CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Adult education as an academic discipline has as one of its fundamental principle, the

provision of work-related education of adults who are so called by the society to which

they belong. Facilitators in charge of the actual teaching and learning activities and also

the administrators in the field of adult education are faced with the problem of financing

hence their inputs and effectiveness leaves much to be desired. Just like every other

educational or extra educational programme or organization, the need for financing

cannot be overlooked as man power, and material resources needed for such programmes

can only be acquired when there exist, a good financial reservoir from where they are

retrieved and duly used.

This paper highlights the dilapidating effects of poor financing of adult education in

Nigeria and also provides suitable and working strategies for effective financing of adult

education. Succeeding this chapter is a detailed examination into the various strategies

for financing adult education ranging from the contributions of private individuals,

governmental and non-governmental organizations as well as international bodies.

Background to the Study

In Nigeria, the demand for popular education is so high because education is not

only an investment in human capital, but also a pre-requisite as well as a prerogative for

economic development (Adeyemo 2000), The belief that adult education is an engine of

growth rests on the quantity and quality of education in any country. The National policy

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on Education (2004) explicitly states that education is a government affair in which free

education is to be provided by the government at all levels. The public sector is the major

provider and financier of adult education in Nigeria. This was based on the assumption

that it is only the government that can effectively provide education appropriately, given

the externalities associated with it.

Since the 1980s however the dwindling resources of government has put much

strain on the financing of adult education. Adult education which relates to all forms of

education be it formal or otherwise, that aims at availing adults (who are so called by the

society to which they belong) with the necessary skills, attitudes, tools, knowledge for the

development of themselves, in all ramifications, and that of the society to which the

belong cannot boast of possessing any chagrin if there are no enough fund available to

ensure its optimum pursuance and actualization of its goals. In the quest for development,

developing countries have acknowledged that investment in and adequate funding of

adult education are viable, conditions that facilitate change since the value of education

hinges on teaching, learning, research and the production of qualified personnel which

are needed for national development (UNESCO, 2002).

Characteristics of Adult Education

Educating adults differs from educating children in several ways. One of the

most important differences is that adults have accumulated knowledge and

experience that can add to or hinder the learning experience. Another difference is

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that most adult education is voluntary; therefore, the participants are generally

better motivated. Adults frequently apply their knowledge in a practical fashion to

learn effectively. They must have a reasonable expectation that the knowledge

recently gained will help them further their goals. One example, common in the

1990s, was the proliferation of computer training courses in which adults (not

children or adolescents), most of whom were office workers, could enroll. These

courses would teach basic use of the operating system or specific application

software. Because the abstractions governing the user's interactions with a PC were

so new, many people who had been working white-collar jobs for ten years or

more eventually took such training courses, either at their own whim (to gain

computer skills and thus earn higher pay) or at the behest of their managers.

In the Nigeria, a more general example is that of the secondary schools dropout

who returns to school to complete general education requirements. Most upwardly-

mobile positions require at the very least a University diploma or equivalent. A

working adult is unlikely to have the freedom to simply quit his or her job and go

"back to school" full time. Public school systems and community colleges usually

offer evening or weekend classes for this reason. In Europe this is often referred to

as "second- chance", and many schools offer tailor-made courses and learning

programs for these returning learners.

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Adult Education in Nigeria

Adult education in Nigeria, as in the British West African territory of the Gold

Coast, is almost entirely a matter of literacy campaigns conducted by government

departments on the one hand, and extra-mural activity by the country's one

university college on the other. The institution in 1948 of a university college at

Ibadan, the capital of Western Nigeria, was one result of a decision by Britain's

wartime government to develop higher education in the Colonies, a decision which

led also to the establishment of university colleges in the Gold Coast, East Africa,

Central Africa, the Sudan and the West Indies, and of a university in Malaya. All

the commissions strongly urged that at the university colleges which they proposed

should be established there should be extra-mural departments to develop adult

education, and except in Malaya this advice was everywhere followed.

However studies and critical investigations carried out by scholars and critics

show that the goal of adult education during the pre-colonial times in Nigeria was

not to improve on the literacy level of the Nigeria people but to equip them with

the skill, knowledge and attitude that will create room for effective communication

and manipulations. Adults who were thought to read and write and who showed

rapt interest and good performance in the activity are offered the jobs of

interpreters and focal persons through which the colonial administrators used affect

their rule (Indirect Rule).

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CHAPTER TWO

STRATEGIES FOR FINANCING ADULT EDUCATION: AN OVERVIEW

Adult education as well as all other educational programmes and activities may face

closure or on the long run failure, if they are not properly funded. Oghenekohwo (2004)

classified the financing of adult education into two regimes namely:

i. Pre-deregulation regime

ii. Deregulation regime

In the pre-deregulation regime, adult education funding in Nigeria was done by

government or public funding alone. High priority was accorded to funding higher

education, thereby creating a wrong impression amongst Nigerians that funding of adult

education is the exclusive preserve of "governments. On the other hand in the

deregulation regime, which is mostly a post Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)

inevitability, things began to change (Adedeji 2003; Okebukola 2003).

In the submission of Okebukola (2003), he noted that "an additional concomitant of

the 'private good' is that, grants have been changed to loans, pacing major burdens on

many “adult learners". Educational outcomes are products of the complex interactions of

the different stakeholders who participate directly in the schooling process (parents,

teachers, students, administrators, ministries etc) and other agents not directly connected

to the educational system. The financing of adult education should be the function of all

the major stakeholders. This is because government alone cannot fund adult education.

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Stakeholders Involved In the Financing of Adult Education

There are many stakeholders involved in the success of any educational system. The

major stakeholders include;

i. the governments;

ii. educational institutions;

iii. parents/guardians and;

iv. the private sector that employs the output of these institutions.

Others include the students and the society in general. In private institutions, the

incidence lies mostly on the individual while for the public sector ownership it lays on

the public sector. The benefits of adult education should be identified. Some studies

argued that education service should be above market forces and therefore should be

provided free meaning that government should bear the cost of education so that the poor

in the society can also get education. Other studies believed that not all forms of adult

education ensures equity but rather there is higher private returns in adult education and

as such individuals should be made to bear the cost of their education, while funding by

the government should be limited to the basic literacy education alone. The strategies for

financing adult education in Nigeria a numerous and they vary according to the size of

the programme to be launched. The strategies highlighted in this paper would be grouped

under the various stakeholders responsible for the financing of adult education as

indicated supra.

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The strategies include but are not restricted to the following:

a. Governmental Bodies/Agencies:

i. Taxes on salaries

ii. Tax allowances

iii. Public grants

b. Non Governmental Organizations (NGO), International Organizations as

well as Community Based Organization (CBO):

i. Grants or scholarship awarded by the state or other institutions;

ii. Contributions originating from local authorities;

iii. Joint finance agreement;

c. Educational Institutions

i. Registration fees;

ii. The sale of services, like training advice

d. Private Individuals:

i. Loans acquisitions

ii. Registration fees

iii. Grants from businesses

iv. Private accounts

e. Parents, Guardians and/or Prospective learners:

i. Payment of Fees and sundry

ii. Voluntary donation

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CHAPTER THREE

SOURCES OF FINANCE FOR ADULT EDUCATION:

NIGERIA AS A CASE STUDY

TAXATION

A tax (from the Latin taxo; "rate") is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon

a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a state or the functional equivalent of a state

to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to

taxation, is usually punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many administrative

divisions. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its

labour equivalent.

The purpose of taxes is to raise revenue to fund government. Money provided by

taxation has been used by states and their functional equivalents throughout history to

carry out many functions. Governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services

and adult education programmes. These services can include education systems, pensions

for the elderly, unemployment benefits, and public transportation.

Types of Taxes

i. Value added tax (Goods and Services Tax): A value added tax (VAT), also

known as Goods and Services Tax (G.S.T), Single Business Tax, or Turnover Tax

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in some countries, applies the equivalent of a sales tax to every operation that

creates value.

ii. Sales taxes : Sales taxes are levied when a commodity is sold to its final

consumer. Retail organizations contend that such taxes discourage retail sales.

iii. Excises: An excise duty is an indirect tax imposed upon goods during the process

of their manufacture, production or distribution, and is usually proportionate to

their quantity or value. The fundamental conception of the term is that of a tax on

articles produced or manufactured in a country.

iv. Tariff: An import or export tariff (also called customs duty or impost) is a charge

for the movement of goods through a political border. Tariffs discourage trade,

and they may be used by governments to protect domestic industries.

v. License fees: Occupational taxes or license fees may be imposed on businesses or

individuals engaged in certain businesses. Many jurisdictions impose a tax on

vehicles.

vi. Poll tax: A poll tax, also called a per capita tax, or capitation tax, is a tax that

levies a set amount per individual. It is an example of the concept of fixed tax.

PUBLIC GRANTS

Grants are non-repayable funds or products disbursed by one party (grant makers),

often a government department, corporation, foundation or trust, to a recipient, often (but

not always) a nonprofit entity, educational institution, business or an individual. In order

to receive a grant, some form of "Grant Writing" often referred to as either a proposal or

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an application is required. Most grants are made to fund a specific project and require

some level of compliance and reporting.

LOANS

In finance, a loan is the lending of money from one individual, organization or

entity to another individual, organization or entity. A loan is a debt provided by an entity

(organization or individual) to another entity at an interest rate, and evidenced by a

promissory note which specifies, among other things, the principal amount of money

borrowed, the interest rate the lender is charging, and date of repayment. A loan entails

the reallocation of the subject asset (s) for a period of time, between the lender and the

borrower.

Types of loans

1. Secured loans: A secured loan is a loan in which the borrower pledges some asset

(e.g. a car or property) as collateral. A mortgage loan is a very common type of

loan, used by many individuals to purchase things. In this arrangement, the money

is used to purchase the property.

2. Unsecured: Unsecured loans are monetary loans that are not secured against the

borrower's assets. These may be available from financial institutions under many

different guises or marketing packages.

3. Demand loans: Demand loans are short term loans that are typically in that they

do not have fixed dates for repayment and carry a floating interest rate which

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varies according to the prime lending rate. They can be "called" for repayment by

the lending institution at any time. Demand loans may be unsecured or secured.

4. Subsidized loans: A subsidized loan is a loan on which the interest is reduced by

an explicit or hidden subsidy . In the context of college loans in the United States,

it refers to a loan on which no interest is accrued while a student remains enrolled

in education.

5. Concessional loans: A concessional loan, sometimes called a "soft loan", is

granted on terms substantially more generous than market loans either through

below-market interest rates, by grace periods or a combination of both. Such loans

may be made by foreign governments to developing countries or may be offered to

employees of lending institutions as an employee benefit.

FREE WILL DONATIONS

A donation is a gift given by physical or legal persons, typically for charitable

purposes and/or to benefit a cause. A donation may take various forms, including cash

offering, services, new or used goods including clothing, toys, food , and vehicles . It also

may consist of emergency, relief or humanitarian aid items, development aid support, and

can also relate to medical care needs as i.e. blood or organs for transplant. Charitable gifts

of goods or services are also called gifts in kind. Donations are given without return

consideration. This lack of return consideration means that, in common law , an

agreement to make a donation is an "imperfect contract void for want of consideration."

Only when the donation is actually made does it acquire legal status as a transfer or

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property. In civil law jurisdictions, on the contrary, donations are valid contracts, though

they may require some extra formalities, such as being done in writing.

REGISTRATION FEES

CHAPTER FOUR

IMPACTS OF INTERNATIONAL AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL

ORGANIZATION IN FINANCING ADULT EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Apart from the government participation in organizing and financing of adult

education programmes in the developing countries; non-governmental organizations has

contributed immensely to the furtherance of adult education in Africa south of the Sahara.

NGOs are intermediate organizations dealing with development issues through

participation. They are universally recognized as active role players in financing adult

education programmes. A good number of them (both local and international) have

demonstrated the effectiveness of their programme delivery through the success they

have recorded in mobilizing community participation in community development

projects. NGOs do not pose themselves as competitors to the government but rather, as

partners to affect successful outreach to the programme they are committed to undertake

through the provision of funds and other resources.

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Non-governmental organizations have played a vital role in the development of

Adult Education in Nigeria. In 1959, the federal government of Nigeria invited an

international firm of management consultants, which has its headquarters in London, to

organize some courses in supervision and management for the Nigerian foremen,

supervisors and junior managers from private companies, government department,

parastatals and financial institution including the central bank.

UNESCO (United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNESCO is the specialized international organization for education, science and

culture within the United Nations system. It is the only international organization that

deals with education in a holistic manner, including all levels and modalities, and

integrating education culture and science. This places UNESCO in a unique position for

assuming and leading the educational revolution required, especially by the developing

countries. UNESCO has continued through its regular, participatory and operational

programmes to assist member states through the launching of the regional programme in

1984 for the eradication of illiteracy in Africa. Assistance of all kinds was provided since

1964 after the EWL (Experimental World Literacy Programme) to Tanzania, Guinea,

Mali, Sudan and Ethiopia as well as providing support after Jomtien to other countries

sdduch as Cote d’voire, Malawi, Madagasca, Mauritius, and many others.

WB (World Bank)

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The World Bank is not a specialized institution in adult education. It is a bank

whose interest in adult education is rather recent. Its 1995 education policy document had

marginal references to adult education, drew conclusions to its “poor record” but did not

include it among the “six key areas” to be supported in the future, and announced a

specific policy paper on adult literacy. Programmes/pilot projects are being supported in

all these areas, particularly in sub- Saharan Africa. Literacy programmes have also been

supported in Indonesia and Bangladesh. (WB/Adult Outreach Eduation Website).

UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)

The UNDP defined human development as something much more than the rise or

fall of national incomes. It is about creating an environment in which people can develop

their full potential and live protective, creative lives in accord with their needs and

interests. People are the real wealth of nations. It assists in accessing funds to project

implement factors and consultants who are undertaking research in Adult Education at

national levels. Its philosophy is one of co-ordination of UN activities through

networking and playing the role of a clearing house.

The agency’s interests in Adult Education is closely tied to the programmes of

poverty alleviation, women in development and human resource Development through

the use of Technical and Financial Support Services (T.S.S) work out at national level. In

Nigeria, it assists in the Women in Development Programme (WID) which focuses on

removing the constraints on the improvement of Nigerian women. (UNDP1993).

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PALAAE (Pan-African Association for Literacy and Adult Education)

This is another regional NGO in Africa. It was established at the initiative of the

World Bank in 1998 and evolved from a Donor to African Education (DAE)

organization. It was also in a network and a partnership with African ministers of

Education, International agencies, education specialists and researchers. ADEA’s eleven

working groups are engaged in advocacy, analytical work and capacity- building.

ICAE (International Council for Adult Education)

This was created in 1973 and had its headquarters in Toronto. It remains active as

a major global NGO network focused on Adult Basic Learning Education (ABLE). It

represents today, more than 700 literacy, adult and lifelong learning associations; it has

seven regional member organizations as well as national and sectional members in over

50 countries. ICAE’s mission is expressed as follows:

“To promote the use of adult learning, as a tool for

informed participation of people and sustainable development”.

In the emergence of knowledge-society, the ICAE promotes lifelong learning as a

necessary component for people to contribute creatively to their communities and live in

independent and democratic societies. Adult and lifelong learning are deeply linked to

social, economic and political justice; equality of gender relations; the universal right to

learn; living in harmony with the environment; respect for human rights and recognition

of cultural diversity, peace and the active involvement of women and men in decisions

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affecting their lives. (ICAE webpage). Its current programme includes gender and Adult

Education, International Literacy Support Service and Information and Communications.

ICAE is currently assisting the newly born regional associations in Africa. It is highly

committed to Adult Learning in both Africa and Arab region through its time response to

the call for financial support services and aids.

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