"T FIRST EDITION

ORGAN IZATIONAL

COMMUNICATION

Preface xxv

Acknowledgments xxviii

About the Authors xxix

Introduction 1

Defining Communication Information Transfer 5hared Meaning Transactional Meaning Creation

Applying the Three Definitions of Communication

Working Definition

Defining Organizations A Legal Definition of Organizations A Communicative Definition of Organizations A Social Definition of Organizations 9

The Complexity of Defining Communication in Organizations 10

Strategie Ambiguity 10 Ethical Issue: Strategie Ambiguity 12

Nonverbal Communication 12

Applying the Three Nonverbal Criteria 14 Communication Challenge: Office Design 16

Perspectives on Organizational Communication 16 A Post-Positivist Perspective 16 An Interpretive Perspective 18 A Critical Perspective 20

Applying the Three Organizational Perspectives 22

Other Perspectives 24

Application to Different Types of Organizations 26

Preview of the Book 27

Summary 29

Q Communication and Anticipatory

Socialization 30

Anticipatory Role Socialization 32 Family 32 Education 35

Communication Challenge: Realistic Expectations 36 Peers 37 Previous Experience 38

Communication Challenge: Comparing Workplaces 39 Media 40 Application 41 The "Real Job" Colloquialism 42

Ethical Issue: Deconstructing Our Labels 42

Anticipatory Role Socialization for Volunteers 43 Summary of Anticipatory Role Socialization 44

Anticipatory Organizational Socialization 45 Person-Job Fit 45

Contents ix

Recruitment 46

Selection Process 48

Resumes ond Cover Lerrers 48 Screening Werv/'ews 49

Communication Chaiienge: Improving Interviews 51 Follow-up or Second Interviews 51 Realistic Job Previews 53

Ethical Issue: Inappropriate Interview Questions 53

Communication Chaiienge: The New Technology of the Job Search 54 Anticipatory Organizational Socialization for Volunteers 55 Summary of Anticipatory Organizational Socialization 56

Q Communication and Organizational

Encounter 57

Uncertainty Management Theory 59

Newcomer Socialization Through Orientation and Training 61

Socialization Strategies 62 Socialization Strategy Outcomes 66

Ethical Issue: Mixed Messages 66

Newcomers and Communication Exchange 68 Information Seeking 68 Information Sources 71

Communication Chaiienge: Trusted Colleague 71 Information Giving 72 Communication Exchange 73

Encounter Outcomes 74 Boundary Passages 74 Funcöona/ Boundan'es 74 H/erarch/ca/ ßoundar/es 75

x Contents

/nc/us/onary ßoundon« 76 Ethical Issue: Vocabulary of Hierarchy 77

Differences Between Expectations and Experiences 78 General Newcomer Adaptation 81

Newcomers in Volunteer Organizations 82

Summary 83

Communication and Management

Theory 84

Classical Management Theory 87 Context 87 Frederick Taylor's Classical Management Theory 87 Henri Fayol's General Management Theory 90

Communication Challenge: Communication and Span ofControl 92 Weber's Bureaucratic Theory 92 Douglas McGregor's Theory X 94 Classical Management Today 95

Human Relations Management 96 Context 96 Hawthorne Studies 96

Communication Challenge: Are Happy Workers Productive Workers? 98 Human Relations Management Today 99

Human Resource Management 100 Context 100

Ethical Issue: Humans as Resources 100

Some Roots of Human Resource Management: McGregor's Theory Y 101 Principles of Human Resource Management 102 Human Resource Management Today 104

Communication Challenge: Motivation at Despair, Inc. 105

Teamwork or Theory Z Management 106

Contents xi

Context 106

Ethical Issue: Top-Level Management and Organizing for the Short Term? 106

Principles of Teamwork 107 Teamwork and Concertive Control 109

Ethical Issue: Is Control Ethical? 110

Teamwork Management Today 111

Management Approaches To Volunteers 112 Communication Chaiienge: Communicating to Reduce Volunteer Turnover 113

Applying theThree Organizational Perspectives to Management Theory 114

Summary 117

Communication Channels and Structures 118

Traditional Communication Channels and Structures 122 Forma! Downward Communication 124 Issues with Downward Communication 124 Amount of Information 124 Natureof Feedback 125 Information Distribution 125 Formal Upward Communication 126 Issues with Upward Communication 128

Communication Chaiienge: Technology Application for Suggestions Boxes 128 Lack of Receptivity 129 Power Differentials 129

Communication Chaiienge: Dealing with the Normal Alteration of Upward Communication 129

Upward "Distortion" 130 Self-Promotion or ingratiation 130 Horizontal or Lateral Communication 131 Issues with Lateral Communication 131

Contents

Comper/f/on 737 Speda//zaf/on 732 7emfon'o//fy 732 Lock of/ncenf/Ve 732 Informal Communication 133 Issues with Informal Communication 134 /Accurocy 734 Speed 734

Ethical Issue: Gossip's Messiness 135

Mid-Level Employee Participation 135 ,4ccounfaMfy 735 Tihe Compefence TVenvork 735 Integrative Communication Structures 136 Committees 136 Quality Circles 136 Project Teams 137 Limitations of Traditional Communication Channels Approach 137

Communication Networks 139 Collecting Network Data 140 Characteristics of Networks 142 L/nkoge Charocfer/sf/cs 742 Individual Rotes 144

Communication Challenge: Reducing Employee Turnover by Cultivating Network Density 145

Group-Leve/ ChomcferM« 746 Orgon/zof/ono/ or Sysfem-Leve/ ChomcrerÄö« 746 Impactof Communication Networks 147 Limitations of Network Analysis 149 Nonprofit Organizations and Volunteers 149

Summary 150

Contents xiii

Q Communication and Organizational

Culture 152

Defining Organizational Culture 154 Artifacts 154 Values 155 Assumptions 155 Interactions of Various Members 156

Structuration Theory and Culture 156 Communication Chaiienge: Communicating a New Value 159

Organizational Norms 160 TypesofNorms 161 Communication Norms 161 Norm Development 162 Creating Conformity to Norms 163

Three Approaches to Culture 164 An integrated Perspective 164 A Differentiated Perspective 165 A Fragmented Perspective 165

Applying Martin's Three Perspectives on Organizational Culture 166

A Critique of Applying the Three Perspectives 168

Analyzing Organizational Culture 169 Script (or Narrative) Analysis 169 Ritual Analysis 172 Metaphor Analysis 173

Ethical Issue: Enron's Metaphors 175

Reflective Comment Analysis 176 Ethnography 177 A Comparison of Five (Viethods of Cultural Analysis 179

Applying Three Research Perspectives to Organizational Culture 180

Summary 181

xiv Contents

Communication with Organizational

Members 182

Supervisor-Subordinate Communication 185 Average Supervisor Communication Style 185 Interaction Pattems 185 Openne# fo Commun/caf/on 785 Upivard D/sfo/T/on 786 L/pward Muence 786 Semonf/c /n/brmor/on DÄfance 786

Communication Challenge: The Pelz Effect 187 Effective versus Ineffective Supervisors 187 Feedbock 788 Sysfem/c Focfors 788

Communication Challenge: "Living" versus "Having" an Open-Door Policy 188 Differentiated Supervisor Communication Style 189 Parfnersh;p Re/of;'orüh;ps 789 OyewerMar/omhfps 790 Middle-Group Relationships 191 Relationship Development 191 Outcomes of Supervisor-Subordinate Communication 192 Summary of Supervisor-Subordinate Communication 192

Peer Communication 193 Peer Social Support 194 Types of Peer Communication Relationships 194 Outcomes of Peer Communication 195 Workplace Friendships 195 Summary of Peer and Friendship Relations 196

Interaction of Supervisor and Peer Communication 197 Summary of Supervisor-Peer Relationship Interaction 198

Mentor(ing) Communication 198 Communication Challenge: Mentoring Communication 199

Contents XV

Summary of Mentoring 200 Communication Chaiienge: Upside Down Mentoring? 20 7

Emotion Management in Interpersonal Interactions 201 The Nature of Emotions in Interactions 202

Ethical Issue: The Moral "Signaling" Function of Emotions 203

Types of Emotions 203 Emotion Management 205

Communication Chaiienge: Peer Communication and Emotion Management 206

Volunteers and Interpersonal Relationships 207

Summary 208

Q Communication and Leadership 209

Managerial or Group Leadership 212 Managerial Leadership as Traits 212 Models of Management Styles 213 Situational Models of Managerial Leadership 216 Contingency Models of Managerial Leading 217 External Communication Focus of Managers 219 Dialectical Theory and Managerial Leadership 220

Communication Chaiienge: African American Women Executives' Leadership Communication 222

Managerial Leadership and Volunteers 222 Summary of Managerial Leadership 223

Organizational Leadership 223 Charismatic Leadership 224 Visionary Leadership 226 Transformational (versus Transactional) Leadership 228 Institutional Leadership 230 Framing Theory 232

Communication Chaiienge: Framing and Managerial Leadership 234

xvi Contents

Organizational Leadership of Volunteers 234

Ethical Issue: Leaders' Moral Talk Is Contagious (in a Good Way) 235

The Dark Side of Managerial and Organizational Leadership 235

Comparing Managerial and Organizational Leadership 236

Summary 237

Q Communication and Decision-Making 239

A Prescriptive Model of Decision-Making 241 The Model 241

Communication Challenge: Improving Decision-Making through Brainstorming 242

Descriptive Models of Decision-Making 243 Phase Models 243

Alternative Descriptive Models 246 The Spiral Model 247 Multiple Sequence Model 247

Communication Challenge: Leading Group Decisions 248 Vigilant Interaction Theory 248

Alternative Decision-Making Processes 250 Satisficing 251 Garbage Can Model 252 Retrospective Rationality 254

Ethical Issue: Retrospective Rationality 254

Faulty Decision-Making 255 Groupthink 256

Other Characteristics of Ineffective Decision-Making 258 Communication Challenge: Avoiding Groupthink and Ineffective Decision-Making Practices 259

Contents xvii

Decision-Making in Volunteer Organizations 260

Summary 262

<D j Communication and Conflict 263

Defining Conflict 265

Typologies of Conflict 267 Level ofConflicts 267

7/wapersona/ Conß/ct 267 inferpersona/ Confkü 267 /ntergroup Conß/cts 268 7nterorgan/zar7ona7 Conf?/'ct; 268 Content ofConflicts 268 Visibility ofConflicts 269 Application 269

Conflict as Dysfunctional and Functional 270

Conflict Styles 271

Bargaining and Negotiation in Conflict 275 Ethical Issue: Ethical Bargaining 275

Managing Conflict through Third Parties 276

Communication and Conflict with Abusive Coworkers 277 Workpiace Bullying 278 Deining IVorkpface BuWyi'ng 278

Ethical Issue: Wanting to Belong and Participation in Social Bullying 279

Causes 280 Charactenstics of Perpetrafors 280 ChoracferMcs of Targeü 280 Environmental Factors 280 Effects of Bu//y/ng 287 Coping with Buffying 287 /4ddres5/ng Bu//y/ng 282

XVÜi Contents

r.

Sexual Harassment 283 Defining Sexual Harassment 283

Ethical Issue: Sender or Receiver Priority 283

Causes of Sexuo/ 285 Effects of Sexual Harassmen t 285 Coping with Sexual Harassment 286 Addressing Sexual Harassment 286

Conflict in Nonprofit/Volunteer Settings 287

Summary 287

^ Communication, Power, and Resistance 289

Definitions 291 Power and Influenae 291 Ideology (or Ideologies) 293 Surface and Deep Structure Power 294

Surface Level Power 295 Types of Power 295

Communication Challenge: Increasing Personal Power 298 Reasons for Power Relationships 298 Power as Resource Dependency 298 Power as Social Exchange 299 Power and Personal Characteristics 300

Deep Structure Power 301 Communication Challenge: Muting Voices ofthe Mistreated 304

Resistance to Power 305 Ethical Issue: Ethics and Decaf Resistance 307

Voice and Resistance 308 Ethical Issue: Boat Rocking and Whistleblowing 310

Power and Resistance in Nonprofits and Volunteers 311

Summary 313

Contents xix

^ Communication and Work-Nonwork

Issues 314

The Changing Workplace 316 General Causes of Work-Life Conflict 317

Time-Based Conflict 317 SWn-BasedOonß/cr 378 ßehawor-BasedCon&rf 378 Specific Causes of Work-Life Conflict 319 Social Norms that Increase Work-Life Conflict 319

Ethical Issue: To Work or Not to Work, That Is the Question 321

Outcomes of Work-Life Conflict 322 Managing Work-Life Boundaries 323

Communication Chaiienge: Choosing Communication Media for Boundary Management in Global Virtual Organizing 324 Ethical Issue: Segmenting Salaried Workers 326

Family-Friendly Work Policies 327 Positive Effects of Family-Friendly Policies 328

Communication Chaiienge: Unintended Consequences ofFamily-Life Policies 329

Problematic Issues of Family-Friendly Policies 329 CareerRepercuss/ons 329 Dlfficu/ty NegotWng Leave Polices 330 Peer Pressure Agafnst Us/'ng (he Poffcy 330 Res/stonce to Work-Ufe Integration 337 Work-Family Third-Place (Life Enrichment) Balance 332 Volunteer Roles 333 Types of Volunteering 334 Work-Family-Life Enrichment Balance 336

Ethical Issue: Disingenuous Volunteering? 336

Summary 338

XX Contents

r

^ Communication and the Changing Work

Environment: Technology, Diversity,

and Globalization 339

Systems Theory 341

Deining Change 343

Reactions to Change 344 Diffusion of Innovation 344 Change and Emotion 346 Resistance 347

Communication Challenge: Resisting Changes or Change Communication 349

Communication and Change 349 Communication Challenge: Design a Ceremony 350

Changing Communication Technology 351 Media Richness Theory 351 Changes in Communication Expectations 353 Changing How Meaning Is Established 353

Ethical Issue: Organizational Image versus Personal Social Media Use 354

Changing Decision-Making Expectations 354 Communication Challenge: Creating a Collaborative Organizational Policy of Internet Usage 355

Changing Interpersonal Communication Interactions 356

Ethical Issue: Using Social Media to Convey and Express Private Opinions 357

Summary of Changing Communication Technology 358

Cultural Diversity: The Changing Workforce 359 Cultural Diversity and Communication 359 Cultural Diversity in the Workplace 360

Ethical Issue: Creating Teams 361 Influence of Diversity on Group and Organizational Effectiveness 362 Summary of Cultural Diversity 363

Contents xxi

Globalization 364

Change and Nonprofit Organizations and Volunteers 366 Changes in Funding and Collaboration 366 Changing Volunteers 367 Culturally Diverse Understandings of Volunteers 367 Globalization and Volunteers 368

Summary 368

^ Communication Düring Career

and Organizational Transitions 370

Sensemaking Theory 372

Individual Career Transitions 375

Communication and Promotions 375 Promotion Selection Context 375

Ethical Issue: Promotion Types and Bias 376

The Selection Process for Promotions 376 Promotion Process 377

Communication and Job Transfers 379 Communication and Domestic Job Transfers 380 Purposes of Domesöc Job Transfers 380 The Process for Job Transfers 387

Pre-/Woye or foosen/ng Phase 38 7 Transft/'on Phase 387 The T/ghfen/ng Phase 382

Effects on the M/orkgroup 383 Communication and International Job Transfers 383 Communication and Career Plateaus 384

Organizational Transitions 386

Mergers and Acquisitions (M&As) 386

xxii Contents

The M&A Process 387 The Pre-Merger Phase 387 The In-Play Phase 387

Communication Chaiienge: Rumors and Sensemaking 388 Transition Phase 389

Ethical Issue: Leading the Combining of Two Cultures 390

The Stabilization Phase 391

Reductions-in-Force or Layoffs 391 Pre-Announcement Phase 392 Announcement Phase 392 Post-Layoff Phase 393

Individual and Organizational Transitions for Volunteers 394

Summary 395

Communication Düring

Organizational Exit 396

Social Exchange Theory 398

Voluntary Exit 400 Planned Exits 400 Shocks 400 Gradual Disenchantment 401 Mixed Reasons for Voluntary Turnover 403 Network Location 403 Career Opportunities 404 Career Cranges 404 Retirement 405 The Voluntary Exit Process 406 The Preannouncement Phase 406 The Announcement Phase 406 The Exit Phase 407

Contents xxiii

Exit Interviews 408 Communication Challenge: Exit Interviews with College Interns 408

Involuntary Exit 410 Immediate or Summary Dismissal 410 Progressive Discipline 410

Ethical Issue: Fired Over Facebook 411

Communication Challenge: The EAGR Approach to Giving Corrective Feedback 412

A Third Form of Exit 415

Exit and Volunteers 416

Summary 417

Epilogue 418 A Dark Side of Organizational Membership 419 Socialization and Individualization 420

Conclusion 422

References 423

Credits 454

Index 456

xxiv Contents