________

1. Do you agree with the current Government policy on Wind Turbines?Please circle the correct boxAgree Unsure Disagree Not sure what

it is

2. Has there been any Wind Turbine developments in your area? Yes No

3. Do you think the government should look at other alternatives energy sources instead of relying so heavily on Wind energy? Yes No

4. Do you agree with the construction of Wind Turbines? Yes No If Yes, thank you for taking time to answer my questionnaire, if not please continue to questions 5 and 6

5. If No please rate on a scale of 1-10, with 1 being of least concern and 10 being most concern the reasons as to why you do not agree with there development:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Noise AnnoyanceDisruption of WildlifeVisual ImpactNot Cost-effective

6. Any other comments?

9

Chapter 2 – The Age of Renewables ___________________________________________________________

2.1 Sustainability

Sustainability is a concept which was identified as a means of reducing the ever

increasing gap between development and the environment. The term sustainable

development received a great deal of impetus and rose to prominence following the

report in 1987 from the World Commission on Environment and Development

(WCED), this report which is often referred to as the Brundtland report defined

‘Sustainable development’ and development which ‘meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’,

(World Commission on Environment and Development (1987).Further awareness on

the issue of sustainability was raised in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro

(the UN Conference on Environment and Development) this compounded what was

established in the Brundtland report and built on these foundations. It recognised

that the concept of sustainable development needed to embedded within new

strategies and that a balance between economic and social development with

environmental protection was essential to this, (Rogers, P et al (2008). As a result of

this government bodies around the world have been encouraged to conserve

depleting fuel resources and to stimulate the development and use of renewable

energy sources, (Hammond, G (1997).

10

2.2 Fuel Depletion

Hammond, G (2000) stated that ‘Energy systems pervade industrial societies and

weave a complex web of interactions that affect the daily lives of citizens’, the

continued dependency on fossil fuels has raised a number of questions over the

need to improve the efficiency of resource use, because if ignored could create a

number of problems in the future; this especially could prove problematic in

developed countries, with them using energy in vast quantities and at a rapid rate

for both domestic and industrial demands, (Bell, A (1995). Fossil fuels are a finite

resource; they include coal, crude oil and natural gas, they have formed the basis of

our energy production for many years. The combustion of finite reserves of fossil

fuels makes them increasingly susceptible to depletion. Oil has around 20-40 years of

life, Natural Gas has 40-70 years of life and Coal has the longest lifetime based on

current consumption rates with 80-240 years of life, these figures despite being

rough estimates highlight the insecurity of fossil fuel supplies, and the need to adapt

our current energy production methods in order to prolong its usage, this can be

achieved by transitioning to a more renewable based approach (Hammond, G

(1997).

2.3 Pollutant Emissions and Environmental Impact

As a result of the combustion of fossil fuels there are a number of pollutants which

can have a damaging effect on human health and the environment, examples include

smog caused by traffic emissions in urban areas, the formation of acid rain from the

pollutant emissions from fossil fuel based power stations and the potential for

11

increased greenhouse effect from combustion produced pollutants, (Hammond, G

(2000).The environmental concern which has received the most attention is global

warming; this is as a consequence of the combustion of fossil fuels (70-75% of all

CO2 emissions),and the emission of green house gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2)

and nitrous oxide (NO), the high concentrations of CO2,which are mainly of man-

made origin, in the atmosphere can be seen as the driving force of global warming,

(Nel et al (2009). As a consequence of Global warming, temperatures worldwide are

increasing, this comes with its own implications, and one in particular is the melting

of glaciers and sea ice this can cause further problems with it having a knock on

effect to sea levels, within them predicted to rise to between 7 and 23 inches in the

next century. There is likely to be increased precipitation in some areas, with floods

becoming more common also in contrast some areas will experience more droughts.

It will also influence significant change within ecosystems, with species that depend

on one another becoming out sync, (Solomon, S (2007). However, these outcomes

can be reduced if we were to adapt our energy usage and reduce the amount of

greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.

2.4 Renewable Energy

With a more sustainable approach to energy production being adopted by many

governmental bodies, renewable is something which rose to prominence. This

transition to more renewable sources of energy came as a reaction to the Kyoto

Protocol which was signed in 1997 by 192 countries with the UK being one of the

parties who signed the agreement. It committed industrialized countries to reduce

12

emissions of greenhouse gases, (Roger, P et al (2008).The UK for example will have

to reduce carbon emissions to 20% of their 1990 value by 2050, (P. Allen et al,

(2014).

Twidell et al (1986) defines renewable energy as ‘energy obtained from the

continuous or repetitive currents of energy recurring the natural environment’ or it

is defined as ‘energy flows which are replenished at the same rate as they are used’,

(Sorensen, B (2000). Both Twidell et al (1986) and Sorensen, B (2000) talk about the

various different types of renewable energy and how these can be utilised in order to

ease the transition away from fossil fuel dependency. The different types of

renewable energy include:

Wind Power

Solar Energy

Hydro Power

Bio Energy

Geothermal Energy

2.5 Renewable Energy in the UK

Brennand, T (2011) talks about how the UK in particular has a solid foundation, to

which it can harness its renewable energy potential; it can achieve this through a

13

combination of renewable technologies with the most viable options being wind

energy and biomass this will in turn will increase the UK’s capacity for renewable

energy. The UK government has a significant role to play in the transition to more

renewable methods of energy production. The UK government have produced a

number of strategies and policies in order to facilitate the transition to renewable

energy sources; one strategy in particular is the UK Renewable Strategy

(Department of Energy & Climate Change (2009),this outlines the government’s

intentions of how they are going to achieve their goal of having 15% of energy

production coming solely from renewable energy sources by 2020, this sort of

government action will create further impetus to the topic, and in turn act as a driver

for progress. The government provides support to renewable energy market; this

can come in a number of forms whether it is financial, institutional or educational.

Financially the government provides support through subsidies, grants or feed in

tariffs; these schemes are mainly in place to promote small-scale renewable energy

industries, (White et al (2013).

However, White et al (2013) voiced his concerns on the difficulties of implementing

successful Renewable energy policy at all levels of governance. He believes that the

government should have a proactive approach, private companies respond primarily

to financial gains, whereas a fundamental aspect of governance is the importance of

social welfare. There are a number of linkages between social welfare and energy

these include energy supply, energy affordability, energy security and sustainability.

14

White et al (2013) believes that a wide range of goals set by governments can affect

the consistency of their policies.

Brennand, T (2004) discusses the difficulties that the renewable energy development

faces at the planning phase. Localities in the UK are in opposition to a number of

renewable energy developments. Such disapproval is in response to them wanting to

defend their amenity, with many local populous placing great value on the

landscape, this is coupled with the value of many houses specifically in rural areas;

Wind turbines in particular have been accused of having a damaging affect on the

countryside not only environmentally but visually as well. This draws on the idea of

reactive ruralism which was examined by Michael Woods (2003), reactive ruralism is

the mobilisation of a rural population to protect the landscape from having

something imposed upon it, and in this case it is renewable energy developments.

Connor, P (2003) also talks about the countries capacity for renewable energy with a

wealth of renewable resources, and it having optimal conditions for renewable

energy in Europe. It has the some of the best wind resources when compared to

other European nations, in particular in Scotland, in addition to this the UK’s long

coastline presents an idea opportunity for the development of wave and tidal

technology, there is also the possibility for the exploitation of biomass.

He goes onto talk about energy policy in the UK and how it originated. The platform

to which all current energy policy in the UK was established in Energy paper 55,

15

which was called renewable energy in the UK: The way forward, and was published

by the department of energy in the UK, its aims included:

To stimulate economic exploitation of alternative energy resources in the UK;

Establish and develop options for the future;

The ideas put forward in this paper were further sustained in Energy paper 60

(Renewable Energy Advisory Group: Report to the President of the Board of Trade),

and were advanced further in Energy paper 62 (New and Renewable Energy: Future

prospects for the UK). In 2002 the Renewable Obligation was introduced, prime

objective was to stimulate the generation of electricity from renewable sources; it

places an obligation on energy suppliers to produce some of their electricity from

renewable energy sources. The Renewable Obligation made some change to the

original aims laid out in previous policy these changes included:

Assist in the reduction of emissions including greenhouse gases in order to

meet national and international targets;

To create sustainable, diverse and competitive energy supplies;

Help to make UK renewable industry to become competitive and to provide

employment and to assist with rural development.

Woodman, B (2011) however, talks about some of the failing of the Renewable

Obligation, as it was heavily criticised for its lack of effectiveness as an instrument to

16

encourage the implementation of renewable energy. Despite its failings it is still used

as a mechanism in aiding with renewable energy in the UK.

2.6 Wind Energy in the UK

There a great amount of potential for wind energy in the UK, whether it be on-shore

or offshore, (Boyle, G (2012). With Scotland in particular possessing the highest

percentage of wind energy resources, offering up development possibilities for the

onshore wind energy industry. Wind energy resources can contribute significant

amounts to the UK government’s efforts in transitioning to renewable forms of

energy production, (UK onshore wind (2001). Currently Wind energy in the UK

contributes the largest share of renewable energy, (Renewable UK (2013). Wind

energy is also the cheapest energy alternative available, Rajgnor, G (2010) in an

interview with the chief executive of the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA)

Christopher Kjaer he stated that “onshore will be the most affordable option for

most countries”.

There is also the case of offshore wind energy, which can be seen as a credible

energy source and account for a large proportion of renewable energy production.

The UK for example was lacking in comparison to some of its neighbouring countries

in terms of implementing wind energy on onshore and offshore. Offshore

development generally costs more than onshore installations. However despite the

higher cost, offshore wind speeds are generally higher and it is more practical to

utilize large scale wind turbines than on land, this is increases the economic viability

17

as more energy is able to be captured from one turbine, (Boyle, G (2012). The UK in

recent times has seen the emergence in implementing wind energy capacity at sea it

achieved this implementing it in phases. A pilot scheme was first used in 2000 and

since has seen been followed by a number of developments, many of which have

been completed, (Jay, S (2011).

Despite wind energy being a viable alternative energy source within the UK, with the

UK’s vast capacity potential. There is still a great deal of apprehension surrounding

the development of wind energy technologies, whether they are onshore or

offshore. There are a number of reasons for the consumers reluctance in terms of

there feasibility as an alternative energy source, this is something which not only

applies to wind energy but renewable energy sources as a whole, (Sardianou et al

(2013).

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Chapter 3 – A Welsh Dimension

___________________________________________________________________

3.1 The Welsh Government and Renewables

The implementation of renewable energy technologies in Wales is the focus of the

Welsh Government, as they can be said to play an important role in the shift to

renewables. Wales was once an influential stakeholder in the carbon based energy

industry and now looks to replicate this by doing the same with low carbon energy.

‘Energy Wales: A low carbon transition’ one of the more recent policies to be

produced by the welsh government is suggestive of the direction that the Wales is

taking in order to insure the transition to renewable energy takes place sooner

rather than later, and to safeguard Wales’s long term energy future. At present

Wales’ renewable energy sources are primarily made up of solar and wind; the

Welsh Government is looking to build upon this by increasing the amount of energy

produced by solar and wind, and also expanding to use other forms of renewable

energy. (Welsh Government (2013).

3.2 Energy for Wales: A Low Carbon Transition

The First Minister of Wales, Carwyn Jones, states that ‘Energy is a defining issue of

our generation’ (Energy for Wales: A Low Carbon Transition (2012) p5),this is

something which has received universal recognition, with increased awareness on an

international scale. The Welsh Government policy makers have outlined the course

of action necessary for Wales as a nation to progress and achieve its goals of

becoming an influential figure in terms of low carbon energy production. Energy for

Wales: A Low Carbon Transition identifies the importance of energy, with it

19

underpinning the economic, social and environmental wellbeing of people and

communities in not only Wales but globally.

Wales contributes only 9% in terms of electricity generation in the UK this is a

relatively small amount, with the majority of electricity generation in Wales coming

from Gas, whereas in the past it was sourced mainly from coal, this is because of the

wealth of coal resources available in Wales. There has been some growth in the

renewable energy generation from 2.9% in 2004 to 5.1% in 2010 this steady rise is

likely to continue into the future with the more investment from the Welsh

Government. Wales has a wealth of resources which include a wide range of energy

sources, significant wind resources, with a large capacity for both onshore and

offshore, this coupled with significant wave and tidal energy potential could prove

important in the Welsh Governments efforts in transitioning to a low carbon

economy. In addition to this there is also the prospect of increased implementation

of solar resources, by diversifying energy generation methods and using cleaner

energy sources it will aid in transitioning away from carbon based energy generation,

(Energy for Wales: A Low Carbon Transition (2012) p9).

With the various types of energy sources beginning to come to the forefront of the

energy market in Wales, there is significant potential for new jobs to be created, it is

predicted by 2020 there will be over 250,000 new jobs created within the energy in

sector in the UK, (Energy for Wales: A Low Carbon Transition (2012) p6). The Welsh

Governments intends to improve Wales’ energy output without hindering the

20

countries economy and instead seeks to provide economic benefits through the

creation of jobs, supporting and engaging with businesses who advocate the

governments ambition of facilitating a low carbon transition and also show support

to the most vulnerable within welsh society who may suffer as a result of the

reformation of the energy market. In terms of employment Simas and Pacca (2014)

have stated that there can be some link between renewable energy technologies and

employment rates, this is something which would prove beneficial in Wales with its

wealth of renewable energy sources, whether they be direct jobs which include the

construction, operation and management, or indirect jobs in the supply of materials

used to construct the various renewable energy technologies.

The Energy for Wales’s policy does not only present opportunities from an economic

standpoint but social and environmental as well. The premise of the policy is not

only to establish a framework for the present but also looking to taking action that

will benefit in the long term.

3.3 Wind Energy in Wales

Wind energy, including both onshore and offshore can make a substantial

contribution to the renewable energy targets which the Welsh Government have set

out to achieve. The welsh countryside can be said to offer optimal conditions for the

development of onshore wind energy, however all wind developments must be

situated in Strategic Search Areas (SSAs), these are identified in through a number of

different ways. Strategic Search Areas don’t necessarily need to be located in areas

21

which demonstrate a degree of suitability in both economic and environmental

terms. Areas which display the required characteristics can be deemed Strategic

Search Areas for example upland areas, places that are sparsely populated in order

to avoid any conflict, open and extensive areas which have a relatively good wind

resource. As part of the Technical Advice Note 8, onshore wind developments must

be concentrated in Strategic Search Areas, however there is now some potential for

the wind power developments within urban areas more specifically in brownfield

sites, (Technical Advice Note 8: Planning for Renewable Energy (2005) p5-7). Despite

Wales offering some of the best conditions to support wind power developments

there is still a great deal of apprehension surrounding the subject.

An example of a Wind power development in the welsh countryside is Mynydd

Llansadwrn, it received a great deal of opposition from the local communities who

formed the Mynydd Llansadwrn action group in response. The area was under threat

from the development of a number wind turbines during 2003. A proposal was put

forward to Carmarthenshire county council, outlining the plans to erect three 91

metre high wind turbines, however a planning application was not submitted. As part

of the construction it would require 15 foot wide access roads to the site, in order to

carry the heavy equipment and machinery. They would also need to drill into the

bedrock to a considerable depth in order to build huge concrete pads to support the

turbines. The construction of these wind turbines would be a major project, and

even during the construction process would have considerable effect on the

surrounding environment, (Mynydd Llansadwrn Action Group (2003).

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Chapter 4 – A close look at the possible reasons for a negative

perceptions towards Wind Turbine

____________________________________________________________________

Wind Energy is something which can be considered to have both positive and

negative environmental impacts. The negative impacts can be said to be the main

reason behind the generation of such widespread opposition to wind energy

developments. Careful management of both the positive and negative impacts will

be in integral to the future implementation of wind energy on a larger scale, (Boyle,

G (2012).

4.1 Noise Annoyance

Wind turbines are often presented as being incredibly noisy or as being a nuisance to

people who live in close proximity, this can be considered as one of the main issues

with regards to the widespread negativity to which wind energy developments

receive.

However, it is not clear as to whether considering noise as a negative impact is

justified.

Noise which is generated by wind turbines can be separated into two different types,

(Saidur et al (2011):

Mechanical noise

Aerodynamic noise

Mechanical noise for example is a result of the components within the wind turbine

moving such as the electrical generator, gear box and bearings. This type of noise

23

can also originate from poor maintenance of the wind turbine. In contrast

aerodynamic noise is not caused by the components of the wind turbines but by the

flow of air through the blades of a turbine, this tends to become more prominent

when the speed of the turbines increases. However despite these being the root

cause of much of the noise generated by wind turbines there are a number of way in

which both mechanical and aerodynamic noise can be minimised. For instance,

mechanical noise can be reduced when designing the turbines, or through acoustic

insulation of the interior of the turbine. There are also way in which aerodynamic

noise can be decreased this is generally done during the design phase, more

specifically looking at the blades of the wind turbines, (Oerlemans et al (2007).

At present wind turbines tend to be much quieter when compared their

predecessors, adhering to the noise imission requirements. Noise imission is a

measurement of the cumulative noise energy that a person may be exposed to over

a period of time. It equates to the average noise level (db) which someone has been

exposed to, plus ten times the logarithm (log10) of the number of years to which a

person has experienced it, (Boyle, G (2012).

In the UK wind turbine noise levels must follow the guidelines currently in place, for

example noise limits for medium and large sized wind turbine, should be relative to

any background noise with varying limits for both day time (35-40 db) and night time

(43 db). The Noise limit during the day is dependent on a number of different

factors, for instance the limit can be determined when looking at the number of

24

buildings in the surrounding area, and by the time and level to which individuals may

be exposed. Small sized wind turbines differ from their larger counterparts are

allowed a slightly higher noise limit of 45 db.

A wind turbine at a distance of 350 metres carries a noise level of 34-35 decibels

(db), a car for example has a much higher noise level with an average noise level

between 80-89 decibels (Boyle, G (2012), this is considerably higher than the noise

level of a wind turbine and it is something which people come into regular contact

with. Cars unlike wind turbines receive very little opposition from the public, this

could also be due to their visibility and are considered by many to be an unnecessary

imposition on the landscape, and this could in turn influence people’s negative

attitudes towards wind turbines. Pedersen et al (2010) discussed the possibility of

altering the parameters for assessing where wind turbines should be located, and

instead to look at areas that already experience significant noise exposure as it could

be used to then mask out the sound produced by the wind turbines, for example

areas which are exposed to considerable road traffic noise. It was concluded from

the investigation that road traffic noise did reduce the prevalence of annoyance that

the noise from the wind turbines caused. This should be brought into consideration

during the planning phase of such wind energy developments, it could be beneficial

for future development proposals, because of the reduced noise annoyance from

wind turbines, it may as a result alter people’s perceptions towards them. However,

with the increased implementation of wind turbines noise annoyance could become

an even bigger problem, as suitable locations are increasingly more difficult to find

25

and could see more wind energy developments in more populated areas, (Van

Renterghem et al (2013).

A close look at people's views on wind turbine developments in Narberth, Pemrokeshire

26

4

13

1715 15

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Yes No

No. o

f res

pond

ents

who

ans

wer

ed

eith

er Y

es o

r No

Have there been any Wind Turbinedevelopments in your area?

Do you think the governmentshould look at other alternativeenergy sources instead of relyingso heavily on Wind energy?

Do you agree with the constructionof Wind Turbines?

Figure 1 – Primary data, collected 5th January 2014: A look at people’s views on wind turbine developments in and around the area of Narberth, Pembrokeshire. As can be seen in figure 1 most of the respondents were aware of any wind turbine

developments in the area, and also the vast majority of people believed wind energy

was the most viable of the various energy sources, however 50% of respondents did

not agree with the construction of wind turbines.

Noise Annoyance as a reason for people's negative attitudes towards wind turbines

3

8

4

0123456789

Noise AnnoyanceNo, o

f res

pond

ents

who

rate

d no

ise

pollu

tion

betw

een

1-10

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Figure 2 – Primary data, collected 5th January 2014: A look at Noise Pollution as a reason for people negative attitudes towards Wind Turbines.

26

Figure 2 suggests that the vast majority of the 15 respondents who do not agree with

the construction of wind turbines believe that the noise produced by wind turbines is

of particular concern. This can be considered a universal viewpoint of the many

people who live in the vicinity of any wind turbine developments, and could be

regarded as one of the key reasons for people’s negative feeling towards them.

4.2 Disruption of Wildlife

The effect that wind turbines have on wildlife can also be brought into question

when examining the reason behind people’s negative perception towards wind

turbines.

Disruption of Wildlife as a reason for peoples negative attitudes towards wind turbines

2

5

2

6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Disruption of Wildlife

No. o

f res

pond

ents

who

rate

d di

srup

tion

of w

ildlif

e be

twee

n 1-

10 1

23

4

5

67

8

910

Figure 3 – Primary data collected 5th January 2014: A look at the effects that wind turbines have on wildlife.

As can be seen in figure 3 the majority of the respondents did not feel that wind

turbines have had that much of an effect on the wildlife. In contrast to the views

held by the respondents a number of studies indicate otherwise, that wind turbines

do in fact have a significant effect on a number of different species of wildlife.

27

For instance, Tabassum-Abbassi et al (2014) talks about turbine-induced wildlife

mortality, paying particular attention to both birds and bats. There is a significant

variation in the number of turbine-killed birds and bats, this is dependent on where

the turbines are located and also takes into consideration a number of different

factors which include:

Weather conditions,

Topography,

Location, and

Size of the wind turbines

For example when there are adverse weather conditions the likelihood of a collision

with a wind turbine is drastically increased; poor visibility may come about as a result

of either rain or fog, also strong winds may also impact both a birds and bats ability

to fly thus increasing collision rates, (Tabassum- Abbassi et al (2014).

The increased implementation of wind turbines has had a consequential effect on

the local population level of raptors, which are also known as birds of prey, this term

includes various species of birds. In terms of vulnerability raptors are at high risk, this

is as a result of the displacement from their habitats and because of the growing

number of fatalities from the collisions with the wind turbines themselves.

Bellebaum et al (2013) discusses the affects that wind turbines can have on raptors,

and in particular one species of raptor, Red Kites. Red Kites have experienced a

28

recent population decline, this whilst not necessarily being as a result of increased

implementation of wind turbines it can be considered as partly responsible for the

additional mortality of the Red Kite population. However, despite wind turbines

having some effect on the Red Kite population, there are other human induced

reasons for increased mortality rates.

Whilst there are concerns that a considerable increase in wind turbine developments

could have a negative effect on bird populations. Nevertheless, there are ways in

which this can be prevented, developers when assessing the suitability and

designating a site for future wind turbines proposals, they need to take into account

the bird sensitivity of these areas, (Boyle, G (2012).

4.3 Visual Impact

The Visual Impact of wind turbines as a reason for people negative perceptions towards them

32 2

8

0123456789

Visual impactNo. o

f res

pond

ent w

ho ra

ted

visu

al

impa

ct b

etw

een

1-10

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Figure 4 – Primary data collected 5th January 2014: A look at the effect that the visual impact of wind turbines has on people’s perceptions.

29

It is evident from figure 4 that much like noise annoyance the visual impact which

wind turbines have on a landscape is one of the main factors behind the public

resistance against them, (Tsoutsos et al (2009) with more than 50% of the

respondents rating it eight out ten in terms of it being of most concern.

The visual impact of wind turbines is regarded as subjective topic, in the sense that it

is very much dependent on the person, and a number of variables may influence a

person’s view. For example the impacts that wind turbines have on the aesthetic of

the landscape; this includes a number of variables such as its colour, size and

fractality. This draws on the work done by Sibille et al (2009) which considers the

wind turbines poor aesthetic integration into the landscape; it could be regarded as

an alien feature because of its artificial appearance and because most wind turbines

which are located in rural areas tend to be over one hundred metres tall.

The idea that landscape is an important asset for every individual, not only from a

naturalistic standpoint but it is also important in terms of social and economic

domains; this plays a fundamental role in why there is such widespread public

opposition. Wind turbines have to be located in areas which are able to exploit the

wind conditions in order to produce large quantities of energy; these sites tend to be

very visible either on summits or in vast open areas. Many consider them to be an

unnecessary imposition upon the landscape impacting the natural beauty of an area

this is particularly apparent in rural areas it also can create tension if they are located

near popular tourist destinations, (Katsaprakakis, D (2012). However, people’s

30

perceptions towards them varies depending upon the size, the number of turbines in

a wind farm and the way the turbines have been positioned, (Sibille et al (2009).

When discussing the visual impacts of wind turbines, the effect of shadow flicker

must also be considered. This is only tends to happen at certain times of year, it is

caused by the interaction of the sunlight with the rotating blades from the wind

turbines, this casts moving shadows over the surrounding area. When there are wind

farms located near residential areas, shadow flicker can become a serious problem.

However, the effects that shadow flicker caused by wind turbines can be avoided

through careful planning when locating them, if they are positioned 500 metres

away from any settlements the effects of shadow flicker are likely to be less,

(Katsaprakakis, D (2012).

4.4 Not Cost-Effective

There is also the debate over the cost-effectiveness of wind turbines. When looking

at the economics of wind energy a number of different factors need to be taken into

account, these include:

Annual energy production from wind turbines

Cost of installation

Maintenance costs

Length of the contract with the purchaser of the electricity produced

31

The cost-effectiveness of wind turbines as a reason for peoples negative perceptions

7

1

5

1 1

012345678

Not Cost-effective

No. o

f peo

ple

who

rate

d co

st-

effec

tiven

ess b

etw

een

1-10

1

2

3

45

6

78

9

10

Figure 5 – Primary data collected 5th January 2014: A look at the cost-effectiveness as a reason for people’s negative perceptions towards wind turbines.

It is evident from figure 5 that respondents felt that the cost effectiveness was of

least concern, with over 90% scoring it below 4. Wind turbines are not always able to

function at full capacity, this is known as the capacity factor which describes the

output of the of a wind turbine over a period of time, this is because there is not a

constant full rated wind speed through out the year. A wind turbines capacity factor

is dependent on where it is located, when the wind speed is higher the capacity

factor is also likely to be higher, for example large parts of Carmarthenshire offers

optimal conditions in terms of wind speed sites.

However, despite the general uncertainty on how much energy a wind turbine will

produce, they are relatively easy to install, and since the introduction of the

Renewable Obligation in 2002 by the UK government, (Connor, P (2003) wind energy

has become a more attractive renewable electricity source, because of the subsidies

on offer. Also when compared to other renewable energy sources such as hydro and

tidal power, wind energy is less capital-intensive and once installed, they are able to

produce electricity before there is any significant interest on the capital spent during

32

the construction phase of development. In this instance it can be considered that

wind turbines are cost effective, they offer a viable long term solution in terms of

energy production, in order to insure their viability there needs to be careful

planning when it comes to locating sites which provide the correct conditions in

order to insure a high capacity factor, (Boyle, G (2012).

33

4.5 Conclusion

With the obvious need for increased implementation of renewable energy

technologies, from the various available clean energy sources, wind energy can be

considered a viable option in comparison to its renewable counterparts. However,

despite its practicality there is a great deal of pessimism surrounding the subject.

There are a number of different reasons which can be considered when discussing

people’s opposition towards wind turbine developments; these include noise

annoyance, whether they disturb wildlife, have a visual impact on the landscape and

whether wind turbines are cost-effective. It is not clear as to whether people’s

resistance against wind energy developments is warranted. There are a number of

positives and negative impacts when looking at wind turbines and it is a case of do

the negatives outweigh the positives. The various reasons influence people’s

negative views towards wind turbines to varying degrees, for example, noise

annoyance and visual impact can account for most of the negativity directed towards

wind turbines. However, despite these negative impacts there are ways in which

they can be counteracted, for example during the design and planning phases of new

wind energy developments. The noise generated by wind turbines is usually either

mechanical noise or aerodynamic noise, both of which can be minimised either

during the design phase of the wind turbine itself or by slowing the speed at which

the blades rotate. Also when choosing sites for development, the wind turbines can

be located away from residential areas or near areas which are already exposed to

significant noise levels, an example of this is areas near motorways where there are

considerable amounts of road traffic.

34

Also with regards to visual impact, with the most suitable locations for development

tending to be in open expanses of land, the visibility of the wind turbines is

something which is increasingly difficult to prevent. However the shadow flicker

which is created as a result of the interaction between the sunlight and the rotating

blades of wind turbines, this similarly to neutralising the effects of noise annoyance

can be prevented by locating the wind turbines away from residential areas so that

no shadow is cast upon houses in the vicinity.

The less influential reasons such as the disruption of wildlife, wind turbines do in

fact impact wildlife and in particular birds. The raptor populations and more

specifically the Red Kite population have suffered as a result of the increased

implementation of wind turbines. This again is something which can be solved with

relative simplicity, by assessing an areas bird sensitivity before implementing any

proposals for wind energy developments, thus allowing for the wind turbines to be

in located in areas where they will have little impact on local bird populations.

The cost-effectiveness of wind turbines is also something which can be brought into

question, whilst not necessarily an impact it does however act as a means for people

to criticize wind energy, because of the cost to install wind farms and the lack of

immediate benefits. However, they can be considered economically viable in the

long term because they are less capital intensive when compared to other renewable

energy sources. Wind energy is also able to attract greater investment because of

35

the financial benefits (subsidies) available to investors, because of the policies put in

place by the UK government such as the renewable obligation.

Furthermore, when looking at each possible reason behind peoples negative

attitudes, there is rarely a negative impact without a positive to accompany it. This

leads onto the question as to whether people negative attitudes are justified. It is not

necessarily as simple as saying people are right or wrong in what they believe,

because in this instance it can be considered subjective in the sense that peoples

viewpoints are influenced by different elements from the wind turbine

developments and some factors may be cause for annoyance more than others for

different people.

The negative impacts caused by wind turbine however is something which both the

UK Government and the Welsh Government must pay close attention to and make

attempts to rectify them in order to facilitate a compromise between both the

developers and those who are in opposition to wind energy development. This will

allow for wind energy to continue leading the way in the UK’s transference away

from carbon based energy production to cleaner methods of energy generation.

36

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Appendix ___________________________________________________________

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