fire_precautions

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Contents

1. Introduction1.1 Fire safety engineering

2. Sprinkler systems2.1 General principles2.2 Sprinkler system components2.3 Maintenance2.4 Alternative fixed suppression systems

3. Dry and wet risers3.1 The system3.2 Design and components3.3 Fire extinguishers

4. Automatic fire detection and alarm systems4.1 The system4.2 Detectors4.3 Maintenance and testing

5. Fire stops and seals5.1 Pipe and cable protection5.2 Fire dampers

6. Ventilation of escape routes and zones6.1 Smoke clearance

6.2 Smoke control6.3 Pressurisation of escape routes

7. Fire safety during the construction of buildings

The College of Estate Management 2006

Paper 3567V2-0

Fire precautions


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Fire precautions Paper 3567 Page 3

1 Introduction

Good fire precautions are important, because a serious fire in a public building hasthe potential to harm many people. In all building types fire has the potential todestroy the building and its contents, leading to an economic cost often way in excessof the simple replacement cost of the building and contents when the effects on lostbusiness and peoples lives are taken into account. Serious fires in historic buildings

and archive resources can destroy irreplaceable heritage. In Europe it is estimated thaton average fire is responsible for 5 000 deaths per year and consumes 1% of theannual gross domestic production.

1.1 Fire safety engineering

Fire safety engineering has emerged as a building discipline in response to the need toprovide fire safe solutions for larger and more complex buildings. Constructionspecialists with a good understanding of how fire can affect a building and itsoccupants soon demonstrated their worth on construction projects and are nowcommonly involved on building projects of all types ranging from simple schools tolarge international airports to football stadia, etc. Consequently, this relatively

specialist sector of the construction industry is expanding in size.

In the United Kingdom the Building Regulations set a series of functionalrequirements for fire safety related to the need to ensure buildings:

Have an adequate means of escape

Will not collapse prematurely in a fire

Will not encourage excessive fire spread and a major conflagration

Have adequate facilities for the fire brigade to fight fires and rescue occupantsif required.

Guidance on suitable measures and methods for meeting these functionalrequirements is given in Approved Document B: Fire Safety 2000.

The majority of the following notes relate to fire safety in commercial, industrial orpublic buildings. In public buildings the risk posed by serious fire tends to be thepotential loss of life. In commercial and industrial buildings the potential cost of firetends to be economic loss, where the risk can be exacerbated by the storage ofhazardous materials, or in the case of warehouses, simply by the high volume ofcombustibles present. These notes discuss the common precautionary measures thatcan be taken to protect buildings against the risk of fire, either in response tolegislative or insurance requirements or as a matter of good practice.

Guidance on fire safety engineering for buildings is given in British Standard BS7974 Part 1 Application of Fire Safety Engineering Principles to the Design ofBuildings, BSI 2001, which is supported by seven PD guidance documents on variousaspects of fire safety engineering. For large, complex and innovative buildings fireengineering can be used to develop a fire strategy that considers the buildingholistically, including how its occupants are likely to respond in a fire, to develop thefire strategy and determine appropriate fire safety measures. However, a fireengineers involvement in a project will more typically involve looking at an aspectof a building that cannot easily comply with one aspect of Building Regulations, suchas extended travel distances. The fire safety engineering solution, therefore, requiressufficient compensatory features to justify the extended travel distances, but the rest

of the building can be designed and constructed in accordance with the requirementsof Approved Document B.


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A fire safety solution will look at providing a combination of active, passive anddesign features that achieve the required balance between the needs of the buildingdesign and those of safety. The features that need to be considered include:

Means of escape

Fire alarm and automatic fire detection

Behavioural response of the occupants

Measures taken to prevent fire

Spread of smoke and fumes and if necessary measures to control it

Fire development and its containment

Structural response to fire

Fire separation

Facilities for the fire services

Standard of fire safety management.

2 Sprinkler systems

2.1 General principles

Sprinkler systems use the cheapest extinguishing medium of water to suppress andcontrol fire growth. Water is contained within the system and is released when thethermal sprinkler heads are subjected to hot enough gases to operate. The thermaldevice can be a soldered link that parts, or, more commonly, a glass bulb with an airbubble within it that will expand at different rates to cause the glass to shatter andrelease the water. Only the heads subjected to high enough temperatures operate andapproximately 70% of all fires are controlled by five heads or fewer.

Sprinklers were developed for property protection, and over the last 100 years duringwhich they have been installed have achieved a very good success rate. During these100 years there have been very few fires that have managed to overwhelm a properlyinstalled and maintained sprinkler system, thus saving the building and protecting theoccupants within it.

Property protection still remains the principal reason for sprinklers to be installedwithin the UK, with the majority of systems being installed in industrial andcommercial premises. However, the value of sprinklers as a measure to protect lifehas been increasingly recognised. In Scotland, legislation has been introduced tomake sprinkler systems compulsory in residential homes (seewww.scottishexecutive.com). Similarly, in England and Wales, changes to Approved

Document B are also likely to make sprinklers mandatory in residential homes andhigh-rise apartment buildings. At present, sprinklers are only required for industrialand commercial buildings greater than 30m in height and in retail units that face on toenclosed malls. There has also been a move towards developing sprinkler systems fordwellings and some local authorities have promoted their use in high-risk housing,such as in cases of multiple occupancy.


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2.2 Sprinkler system components (Figure 1)

A sprinkler system comprises distribution pipework, sprinkler heads, and a watersupply. The pipework is usually in galvanised medium grade steel, but for certainresidential systems it may be either copper pipe or especially approved plastic pipe.Systems for low hazard occupancies, such as school buildings, can be employeddirectly from the towns water main, but more commonly are supplied via a breaktank with standby and duty pumps.

Although the water supply most commonly comes from a sprinkler tank with an infill,if suitable it can come from a private reservoir or alternative guaranteed water supply.Continuity of water supply is of paramount importance and the sprinkler pumpsshould have a backup emergency generator in the event of a mains failure.Alternatively one of the pumps can be a direct diesel-driven type.

The majority of sprinkler systems are wet systems, which as the name suggests iswhere the pipework is constantly charged with water. Dry systems have also beendeveloped, in which the pipework is filled with compressed air and a pre-action valveis provided that only operates when the fire alarm has signalled, allowing it to befilled with water. Thereafter, water will only be released to combat the fire if the

smoke temperatures are hot enough to cause one of the heads to operate. Dry systemsare installed where there is a concern with the freezing of pipework in largewarehouses and where there are concerns regarding accidental or malicious damage.

A combination of these systems is also feasible where the pipework is filled withwater in summer but becomes a dry system in winter.

The sprinkler head type most commonly seen is the pendant type, which hangsbeneath the ceiling. This comprises a solder link or thermal bulb that has to part toallow the water to flow through an opening of pre-designated size to hit the deflectorbelow to develop a water spray pattern to protect, typically, an area of approximately10m . The deflectors should not be more than 300mm below the ceiling, and theremust be a clear space of 300mm below the deflector within a radius of 600mm fromeach sprinkler to allow the spray pattern to develop. Similarly, sprinklers must not belocated within 600mm of columns or beams.

FIGURE 1 Components

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There have been many developments of sprinkler heads, including:

Concealed sprinkler heads, where the head is recessed in the ceiling behind asoldered plate, commonly used in offices

Sidewall sprinklers, which are used to project water on to a floor beneath avoid

Extra suppression fast response (ESFR) heads, which have been developed toprotect high-bay storage without intermediate sprinklers.

The most significant development in sprinkler head technology is the quick responsetype, as shown in Figure 2. This type of head has increased surface area and a lowerthermal mass that enables it to respond quicker in a fire. All sprinkler systemsinstalled for life safety should employ the quick response type heads.

The design and hazard classification of a sprinkler system is dependent on the type ofgoods stored and the method of storage. The selected hazard classification for thesystem determines the density of water that has to be developed and the maximumarea of operation that has to be assured. This then determines the size of the water

tank and pumps, which must be able to deliver the required water volume at theneeded system pressure.

2.3 Maintenance

Sprinkler systems should be inspected and tested weekly to ensure that alarmapparatus and water/air pressures are correct. Systems should be inspected in moredetail on a three-monthly basis for damage and the water/air supply, pumps, etctested. Sprinkler system pumps should undergo a full load test annually.

FIGURE 2 Quick response sprinkler heads


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Deluge and water mist systems

A deluge system is a specialist type of sprinkler installation where water is applied tothe fire through large capacity heads that are permanently open. The water supply iscontrolled by a deluge valve that can either be pneumatically operated to release thewater supply or in some cases be manually operated. Deluge systems are commonlyprovided to protext industrial machinery where there is potential for flammable fuelor coolant leaks.

Water mist systems deliver water at a high pressure through nozzles with small holesin them to provide a very fine spray with droplets measured in microns. The waterdroplets have a greater surface area than conventional sprinkler drops, giving them agreater capacity to absorb heat. In addition, water mist systems partially work byexcluding air from the seat of the fire. Consequently, water mist systems require onlyapproximately 10% of water volume compared to an equivalent sprinkler system.

Water mist systems have been used for around 100 years in specialist marineapplications, but are now being more commonly used within buildings forapplications such as protecting computer data rooms.

2.4 Alternative fixed suppression systems

There are certain building types for which sprinklers or deluge systems are notappropriate. The following section considers some of the alternative systems.

Foam systems use either chemical foam formed by chemical reaction or mechanicalfoam formed from air and water. Foam systems can be used to suppress liquid poolfires by forming a blanket on it that prevents oxygen getting to the fire. Highexpansion foam works on a similar principle but fills the whole space it is protectingto exclude the oxygen.

The type of foam used is dependent upon the potential for fire and the location. The

three categories of foam are:

High expansion foam, used where penetration down to the seat of the fire isimportant, eg engine rooms, warehouses and aircraft.

Medium expansion foam, which is heavier than the previous foam and usedfor external fires, eg petroleum storage areas.

Low expansion foam, which has a relatively low expansion rate, ie 20:1, andis used for boiler houses and transformer areas.

Foam can be manufactured either from chemicals, such as sodium bicarbonate andaluminum sulphate, in an aqueous solution with a foaming agent, or by a mechanicalmeans of mixing water, foam and air commonly known as foam air.

Foam inlet systems are fixed pipework systems which allow the fire service to injectfoam to high-risk areas, such as electrical substations. The fire brigade carries thefoam concentrate on its tenders and will mix it with the water that it is injecting toform the foam.

Dry chemical systems use powders such as sodium bicarbonate or potassiumchloride, which extinguish by preventing oxygen from uniting with the burning fuel.


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Inert gas systems have come to the fore with the phasing out of halon, (as an ozonedepleting gas in accordance with the Montreal protocol). Commonly used inert gasesare those that naturally occur in the atmosphere, such as argon, nitrogen or argonite,which is a combination of both. Inert gases work by injecting sufficient quantities,typically 35% by volume, to expel sufficient air from the enclosure to drive theoxygen concentration down to around 13%. At oxygen concentrations below 13%combustion will not occur.

90% of the inert gas has to be delivered within the first 60 seconds and therefore it isnormal to provide a pressure relief vent that prevents an excessive over-pressure fromdeveloping within the enclosures.

There are chemical replacements for halons, such as FM200, which preventcombustion occurring at a chemical level. These types of suppressants are popular inAmerica, but less so in Europe, where inert gases are preferred. Their one advantageis that because they work on a chemical basis the system needs to deliver lessconcentration, typically 8%, and, therefore, less space is required for the system andthe bottles can often be stored in the space that they are protecting.

3 Dry and wet risers

3.1 The system

In high-rise buildings, those with deep basements and large plan storage buildings, itis necessary to provide internal mains to provide the fire brigade with a ready supplyof water for them to connect their hoses to. These internal mains can be either dryrisers or wet risers.

As the name implies, a dry riser does not retain water permanently but is simply

(mainly) vertical pipe that can be connected to the fire brigade pumps in the event ofa fire. The fire brigade charges a dry riser by connecting their hoses to a hydrant andthen supplying the necessary pressure via the pumps in their tender. Generally dryrisers should be 100mm diameter for buildings up to 45m high, and 150mm diameterfor buildings up to 60m high, although this does also depend on the number of outletsat each floor level.

The maximum height at which a dry riser can be used is 60m, ie a building ofapproximately 20 storeys. This height is governed by the maximum pressure that thepumps on the fire brigade tenders can generate.

The alternative wet riser can be used for buildings exceeding 60m in height, but can

also be used in buildings where it is difficult for the fire brigade to gain access to arise inlet. The system is permanently charged with water at all times and has a systemof tanks and duplicate pumps to ensure adequate water pressure at the highest point.

If wet risers are to be installed they should be made operational as soon as possible toensure that the building under construction is properly protected.


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3.2 Design and components

A dry or wet riser is commonly formed from galvanised steel pipework and fittings;the diameter of the pipe depends upon the height of the building. Both systemsrequire the pipework to be bonded to earth.

Inlets to dry risers should be sited on the external wall of the building 760mm aboveground level and as close as practical to the riser. Two inlets are required for a

100mm diameter riser; four inlets to a 150mm riser. Inlets should be fitted inside ametal box glazed with wired glass and labelled dry riser inlet which is broken toenable connection.

With a wet system duplicate pumps are provided capable of a 410kPa at the highestoutlet and with a maximum pressure of 520kPa. Flow rates should be 15 litres/sec;the pumps should be connected to an emergency generator in the event of a mainsfailure.

The water is provided by means of a break tank or reservoir, which should be aminimum of 45m . A fire brigade breeching inlet at street level should be provided.

The outlet to a riser is usually situated in a protected firefighting lobby, which shouldbe a minimum of 5m to provide sufficient space for the fire brigade to set up theirhoses. The firefighting lobbies and stairs are provided with smoke control to keepreasonable conditions for fire brigade operations. The stairs and lobbies are combinedto form a firefighting shaft, and in buildings greater than 18m in height andbasements more than 10m deep, firefighting lifts should be provided. A typicalarrangement of a firefighting shaft is shown in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3 Firefighting shaft typical layout

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FIGURE 4 Dry riser


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FIGURE 5 Wet riser


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3.3 Fire extinguishers

In addition to fire brigade facilities, buildings should be provided with the means forthe buildings occupants to fight fires. This may enable fires to be dealt with in theirearly stages and prevent them from developing into major incidents.

In the United Kingdom, hand-held fire extinguishers are the preferred choice; theyshould be positioned near building exits, ensuring that no-one has to travel 30m to

reach one. Water-based extinguishers are the most common extinguisher type and areused for normal combustibles. CO extinguishers are also often provided in the officeenvironment to deal with electrical fires. Foam extinguishers are also provided inindustrial applications for dealing with flammable liquid fires.

In some buildings fixed hose reels can be used for first aid firefighting. A firefightinghose can be supplied directly from the towns main or a fire main and shoulddischarge at least 0.4 litres/sec at 6m from the nozzle.

4 Automatic fire detection and alarm systems4.1 The system

Automatic fire detection and alarm systems are now commonly fitted in mostbuildings. Although there are few buildings where this is an actual BuildingRegulations requirement, it is often required by the insurer. An automatic firedetection system can be an effective property protection measure when linked to aremote monitoring centre that will summon the fire brigade in the event of the systemoperating.

The components of a typical automatic fire detection and alarm system are:

Automatic sensor, which, as discussed in the following section, is typically anoptical or ionisation smoke detector.

Smoke detector panel, which at its simplest, will be zoned to allow the firelocation to be discovered once the position of the activated detector head isidentified.

Fire protected wiring.

Manual call points that enable occupants to raise the fire alarm by breaking thefrangible panel and pressing the button.

Main electrical supply, with either a diesel generator backup or, morecommonly, a battery backup system.

Warning device, which can be a sounder or, more typically in a publicbuilding, a voice alarm system. In environments with high ambient noiselevels, beacons are used to give visual alarms.

Not all systems have to be hard-wired. Radio-based detection systems were originallydeveloped for installation in existing buildings and those of historic note where theinstallation of a hard-wired system would be problematic. Now, radio detectionsystems are accepted for all locations; guidance on their installation is given in BS5839 Part 1 The Code of Practice for the Design, Installation and Commissioning ofAutomatic Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, 2004.

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4.2 Detectors

Types of automatic fire detection device include:

Optical heads, which work on the smoke particles scattering the passage oflight in a chamber.

Ionisation heads, which use a radioactive source to cause ionisation of

molecules to cause a flow between positively and negatively charged plates.The introduction of smoke particles causes a change in this flow, in turncausing an alarm signal to be given. Because of the requirement for aradioactive source the use of ionisation detectors in commercial properties isbeing phased out.

Heat detectors, which are either fixed temperature or rate of rise, and are usedin environments such as commercial kitchens, where there is too muchpotential for a smoke detector to cause unwanted alarms. There are also linearheat detection cables, which are used to protect cable ducts and extensivespaces such as car parks.

Beam detectors are used to protect tall spaces, by projecting a beam to areflector. If the strength of the returning beam is disrupted an alarm is given.

Aspirating detectors sample the atmosphere they are protecting by using asmall fan to positively draw smoke through a series of sampling points in smallplastic tubes. The air/smoke is then passed through an optically-based centraldetector. This approach can provide much greater sensitivity than pointdetectors, and is therefore used to protect data rooms, where the very earlydetection of potential signs of fire can enable trained staff to intervene andisolate the power, sometimes even before flaming ignition occurs. Aspiratingdetectors have also found favour in historic buildings, because the samplingpipe and points can be hidden.

Flame detectors, which work on either the ultraviolet or infrared spectrum, andare line of sight devices, meaning that they must be able to see the fire. Thesespecialist type detection devices are used to protect risks such as liquor storageareas, where any alcohol fire is unlikely to produce much visible smoke, and invery large spaces such as cathedrals, where conventional point detectors wouldnot be practical because of the volume involved.

In addition to the above, the following methods of detection are being developed buthave not yet been widely recognised or adopted.

Carbon monoxide (CO) detectors are being proposed for dwellings, theprinciple being that CO is always present in a fire in large quantities, and

concentrating on this fire signal eliminates unwanted alarms.

Image sampling, where computer programs analyse images being captured ona buildings closed circuit television (CCTV) system for unique fire signals.This offers the advantage that CCTV systems can be dual functioning,monitoring areas for fire as well as security.

4.3 Maintenance and testing

As with all fire systems the fire detection and alarm system should be regularlyinspected, tested and maintained. Activities include a weekly test of the alarm via amanual call point, a different one of which should be operated each week, regular

inspections of the system and its power supply, and functional testing of eachdetection device annually.


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5 Fire stops and seals

5.1 Pipe and cable protection

The importance of fire compartmentation was emphasised in earlier study notes.Penetrations that pass through compartment boundaries have to be adequately fireprotected to maintain their integrity. A number of specialist preformed collars and

seals are available, which fix around the services to form an intumescent seal whensubjected to fire. The fire stops enable expansion and contraction of the pipes duringnormal use of the premises, without damaging the seal. (See Figures 5 and 6.)

FIGURE 5 Typical fire stop seals

Quelfire fire stop seals can be used in timber floor constructions where the ceiling lining has a firerated resistance of at least one hour.

Typical tested construction

One hour: fire resistance to BS 476: Part 20: 1987

T & G boarding: minimum 16mm thick or 16mm flooring grade chipboard.Timber joists: minimum 47mm thick at maximum 610mm centresMineral wool: minimum 25mm thick (33kg/m ) between joistsProprietary one hour fire rated board: fixed with 60mm x no. 8 woodscrews at300mm centres

Courtesy: Quelfire Ltd

FIGURE 6 Intumescent fire seal bags

Courtesy: Quelfire Ltd

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6 Ventilation of escape routes and zones

6.1 Smoke clearance

Smoke is the main hazard in fire, both for occupants and firefighters. In apartmentbuildings the escape routes are protected by separating them from the accommodationwith fire-resistant construction and limiting the travel distance. However, inrecognition that smoke could affect the escape route accessibility, corridors are alsoprovided with 1.5m of automatically opening vents (AOVs), to provide smokeclearance. Stairs are also provided with an automatically opening smoke vent at thetop. A typical stairwell smoke ventilator is shown in Figure 9.

Basement fires can present particular difficulties for firefighters, as the smoke willtend to rise up through the stairwells that are being used to gain access to the fire.Consequently all but the smallest basements in non-residential premises (


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Car parking levels are the exception to the sprinkler rule and when a basement storeyis only used for the parking of vehicles, mechanical extract can be used withoutproviding sprinklers. This is because a car fire represents a relatively low fire load inproportion to the basement. Mechanical extract can be achieved conventionally viaducted extract systems. However, increasingly the use of ducts is being replaced withimpulse fans, as shown in Figure 10, which transport smoke to central extract points.These systems have found favour because they save significant space by removingthe need for ductwork.

Car park levels can also be naturally vented, in which case the same requirementapplies of 2.5% of the plan area with at least 50% of the openings arranged onopposite faces.

BS 5588: Fire Precautions in the Design, Construction and Use of Buildings: Part 11 Code of Practice for Shop, Office, Industrial, Storage and Other Similar Buildings,1997 also recommends smoke clearance for the upper storeys of buildings, but the2.5% natural ventilation requirement can usually be provided via opening windows.

6.2 Smoke control

Smoke control systems were originally developed in the 1970s as a method ofreducing property damage. They achieved this by venting the products of combustionand smoke to maintain a clear layer, thus reducing smoke spread and enabling the firebrigade to fight a fire more effectively by being able to see it. Smoke control systemshave now been developed to protect shopping centres, buildings with atria in them,

large sports arenas, etc, as well as industrial buildings.

A smoke control system is a steady state system where the amount of smoke enteringthe layer for a design fire size, which is based either on a credible worst case orstatistical basis, and a clear layer, typically 3m, is calculated. The amount ofventilation required to exhaust this quantity of smoke is then provided. It is alsonecessary to provide a source of inlet air to replace the air that is exhausted. Toprevent the smoke layer from cooling excessively it is necessary to limit the size ofthe smoke reservoir to less than 60m in length and 2 0003 000m in area.

Figure 11 shows a smoke control system applied in a single-storey mall wheresufficient natural ventilation has been provided to maintain a 3m clear layer.

Mechanical ventilations can always be used and should be when the roof can besubjected to adverse wind effects by being surrounded by higher structures. The fanunits must be rated to operate to at least 300C for an hour, be supplied by fireprotected wiring and have an emergency secondary power supply.

FIGURE 10 Basement impulse fan

Courtesy: Colt International

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6.3 Pressurisation of escape routes

Pressurisation is a positive form of smoke control where air is forced into thestaircase via fans to raise the pressure above the ambient level to prevent smokeingress into the escape route. A pressurisation system comprises a duty and a standbyfan, protected wiring, distribution ductwork and a pressure relief damper, as shown inFigure 12.

Pressurisation systems are used to protect staircases in tall buildings and firefightingshafts.

FIGURE 11

FIGURE 12 Components of pressurisation system


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Hot work

Hot work is a process that involves a risk of combustion, such as welding or the useof flame torches for roofing. It should be controlled work, with any combustibles thatcan be, removed from the area. Adequate firefighting equipment should be to handand the operatives should be trained in its use. At the end of the hot work the areashould be checked to ensure that no heat sources remain.

SmokingThe fire hazards associated with smoking are well known but may be difficult tocontrol on a construction site. There are varying opinions as to whether it is better torestrict smoking to clearly defined areas, or to identify areas where smoking is strictlyforbidden.

Where there are particular hazards such as fuel storage areas, it is better to fence orotherwise isolate these area and clearly indicate that smoking and naked flames areforbidden.

Electrical faults

The distribution of electricity about a construction site is often a matter of concern.The use of multiple extensions, poorly made or maintained connections, equipmentplaced in damp or wet conditions, equipment handled carelessly, overloading, etc,means that the likelihood of a fault giving rise to a fire can be unacceptably high.

On a well managed site, the electrical installations will be under the supervision of acompetent electrician, and all equipment will be isolated when not in use.

Fire detection

Fire detection devices may be difficult to install in partially completed buildings, butwhenever it is possible, smoke or heat detectors should be employed. Strategically

placed fire alarms, either manual or fully automatic, will be required.

Firefighting equipment

The Construction (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations require that adequateequipment is made available for dealing with fire. Bearing in mind the nature ofconstruction sites, this will usually mean the provision of strategically placed fireextinguishers and possibly hose reels, fire blankets, and sand buckets. Care should betaken to ensure that the equipment is properly maintained and supplemented oradjusted to suit the needs of the developing site. Equally important is the provision ofsigns indicating the location of the equipment.

As early as possible during the construction phase, the permanent firefightingequipment should be installed. Particularly in the case of tall buildings, wet or dryrisers should be installed to keep pace with the construction.

Training and instruction of personnel

The provisions outlined above will only be effective if personnel on site are properlytrained or suitably instructed in the proper use of the equipment, and made aware ofthe escape routes and the procedures to be adopted in the event of a fire or otheremergency.

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