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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

MILITARYLEADERSHIP

,39

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMYDECEMBER 1958

AGO 1:G96C-Nov

* FM 22-100

FIELD MANUAL HEADQUARTERS,DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

No. 22-100 WASHINGTON 25, D. C., 2 December 1958

MILITARY LEADERSHIP

Paragrarhs PageCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Section I. General _____________.-... 1, 2 3II. Concepts of military leader- 3-8 5

ship.CHAPTER 2. HUMAN BEHAVIOR ----- 9-14 12

3. LEADERSHIP TRAITS_ -- 15-30 194. LEADERSHIP PRINCI- 31-42 37

PLES.5. INDICATIONS OF 43-49 54

LEADERSHIP.6. LEADERSHIP PROBLEM

AREAS AND THEPROBLEM SOLVINGPROCESS.

Section I. Problem solving process____ 50, 51 62II. Problem areas ------------ 52-57 64

III. Leadership of female groups_ 58, 59 75CHAPTER 7. LEADERSHIP ASPECTS 60-63 77

OF ORGANIZATION.

*This manual supersedes FM 22-100, 26 February 1953,including C 1, 11 February 1955; and FM 22-10, 6 March1951, including C 1,11 February 1955, and C 2,17 April 1957.

AGO 2695C 1

Paraglaphs PageCHAPTER 8. LEADERSHIP IN COM- 64-73 84

BAT.APPENDIX I. REFERENCES- .----------- 101

1. COMBAT EXAMPLES OF 102SMALL UNIT LEADER-SHIP.

INDEX _-____------ ____-_-. -... _ 116

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CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Section 1. GENERAL

1. Purpose and Scopea. The purpose of this manual is to provide

military leaders, actual and prospective, with apractical guide for applying the principles of lead-ership.

b. The principles and techniques presented here-in are the result of an analysis of outstandingleadership displayed by both military and civilianleaders. A thorough study of these principles andtechniques, combined with actual troop applica-tion, will develop and foster the high standard ofleadership so urgently demanded by the complexi-ties of modern warfare. In the final analysis, waris still waged by men.

c. The material presented herein is applicablewithout modification to both nuclear and nonnu-clear warfare.2. General Concepts of Leadership

a. In the ultimate sense, leadership is not inher-ent; it depends upon traits that can be developedand upon the application of techniques that can belearned. It is an art that can be acquired, culti-vated, and practiced by anyone having the mental

AGO 2695C 3

and physical ability and the moral integrity ex-pected of a commissioned or noncommissionedofficer. Developing this art is a continuing processwhich involves the recognition, acquisition, andpractice of the basic traits of leadership and theunderstanding and application of sound leadershipprinciples and techniques.

b. This manual stresses the importance of self-improvement. The principles, character traits, andprocedures set forth are offered to assist the leaderin the problem of controlling others. By examiningthese procedures with reference to his own practiceand by analyzing his own traits of character, theleader will possess a yardstick for measuring hisown success or failure. Despite this guide, it con-stantly must be borne in mind that successfulleaders of the past were not all of the same pattern;nor did they all use the same methods of attainingsuccess. All of them, however, consciously or un-consciously understood the basic concepts of leader-ship and successfully practiced many of the tech-niques presented in this manual.

c. It is essential that the student grasp this con-cept of leadership and understand its relationshipwith all that the leader does, says, and thinks. Hemust not overlook the vital ingredients of sincerityand competence, for without these any suggestedtechnique will fail. Although the material in thismanual is, for instructional purposes, divided undercertain principles, techniques and traits, the stu-dent should not allow his thinking to fall into theseconvenient compartments.

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d. Effective leadership is a totality-a totalitywhich is a resultant of everything the leader doesin every aspect of his job and in his daily living-which contributes to cementing the bonds betweenhim and his subordinates and between his sub-ordinates and the other members of his group.Everything that the leader does in his role astrainer, teacher, administrator, commander, orcounselor contributes to or detracts from the total-ity of this relationship. The simplest correctionor the sternest admonition; a momentary contactor long hours of common experience; the briefestsuggestion or the most complete and detailed order-all have within them the potential of enhancingor decreasing the leader's effective relationship andpersonal influence with his subordinates.

Section II. CONCEPTS OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP3. The Military Leader

The basic concept of military leadership en-visages the leader who, aware of his responsibili-ties, capitalizes on his strong traits, guides himselfby the principles of leadership, and applies correctactions and orders to influence and direct his menfavorably and knit them into an effective unit(fig. 1). To successfully accomplish this goal, thecommander must understand men and the reas3nsfor their behavior under various influences. Hemust also learn to recognize and evaluate the indi-cations of leadership (par. 4).AGO 2695C 5

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4. Definitionsa. Military Leadership. The art of influencing

and directing men in such a way as to obtain theirwilling obedience, confidence, respect, and loyalcooperation in order to accomplish the mission.

b. Leadership Traits. Personal qualities that areof direct value to the commander in gaining thewilling obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal co-operation of his men.

c. Leadership Principles. Fundamental truthsthat are applied by a leader to control or guide hisactions and the actions of his subordinates.

d. Leadership Indications.(1) Morale-the state of mind of the indi-

vidual. This depends upon his attitudetoward everything that affects him.

(2) Discipline-the individual or group atti-tude that insures prompt obedience toorders and initiation of appropriate ac-tion in the absence of orders.

(3) Esprit de corps-loyalty to, pride in, andenthusiasm for a unit shown by its mem-bers.

(4) Proficiency-the technical, tactical, andphysical ability of the individual and theunit.

e. Effective Unit. One that will accomplish withthe minimum expenditure of means and time, anymission assigned or implied for which it has beenorganized, equipped, and trained.

f. Leadership Actions and Orders. Those thingsAGO 2695C 7

a leader does to enable him to both influence anddirect his command. The leader's action or ordershould-

(1) Accomplish or aid in the accomplishmentof one or both of the commander's basicresponsibilities.

(2) Be guided by the principles of leadership.(3) Exhibit the strong traits of the leader.

g. Leader. A person who possesses qualities nec-essary to direct others; a title used for persons incharge of units smaller than a company. See note.

h. Commander. Title of an officer in charge ofa company, battery, or larger unit.

Note. This manual makes no distinction between theterms commander and leader as the fundamentals of leader.ship are applicable at all levels of command.

5. Characteristics of Leadershipa. Universal Nature of Leadership. The military

profession has no monopoly on leadership. In everywalk of life, in every industry, in every govern-ment, in every phase of human endeavor there areleaders. Progress and success are dependent uponthe quality and efficiency of leadership.

b. Elements of Leadership. Leadership involvesunderstanding, analyzing, predicting, and control-ling men's behavior. Also involved in successfulleadership is the will to lead, together with thecharacter which inspires confidence. Undoubtedly,there are certain inherent characteristics that mayaid in the development'of leadership. Yet, certainmen possessing desirable leadership traits may

5 AGO 2695C

never attain the stature of great leaders; likewise,men deficient in certain of these traits may haveattained this stature. Any theory that leadershipis solely inherited must be rejected. Leadershipis intangible only to the extent that we make it so.Any reasonably intelligent man, no matter how in-experienced, can become acquainted with thethe component elements of leadership. These ele-ments may be studied, practiced, learned, andapplied, just as any other human accomplishmentmay be learned and mastered.

c. The Leader and the Small Group. A leaderactually maintains close personal contact with onlya small group, regardless of the number of menultimately controlled by him. Inevitably he mustdepend upon that small group to make his willknown and to execute his purpose. We refer to thesmall group as immediate subordinates and staff.

6. Relationship Belween Command and Leadershipa. Authoritarian and Persuasive Leadership.

Broadly, there are two kinds of leadership-authoritarian and persuasive. One who is predom-inently of the authoritarian type normally is recog-nized by the dogmatic use of authority or power.The persuasive type of leadership takes into con-sideration the human element with all its complex-ity and its differences in the physical, mental, andemotional capabilities and limitations of theindividual. To a great extent, the persuasive leaderbases his skill in leadership upon example andability, with high standards of discipline and effi-

AGO 2695C 9

ciency for himself as well as his followers. Themilitary leader is normally persuasive, but may beauthoritative, to meet the requirements of a situa-tion.

b. The Exercise of Command. Command is theauthority that a member of the military professionlawfully exerts over subordinates by virtue of hisrank and assignment. Leadership can be exercisedby any one at any time. It is recognized that in anygroup some individual will emerge as the leader,even though no command or organizational struc-ture is present. Individuals in coordinating capaci-ties exercise leadership in their dealing with theirequals-outside the immediate command structure.In general, however, we think of military leader-ship as being exercised within this structure;therefore, in one sense, leadership is the properexercise of command.

c. Accompaniments of Command. Command,with all it implies-administration, planning, exe-cuting, supervising, and coordinating-is the pri-mary reason for the military leader's existence.The leader is responsible not only for initiatingaction, but for supervising all activities within hiscommand. In this responsibility for the generaladministration of a group, it is his duty to receive,comply with, and execute instructions with exact-ness and thoroughness, regardless of his personalfeelings.7. Objective of Military Leadership

The objective of military leadership is the devel-opment and maintenance of an effective organiza-

10 AGO 2695C

tion. The proper application of the principles ofleadership can create a proficient, well-disciplinedorganization possessing high morale and esprit decorps.

8. Basic Responsibilities of the Commandera. The commander has two basic responsibilities;

accomplishment of his mission, and welfare of hismen. These basic responsibilities are of equal im-portance. However, in the event a conflict arisesin the mind of the commander regarding theseresponsibilities, the mission must take precedence.Normally, efficient accomplishment of the missionwill help to satisfy the responsibility of welfare ofthe men.

b. Command is accompanied by responsibilitiesinvolving special trust and confidence. The basicresponsibilities cannot be delegated by a com-mander to his subordinates. He alone must shoulderthe responsibility of the position he occupies.

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CHAPTER 2HUMAN BEHAVIOR

9. GeneralThe ability to handle men-the art of leadership

-involves understanding, predicting, and control-ling men's behavior. The commander can do a farbetter job if he makes a constant effort to betterunderstand himself and the soldiers with whom heserves. He does not need the training of a psychol-ogist, but he must have an understanding of thebasic human behavior patterns in order to obtainmaximum effectiveness from his men.

10. Individual Differences Among Mena. All men are different. Each man's personality

is the sum total of his physical, mental, emotionalcharacteristics and environment and background.These characteristics vary from man to man.

(1) Physical and mental characteristics helpto determine types of work for which aman is best suited. They also indicate thetypes and intensity of physical work hecan be expected to perform. Some menare better at jobs requiring mechanicalability or dexterity; others are capableof performing complex mental tasks re-quiring application, reasoning and intel-lect. If a "bright" individual is given a

12 AGO 2695C

dull job, he may become bored and resent-ful. If a man is given a job which callsfor more of a particular mental aptitudethan he possesses, he may become dis-couraged and resentful. At any rate, aman (malassigned) in one of these situa-tions will certainly add little to the teameffort.

(2) Emotional characteristics are particularlyimportant parts of a soldier's personality.The way he reacts to a difficult problem,to danger, to hardship-all must be un-derstood by the commander. Under pres-sure, one man may become angered andanother may quit or run away; still an-other may react very calmly.

b. Not only is each individual's personalityunique, but it is also constantly changing. A manchanges physically, mentally, and emotionally as hematures and gains more experience. Broadly speak-ing, three factors tend to shape personality.

(1) Heredity. Each person inherits manycharacteristics from his parents. A manmay, for example, inherit the mentalcapacity to become a top scientist. Or, hemay inherit the potential to grow to be6 feet tall. Whether or not he will ulti-mately attain the upper limits of his in-herited potential depends upon his envir-onment and life experiences.

(2) Environment. Those relatively unchang-ing aspects of the world as the soldier

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knows it-the family he belongs to, thechurch and schools he attends, the typesof food he eats-constitute his environ-ment. It has a pronounced effect on hispersonality. Taking the example of thesoldier who inherits the potential to be a6 footer, the type of food, the amount ofexercise, the health conditions which area part of that soldier's environment mayeither permit or prevent him from at-taining a height of 6 feet. The individ-ual's environment may accelerate or re-tard the development of inherited mentalcapacity.

(3) Experiences. Identical twins may bereared in the same environment, but theywill still develop different personalities.One will encounter different experiencesthan the other. One may reach a heightof 6 feet while another contracts polio-myelitis and grows no taller than 5 feet9 inches. The unique experiences whicheach person encounters will affect himmentally and physically. In addition,these varied experiences will play a defi-nite role in his emotional growth and inshaping his attitudes.

11. The Roots of BehaviorCertain conditions must be met if the individual's

pattern of behavior is to be socially acceptable andsatisfying to himself. These conditions, or roots ofbehavior, may be described as "basic human

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needs." Some are physical, others we acquirethrough the learning process as we go through life.

a. Physical Needs. The satisfaction of a physicalneed may become a goal which motivates the in-dividual to behave in a specific manner. The physi-cal needs are those pertaining to food, drink,clothing, shelter, and the normal body functions.

b. Learned Needs. These result as a man re-lates the value of certain conditions to his continuedwell being. These conditions are security, socialapproval, and recognition. Learned needs also mo-tivate men to react in a certain manner.

(1) Security. We are able to predict the con-sequences of the course of events to thepoint where we can see that certain ac-tions on our part may result in materialor physical harm. We tend to alter ourbehavior accordingly. Many men will rungrave risks to gain greater security forthe future. No one wants to be injured,but physical security is the motive behindstatements such as "kill or be killed" and"it's either them or us."

(2) Social approval. The opinions of the groupto which we belong strongly influence ourbehavior. Few men will take a course ofaction designed to incur the disfavor ofthe group. We learn quite early in lifethat we will go much further if we co-operate with the other members of oursociety. We run the risk of incurringboth material and physical harm if we

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act counter to the ideals and expectationsof the group.

(3) Recognition. Every man feels the needfor frequent tangible proof that he is get-ting ahead. We work hard to gain somemeasure of success, and if recognition isnot forthcoming, we will eventually quitor try some other pattern of behavior.Even a single pat on the back is oftenenough to reassure a subordinate that hisperformance is appreciated.

12. Goals and Frustrationa. The struggle to satisfy the physical and

learned needs and our past experience in satisfyingthese needs, lead us to place certain values on ob-jects in life. Highly valued objects become "goals."A steak may be a goal when we are hungry. Pro-motion may be a goal if we are seeking recognition.

b. When we are blocked in our attempts: to reacha certain goal, we may become frustrated. Ourenergy is blocked and backs up like water behinda dam. To some degree we all experience frustra-tions, varying from minor irritations to major dis-turbances. The degree of frustration depends onthe value we placed on the goal in question.

c. The outward evidence of frustration may takemany forms-anger, cursing, weeping, and nerv-ousness. Serious frustrations that deny the satis-faction of a need for a long period of time cancause adverse changes in a man's behavior. Ab-sence without leave may result from a belief by

16 AGO 265C

the soldier that he has not been accepted by hisunit. The soldier whose hard work does not earnhim a promotion or even a word of thanks fromhis leaders may develop bitterness that will affect.not only him but other soldiers.

d. None of us can completely avoid frustration.Instead, the normal person plans ahead so as toavoid many frustrations and at the same time takessteps to adjust to existing frustrations. He mayalter his methods for attaining particular goals ifthe ways he has tried are blocked. He may evenpick different goals which he feels are more attain-able.

13. Adjustmenta. When a man enters the Army, he leaves an

environment in which he had made a reasonablysatisfactory adjustment and enters another filledwith frustrating circumstances. He must makemany physical, mental, and emotional adjustments,involving altered methods of attaining his goalsand the choosing of new goals. If he can do thissuccessfully, we say that the soldier has "adjusted."If the frustrations are too many and too great, thesoldier becomes maladjusted.

b. The problem of adjustment is a real problemfor the Army as well as the soldier. Some 545,000men were discharged from the service for mentaldefectiveness and mental diseases during WorldWar II. Of these, 50 percent became apparentwithin 30 days after induction; 85 percent becameapparent within six months after induction. Less

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539933 0 -60 -Z

than 15 percent of all maladjustments became ap-parent in the battle zone, and of these, the majoritywere returned to combat.

c. An analysis of the causes for this loss of man-power and the resultant loss of effectiveness in allunits revealed, in many instances, that leaders werenot cognizant of the needs of their men, and there-fore not providing assistance in the satisfaction ofthese needs; in fact, in many cases poor leaderswere actually adding to the men's adjustmentproblems.

14. Helping the Soldier to Adjust to Army LifeIf the soldier comes to feel consciously or sub-

consciously that he can satisfy his physical andlearned needs within the Army, adjustment comesrapidly. A good commander employs many tech-niques to bring about this adjustment. Some ofthe techniques help the soldier find new ways toreach some of his old goals. Many more of thecommander's techniques serve to demonstrate tothe young soldier how the attainment of other newgoals also results in the satisfaction of his needs.When the soldier accepts these goals as his ownand realizes that they are also the Army's goals,and struggles to achieve them, he is well on hisway to becoming the world's finest soldier.

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CHAPTER 3LEADERSHIP TRAITS

15. GeneralLeadership traits are personal qualities which,

if shown in your daily activities, help you earnyour men's respect, confidence, willing obedience,and loyal cooperation. By sizing up your ownstrong and weak points, you can develop the leader-ship traits in which you are weak and furtherstrengthen those in which you are strong. The atti-tudes of the men toward a commander are deter-mined by whether their needs are satisfied by theleader's personal traits. For this reason, the traitsof a commander directly affect the behavior of hismen.

16. Essential Traitsa. A study of the lives and careers of successful

commanders reveals that many of the followingpersonal traits or qualities are common to all ofthem:

(1) Integrity.(2) Knowledge.(3) Courage (physical and moral).(4) Decisiveness.(5) Dependability.(6) Initiative.

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(7) Tact.(8) Justice.(9) Enthusiasm.

(10) Bearing.(11) Endurance.(12) Unselfishness.(13) Loyalty.(14) Judgment.

b. This list is by no means all-inclusive, but itis representative of those desirable traits in a mili-tary leader. Paragraphs 17 through 30 describeeach of these traits and give suggestions that willhelp you develop them.

17. Integritya. Integrity, the uprightness of character and

soundness of moral principle, the quality of abso-lute truthfulness and honesty, is an indispensabletrait in a leader.

b. On the Armed Forces Team the stakes are toohigh to place the lives of its members in the handsof men with questionable integrity. For example,battle information is necessary for those respon-sible for making decisions in combat. In the flowof reports from the smallest unit to the highestheadquarters, a departure from strict truth by anyindividual can imperil the entire operation. Unlessa man can be relied upon for absolute truthfulnessand honesty, he cannot be relied upon at all. Thereis no possible compromise. The nature of the mili-

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tary profession does not permit the slightest devia-tion from the highest standards of personal integ-rity.

c. To develop your personal integrity-(1) Practice absolute honesty and truthful-

ness with yourself at all times.(2) Be accurate and truthful in all your state-

ments, both official and unofficial.(3) Stand for what you believe to be right.(4) Whenever you are tempted to compro-

mise, place honesty, sense of duty, andmoral principles above all else.

18. Knowledgea. Nothing attracts confidence and respect

more quickly than demonstrated knowledge-ac-quired information, including professional knowl-edge and an understanding of your subordinates.The man who knows his job builds confidence inhimself as well as in others. Lack of knowledgecannot be concealed; you cannot bluff your men. Ifyou do not know the answer to a particular ques-tion, admit it; then take steps to get the informa-tion.

b. Your knowledge should not be limited tomilitary subjects. A general fund of information,particularly on national and international events,will make you a more rounded personality.

c. To increase your knowledge-(1) Keep a military file and a small library.

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(2) Study field manuals and other militaryliterature such as regulations, trainingdirectives, battle operations, and pastmilitary campaigns.

(3) Read the service periodicals and books onthe Department of the Army readinglist.

(4) Read the daily newspapers and weeklymagazines; try to evaluate current newsimpartially and correctly.

(5) Form the habit of developing seriousconversations on military subjects.

(6) Evaluate your experience and the experi-ence of others.

(7) Be alert; listen; observe; conduct re-search on matters you do not understand.

19. Courage (Physical and Moral)a. Courage is a mental quality that recognizes

fear of danger or criticism but enables a man toproceed in the face of it with calmness and firm-ness. It is a quality of mind that gives a mancontrol over himself, enabling him to accept respon-sibility and to act in a dangerous situation. It isvital to leadership.

b. The leader must have moral as well as physi-cal courage. Moral courage means knowing andstanding for what is right in the face of populardisfavor. A leader who has moral courage willadmit his errors, but will enforce his decisionswhen sure he is correct.

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c. To help yourself attain and demonstratecourage-

(1) Study and understand your emotion offear.

(2) Control your fear by developing self-discipline and calmness.

(3) Speak in a calm tone; keep an orderlinessin your thought process; don't exaggeratephysical danger or adversity in yourown mind.

(4) If you fear doing certain things in yourdaily life, force yourself to do thesethings until you conquer them.

(5) Stand for what is right in the face ofpopular condemnation.

(6) Look for and readily accept responsibili-ties.

(7) Accept the blame when you are at fault.20. Decisiveness

a. The leader should have the ability to reachdecisions promptly and to announce them in aclear, forceful manner.

b. Every situation offers a variety of solutions.The wise leader gets all the facts, weighs oneagainst the other, and calmly and quickly arrivesat a sound decision. Decisiveness is largely amatter of practice and experience.

c. To develop decisiveness-(1) Learn to be positive in your actions.

Don't delay; don't "beat around thebush."

AGO 2Y!15C 23

(2) Get the facts, make up your mind, andthen issue your order with confidence.

(3) Check decisions you have made to deter-mine if they were sound and timely.

(4) Check decisions made by others. If youdo not agree, think why; then determineif your reasons for disagreement aresound.

(5) Broaden your viewpoint by studying theactions of others.

(6) Take advantage of the experience ofothers to learn from their mistakes.

21. Dependabilitya. Dependability, the certainty of proper per-

formance of duty, is a quality the leader mustdevelop.

b. The dependable leader is one who can berelied upon to carry out actively, intelligently, andwith willing effort the intent of his commander.This willing and voluntary compliance with theplans and will of the superior does not mean blindand dog-like obedience. Most commanders willlisten to the suggestions of their subordinates, butonce the commander makes the final decision, thesubordinate must give it his complete and energeticsupport.

c. A military duty is an obligation to be per-formed. Thus a high sense of duty results in ahigh standard of performance, a constant and con-tinuous effort to give the best a leader has in him.Duty demands the sacrifice of personal interests in

24 AGO 2695C

favor of military demands, rules and regulations,orders and procedures, and the welfare of sub-ordinates.

d. To develop dependability-(1) Do not make excuses.(2) Do every task assigned to you to the best

of your ability, regardless of personalbeliefs.

(3) Be exact in details.(4) Form the habit of being punctual.(5) Follow orders to the letter in spirit and

fact.(6) Give adequate attention to the general

welfaie of your men.

22. Initiativea. Initiative, seeing what has to be done and

commencing a course of action, even in the absenceof orders, is necessary in all grades. Encourageinitiative among your subordinates by giving themduties on a level with their grade and then allow-ing them to work out the details and finish thejob. This does not mean that yon can deal out thetasks and then do nothing else. You must knowthe jobs well enough to supervise properly. Fur-thermore, you must retain for yourself those func-tions that are exclusively the commander's.Soldiers unite quickly behind a commander whomeets new and unexpected situations with promptaction.

b. Closely allied with initiative is the quality ofresourcefulness, the ability to deal with a situation

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in the absence of normal means or methods. Mili-tary supply, organization, and training are de-signed to meet all normal situations, but theysometimes fail, particularly under combat condi-tions where the unexpected is normal. Inactivityor passive acceptance of an unsatisfactory situa-tion because of lack of normal means or ways ofdealing with it is never justified.

c. To develop initiative-(1) Stay mentally and physically alert.(2) Train yourself to recognize tasks that

need to be done and do them withouthaving to be told and without hesitation.

(3) Think ahead.23. Tact

a. Tact is the ability to deal with others with-out creating offense. In the field of human rela-tions, tact is the ability to say and do the properthing at the proper time. It is an understandingof human nature and a consideration for the feel-ings of others.

b. Tact is particularly important in those con-tacts with subordinates in which the personal ele-ment is involved. Criticism has to be made in sucha way that what is meant will be clearly apparent,yet will neither cause discouragement nor detractfrom the drive and energy of the subordinate.Every commander needs tact in helping those menwho come to him with personal problems. Theseoften involve family relations and other personalmatters that are accompanied by embarrassment

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or shame. Avoid judging such situations; yourrole is that of counselor only and it calls for com-mon sense in making suggestions. Sometimes thehighest degree of tact is simply to listen withsympathetic attention and interest, finding outwhat the soldier's own solution is. You mayconfirm his solution or suggest a different one.

e. Courtesty is a part of tact that you cannotafford to neglect in your relations with sub-ordinates. To demand, yet fail to return courtesyin full measure indicates either arrogance or alack of interest. The inexperienced officer or non-commissioned officer often feels that politeness in amilitary command implies softness; or worse, thatfrom a subordinate it smacks of "bootlicking."Nothing is further from the truth. Courtesy is amatter both of words and actions. One leader maybark out his orders impersonally and abruptly.Another may give his orders in a tone tinged witha courtesy that implies the expectancy of obedi-ence. Either method may get obedience, but thesecond of the two will get more willing obedienceand cooperation. In times of emergency, abruptrapid fire orders become desirable because theysave time and there is no need to imply expectedobedience. There are other times, too, when aforceful tone can well replace a courteous tone;but even then there is no reason for outright dis-courtesy. Usually, a calm, courteous, though firmmode of address, will bring the readiest response.Thus tact and courtesy are closely tied in withmanner, language, and bearing.

AGO 2695C 27

d. To develop tact-(1) Be courteous and cheerful.(2) Be considerate of others.(3) Study the actions of successful officers

who enjoys a reputation for being skilledin human relations.

(4) Study different types of personalities;gain a knowledge of human nature.

(5) Develop the habit of cooperating in spiritas well as in fact.

(6) Check yourself for tolerance; if at fault,correct this deficiency.

(7) Treat others as you desire to be treated.24. Justice

a. Justice is the quality of being impartial andconsistent in exercising command. Justice involvesthe rendering of reward and the meting out ofpunishment in accordance with the merits of thecase. Anger and other emotions must not enter intoa situation. Prejudice of race or creed must beavoided. Few things will disrupt the morale of anorganization more quickly than unfairness orpartiality of a leader toward a certain man orgroup of men.

b. As a leader you are called upon to renderjustice in such matters as promotions and punish-ment. Your decisions are a test of your fairness.It takes a long time to build up a reputation amongyour men for being fair. One thoughtless error orone injustice can destroy a good reputation thattook months to establish.

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c. To render justice, you must understand hu-man behavior. Study people with the idea oflearning why certain types behave the way theydo under certain conditions and others behavedifferently under the same conditions. Analyze thecases that have been decided and determine whatyou would have done had you been the one to makethe decision. This, of course, is a private processand should never be used as an occasion to criticizethe decision of another leader.

d. To develop this trait of justice-(1) Be impersonal and impartial when im-

posing punishment.(2) Consider every offense referred to you on

its own merits.(3) Search your mental attitudes to determine

if you hold any prejudices and, if so, ridyour mind of them.

(4) Analyze cases acted upon by officers whohave a reputation for being just.

(5) Be impartial. Play no favorites.(6) Be honest with yourself.(7) Recognize juniors worthy of commenda-

tion or award. Don't be known as one whodispenses only punishment.

25. Enthusiasma. Enthusiasm is the display of sincere interest

and exuberance in the performance of duties. Itimplies that you approach your work with a cheer-ful and optimistic attitude, determined to do a

AGO Z696C 29

good job. This attitude is necessary because yourexample will be copied by those you lead.

b. An important part of enthusiasm is your per-formance of tasks with vigor, because of willingnessand gratification in accomplishment, rather thandoing them half-heartedly merely because you mustdo them. Enthusiasm is particularly important ininstructing and training, where, through example,your interest and enthusiasm are reflected byyour men.

c. To develop enthusiasm-(1) Understand and believe in your mission.(2) Be cheerful and optimistic.(3) Explain to your men the "why" of unin-

teresting and distasteful jobs.(4) Capitalize on success. Enthusiasm is

contagious and nothing will develop itmore than the success of the unit orindividual.

(5) Don't get stale. Set aside a period everyday to free your mind of official mattersand relax.

26. Bearinga. Bearing, creating a favorable impression in

carriage, appearance, and personal conduct at alltimes, deserves the attention of all leaders. Yourcarriage should be upright, your general appear-ance and the condition of your clothing and equip-ment should establish the standard for the rest ofyour unit, and you should show life and energy inyour actions and movements.

30 AGO 2495C

b. By your appearance and manner, you mustexpress competence and confidence, often to a de-gree beyond what you actually feel. By exercisingcontrol over your voice and gestures, you can exerta firm and steadying influence, especially in com-bat. All good leaders know that their apparentconfidence in themselves, in their troops, and in thesituation is reflected in their men. Few things canbetter maintain the morale of troops than therealization that their leader, with full knowledgeof the difficulties of a situation, neither looks noracts worried as perhaps he has a right to do. Toomuch severity, austerity, and strictness of mannerbalk the sympathy and confidence you must havefrom your men. Frequent irritation and uncon-trolled displays of temper indicate that you do nothave even yourself in hand.

c. Language is another of the outward marks bywhich you will be judged and through which youhave an ever present influence on your men. Speakplainly and simply. Make your sentences short,simple, positive, and direct. If you must use termsthat may not be clearly understood, explain theirmeaning. At the same time, avoid talking downto your men.

d. Immoderate language almost always producesunfavorable results both in the individual and inthe unit. To use profane or obscene language andto permit its use by subordinate leaders, especiallyin giving orders, is to risk friction, resentment,quarreling, and even insubordination. Men resentbeing sworn at by their superiors. They feel, and

AGO 2695C 31

rightly so, that the superior has taken unfair ad-vantage of his authority. The same applies to anyimmoderate language. A "bawling out" is com-monly resented as a personal attack. It is, in fact,more often an expression of anger than a propercorrection. The more or less impersonal point atissue is lost, and the matter becomes a mental clashbetween individuals. Likewise, the use of im-moderate language, or of any language, in whole-sale criticism and condemnation of a group shouldbe particularly avoided. It is not likely that youwill ever have a unit that will deserve a wholesalereprimand. Nothing creates resentment so readilyin a subordinate as to be included unfairly withothers who may deserve disciplinary action. Thisis true not only of your language but of all generalpunishments. If violent language ever has anybasis for use, reserve it for an extreme emergencyon the battlefield. A tongue-lashing at that timemay have a stimulating and steadying effect, but itis lost if such speech is habitual.

e. Sarcasm and irony seldom bring good results.Many men do not understand sarcasm and ironyand are never quite sure what their leader means.Even a bantering tone should not be used often.This does not mean that a joke can never be used,but too much wisecracking by the leader inevitablyresults in wisecrack replies from his troops. TheAmerican soldier is too accustomed to this kind oftalk to resist cracking back if he thinks he can getaway with it. He will have reason to think he canget away with it if he is always on the receiving

32 AGO 2695C

end of such remarks. At the same time, any wiseleader will know that in some circumstances a cer-tain amount of joking is helpful. When there isdiscouragement in the air or when exhausted troopsmust be called upon for another effort, a flash ofhumor helps greatly. It tends to give confidencein time of stress, even in the midst of the mcstconfused and strenuous combat. Indeed it is oftenthe American way of implying sympathy andunderstanding-even cooperation-in the midst ofdifficulty.

f. A leader should be dignified. Dignity impliesa state of being worthy or honorable. It requiresthe control of one's actions and emotions. A leaderwho makes a spectacle of himself through loudness,drink, or lack of emotional control quickly losesthe respect of his men.

g. To develop the manner, language, and bearingof a leader-

(1) Require of yourself the highest standardsin appearance and conduct.

(2) Know and adhere to regulations concern-ing dress and conduct.

(3) Avoid use of vulgar speech.(4) If you drink liquor, drink moderately.(5) Avoid coarse behavior.(6) Habitually maintain a dignified demeanor.(7) Avoid making a spectacle of yourself.(8) Know when to be seen, both officially and

socially. Anticipate when your presenceor absence may embarrass yourself andothers.

AGO 2695C 33

539933 o0 60-3

27. Endurancea. Endurance, the mental and physical stamina

measured by the ability to stand pain, fatigue,distress, and hardship, is akin to courage. It is oneof the most important qualities in determiningleadership ability. You must have it if you are tocommand the proper respect from subordinates. Alack of endurance may be confused with lack ofcourage and brand the leader who is in poor physi-cal condition as a coward. Endurance implies theability to stick to a job and see it through.

b. To develop physical and mental stamina-(1) Avoid nonessential activities that will

lower stamina.(2) Cultivate 'physical training habits that

will strengthen your body; learn to standpunishment by undertaking difficult phys-ical tasks.

(3) Test your endurance by frequently sub-jecting yourself to unusual physical andmental exercises.

(4) Force yourself to continue on occasionswhen you are tired and your mind issluggish.

(5) Form the habit of finishing every task tothe best of your abilities.

28. Unselfishnessa. The unselfish leader is one who avoids provid-

ing for his own comfort and personal advancementat the expense of others. Put the comfort,pleasures, and recreation of subordinates before

34 AGO 2695C

your own. If the unit is commended for some out-standing work, pass along the credit for theachievement to the subordinates who made it pos-sible. No subordinate can respect a superior whotakes the credit for the good work and ideas, andwho makes sure that his subordinates get the blamefor the unsatisfactory work. To be a true leader,you must share the same dangers, hardships, anddiscomforts as your men.

b. To become an unselfish leader-(1) Avoid using your position and rank to

enhance your personal gain, safety, orpleasure at the expense of others.

(2) Be considerate of the problems, militaryor personal, of your men and assist themwhere appropriate.

(3) Give credit to your subordinates for workwell done.

29. Loyaltya. This is the quality of faithfulness to country,

the Army, your unit, and to your senior and sub-ordinates. This quality alone can do much to earnfor you the confidence and respect of your seniorand subordinate associates. Your every action mustreflect loyalty to your command. Be careful not tobetray the command by discussing its problemsoutside of your organization.

b. To demonstrate the quality of loyalty-(1) Be quick to defend your subordinates

from abuse.

AGO 2695C 33

(2) Never give the slightest hint of disagree-ment with orders from your senior whenrelating instructions to subordinates.

(3) Practice doing every task to the best ofyour ability and wholeheartedly support-ing your commander's decisions.

(4) Never discuss the personal problems ofyour associates with others.

(5) Stand up for your country, your Army,your unit, and your associates when theyare unjustly accused.

(6) Never criticize your seniors in thepresence of subordinates nor permit suchdiscussions among subordinates.

30. Judgmenta. Judgment is the quality of weighing facts and

possible solutions on which to base sound decisions.Enhance your judgment by being as technicallyqualified as possible.

b. To improve your judgment-(1) Practice making estimates of the situa-

tion.(2) Anticipate those situations of the military

profession that require decisions, so thatyou are prepared when the need arises.

(3) Be careful to avoid making rash decisions.

34 AGO 29S5C

CHAPTER 4LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

31. Leadership PrinciplesCertain fundamentals are habitually followed by

successful leaders in making decisions and takingaction. The fundamentals used for the properexercise of command are known as leadershipprinciples. These are listed and explained in para-graphs 32 through 42.

32. Principle I-Be Technicol'y and Tactically Proficienta. To know your job thoroughly, you must

possess a wide field of knowledge. You should betactically able in the field of combat operations andunderstand all of the technical aspects of yourcommand.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Seek a well-rounded military education

through attendance at service schools andthrough independent reading, research,and study.

(2) Keep abreast of latest techniques in thefield of communication to facilitate con-trol of your unit and to disseminateinformation.

(3) Seek out and foster association withcapable leaders. Observe and study their

AGO 2695C 37

actions and application of leadershiptechniques.

(4) Broaden your field of knowledge throughassociation with officers and men of otherarms and services.

(5) Seek opportunity to apply knowledgethrough the exercises of command. Realleadership is acquired only through con-stant practice.

(6) Avoid overspecialization.(7) Keep abreast of current military develop-

ments.(8) By study and through frequent visits to

subordinates, familiarize yourself withthe capabilities and limitations of all ele-ments of your command.

(9) Develop techniques for measuring per-formance of the unit.

(10) Develop skill as an instructor.(11) Take every opportunity to prepare your-

self for command at the next higherechelon.

33. Principle II-Know Yourself and Seek Self-improvementa. It is your duty to evaluate yourself and

recognize your own strengths and weaknesses. Noone can become a successful leader until he knowshis own capabilities and limitations and is, in fact,the master of himself. Strive to develop desirabletraits of leadership as discussed in chapter 3.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Analyze yourself objectively to determine

38 AGO 2695C

the strong and weak points of your char-acter. Make an effort to overcome theweak ones.

(2) Solicit, when appropriate, the candidopinions of others as to how you can makethe most of your desirable qualities andeliminate the undesirable ones.

(3) Profit by studying the causes for thesuccess or failure of other leaders pastand present.

(4) Develop a genuine interest in people;acquire the human touch.

(5) Treat others as you desire to be treated.(6) Master the art of good writing and

speaking.(7) Cultivate cordial relations with members

of the other arms and services and withcivilians.

(8) Develop a philosophy of life and of work.Have a definite goal and plan to attainit.

34. Principle Ill-Know Your Men and Look Out for TheirWelfare

a. You will have a better understanding of howyour subordinates react and function under variousconditions when you make a conscientious effort toobserve them, become personally acquainted withthem, and recognize their individual differences.You should anticipate and make provisions for theneeds of your men. By doing so you win their

AGO 2696C 39

willing obedience, confidence, respect, and loyalcooperation.

b. Techniques for application.(1) See the members of your command and

let them see you; be friendly andapproachable.

(2) Develop an intimate knowledge and un-derstanding of your subordinates throughpersonal contact and available records.In small commands, it is imperative notonly that the leader know and addresshis subordinates by name, but also thathe be familiar with their characteristics.

(3) Interest yourself in the living conditionsof the members of your command, includ-ing their family environment, food, cloth-ing, and billeting.

(4) Make ample provision for, and give per-sonal and visible attention to, the variouspersonnel services including recreation,particularly those concerned with thepersonal problems of individuals.

(5) Provide for the spiritual welfare of yourcommand by supporting religious activi-ties.

(6) Protect the health of your command byactive supervision of hygiene and sanita-tion.

(7) Support actively a safety program.(8) Determine the mental attitude of mem-

bers of your command by frequent in-

40 AGO 2695C

formal visits and by using fully all avail-able sources of information.

(9) Administer justice impartially to allwithout fear or favor. When punishmentis necessary, you should-

(a) Be fair, consistent, prompt, and imper-sonal.

(b) Punish in private, with dignity, andwith human understanding.

(c) Never impose degrading punishment.(d) Avoid punishing a group for the faults

of an individual.(e) Always make the individual feel that

the punishment is temporary and thatimprovement is expected.

(10) Insure fair and equitable distribution ofpasses, leaves, rotation, and other privi-leges.

(11) Encourage educational development byproviding educational opportunities formembers of your command.

(12) Provide sufficient athletic and recreationalfacilities within the organization, andinsure that your command is receiving itsshare of quotas for recreation areas andentertainment benefits.

(13) Share the problems of your men so thatyou may better understand them.

35. Principle IV--Keep Your Men Informeda. All men want to know how well they have

done and what will further be expcted of them.

AGO 2695C 41

The individual who is well informed, commensur-ate with security requirements, as to the situationand his mission is more effective than one who isuninformed. Keeping a man informed promotesinitiative and improves morale. This includes pass-ing information down as well as up.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Explain to your principal subordinates

why any particular task must be accom-plished and how you propose to do it.

(2) Assure yourself by frequent inspectionsand visits that subordinates are trans-mitting necessary information to themen.

(3) Keep your principal subordinates in-formed of plans for future operations,subject only to security restrictions.

(4) Disseminate information concerning thecapabilities of our weapons compared tothose of an active or potential enemy.Where an enemy has an initial advantage,show how this can be overcome.

(5) Be sure the troops are informed of thecapabilities and limitations of supportingunits, arms, and services.

(6) Be alert to detect the spread of falserumors. Stop rumors by replacing themwith truth.

(7) Build confidence and esprit de corps byexploiting all information concerningsuccesses of the command.

(8) Keep your unit informed about current42 AG;o 2,;95C

legislation affecting their pay, promotion,privileges, etc.

36. Principle V-Set the Examplea. Men instinctively look to you for examples

that they may follow or use as an excuse for theirown shortcomings. Your individual appearance andconduct must evoke from your subordinates praise,pride, and a desire to emulate you. Set the standardfor your entire command by outstanding perform-ance of duty. The commander who appears in anunfavorable light before his men destroys themutual respect that must exist between a leader andhis men.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Be at all times physically fit, mentally

alert, well groomed, and correctlydressed.

(2) Master your emotions. The commanderwho is subject to intemperate bursts ofanger or to periods of depression willhave difficulty in gaining and holding therespect and loyalty of his subordinates.

(3) Maintain an optimistic outlook. The willto win is infectious. Foster it bycapitalizing on your unit's capabilitiesand successes, not on its limitations orfailures. Maintain an air of outwardcalmness. The more difficult the situa-tion, the more important this becomes.

(4) Conduct yourself so that your personalhabits are not open to censure. Coarse

AGO 295es 43

behavior and vulgarity are the marks ofan essentially weak and unstable charac-ter; these, together with a failure to bepunctual and a tendency toward selfish-ness and self-indulgence in luxuries notavailable to the command in general, areinevitably resented by all ranks.

(5) Cooperate in spirit as well as in fact.Cooperation must work in two directions.It arises from a wholehearted desire byall members to further the effective opera-tions of the team.

(6) Exercise initiative and promote the spiritof initiative in your subordinates.

(7) Be conspicuously loyal to those below youas well as to those above you. Supportthose under you as long as they dischargetheir duties conscientiously. The com-mander who seeks to protect an incom-petent subordinate from correction by ahigher commander is, however, himselfdisloyal. Loyalty is a primary trait ofleadership and demands unqualified sup-port of the policies of superior officers,whether the individual concerned person-ally favors them or not.

(8) Avoid the development of a clique offavorites. While it is difficult to avoidbeing partial to subordinates who haverendered loyal and superior service overa period of time, the temptation to showpartiality should be vigorously resisted.

44 AGO 2695C

(9) Be morally courageous. The commanderwho fails to stand by his principles wherethe welfare of his command is concerned,or who attempts to avoid the respon-sibility for mistakes of his command, willfail to gain or hold the respect of hisassociates or subordinates.

(10) Share danger and hardship. A leaderwho has elements of his command subjectto danger or to hardship of any kindshould visit them as often as possible todemonstrate without ostentation his will-ingness to assume his share of thedifficulties.

37. Principle VI-Insure That the Task is Understood, Super-vised, and Accomplished

a. Give clear, concise orders that cannot be mis-understood. Then supervise to make sure that theorder is properly executed. This is the most diffi-cult part to carry out. The able leader makes wiseuse of his subordinates to carry out his orderseffectively. Any commander who fails to makeproper and adequate use of his staff and sub-ordinates demonstrates a fundamental weakness inleadership ability.

b. Techniques for applicatiorn:(1) Through study and practice, develop the

ability to think clearly and to issue clear,concise, positive orders.

(2) Encourage subordinates to seek immedi-ate clarification about any point in your

AGO 2695C 45

orders or directives that they do notunderstand.

(3) Question your subordinates and assist-ants to determine if there is any doubtor misunderstanding as to the task to beperformed.

(4) Supervise the execution of your orders.Your supervision must be firm and youmust be insistent that your desires becarried out.

(5) Make every means possible available toyour subordinates to assist them in ac-complishing their mission. Instruct yourstaff to be as helpful and loyal to yoursubordinates as your staff is helpful andloyal to you.

(6) Supervise the execution of your orders bypersonal visits. When appropriate, re-,luire your staff officers to do the same.

(7) Insure that the need for an order exists.(8) Utilize the established chain of command.(9) Vary your supervisory routine and the

points which you emphasize during in-spections.

(10) Exercise thought and care in supervision.Over-supervision stifles initiative andcreates resentment; under-supervisionwill not get the job done.

38. Principle Vi--Train Your Men as a Teama. It is your duty to develop teamwork: through

training of your command. Teamwork is the key

46 AGO 2695C

to successful operations; it starts in the smallestunit and carries through to the largest organiza-tion. (Teamwork concerns all aspects of militaryoperations.) The military organization involvesmany different arms and services, all workingtogether as a team toward a common goal. Eachmember of the team must understand where hefits into the effort. The commander who fostersteamwork while training his command will obtainthe desired degree of unit proficiency. Good team-work requires good discipline, morale, and espritde corps.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Insure by inspections and training tests

that your command is being trained inaccordance with training programs anddoctrine prescribed by higher authority.

(2) Make sure that the best available facili-ties for team training are provided andthat maximum use is made of such de-vices as communication drills, battledrills, and realistic field exercises.

(3) Insure that all training is purposeful andthat the reasons for it are stressed.

(4) Insure that each element of the commandis acquainted with the capabilities andlimitations of all other elements, therebydeveloping mutual trust and understand-ing.

(5) Insure that each subordinate leader un-derstands the mechanics of tactical con-trol for his own echelon of command.

AGO 2695C 47

(6)Predicate team training on modern real-istic conditions.

(7) Insist that each officer and enlisted manknow the functions of each other officerand enlisted man with whom he habituallyoperates. Insist that each of these knowand understand each other, their traits,peculiarities, strengths, and weaknesses.

(8) Demand the highest standard of team-work in all training.

(9) Seize opportunities to train with otherunits, both combat and service.

(10) Show each man his responsibilities andthe importance of his role to the overalleffectiveness of the unit.

39. Principle Vfl--Make Sound and Timely Decis'onsa. You must have the ability to make a rapid

estimate of the situation and arrive at a sounddecision. You must be able to reason logicallyunder the most trying conditions and decide quicklywhat action is necessary to take- advantage of op-portunities as they occur. The vacillating com-mander not only is unable to employ his commandeffectively but also creates hesitancy, loss of confi-dence, and indecision within his command. Whencircumstances dictate a change in plans, actpromptly and without fear that the command mayconsider such action indecisive. Proper planningahead will lay the ground work for sound andtimely decisions. Acquire the ability to make soundand timely decisions through constant study andtraining.

48 AGO 2695C

b. Techniques for application.(1) Develop a logical and orderly thought

process by constant practice in makingobjective estimates of the situation.Making an estimate is not restricted tothe military. It is employed in the every-day life of all persons.

(2) So far as time and occasion permit, planfor every contingency that can reasonablybe foreseen.

(3) Consider the advice and suggestions ofyour subordinates before making yourown decisions.

(4) Announce decisions in time to allow sub-ordinates to make necessary plans.

(5) Encourage concurrent estimates andplanning in the various echelons of yourcommand.

(6) Always make sure that your staff isfamiliar with your current policies andplans.

(7) Consider the effects of your selection onsubordinates and supporting elements.

40. Principle IX-Develop a Sense of Responsibility AmongSubordinates

a. Proper delegation of authority accompaniedby proper supervision engenders trust, faith, andconfidence. It develops initiative and wholeheartedcooperation. Reluctance to delegate authority oftenis a mark of retarded development in leadership.

AGO 2U95C 49

539933 0 -60 -4

b. Techniques for application.(1) Utilize the chain of command at every

feasible opportunity.(2) Tell your subordinates what to do, not

how to do it; hold them responsible forresults. Delegate and supervise, but donot intervene except when necessary.Avoid usurping the prerogatives of yoursubordinates.

(3) Provide all possible personnel with fre-quent opportunities to perform duties ofthe next higher echelon.

(4) Be quick to recognize accomplishments ofyour subordinates when they demon-strate initiative and resourcefulness.

(5) Correct errors in the use of judgment andinitiative in such a way as to encouragethe individual. Avoid public criticism orcondemnation. Be liberal in openly givingpraise which is deserved.

(6) Give unstintingly of help and advice whenit is requested by those under your com-mand.

(7) Insure that your personnel are assignedpositions commensurate with demon-strated or potential ability.

(8) Be prompt and fair in backing subordi-nates to the limit. Until convinced other-wise, have faith in each subordinate.

(9) Demonstrate to your command that youare ready and willing to accept respon-sibility.

50 AGO 2695C

41. Principle X-Employ Your Command in AccordanceWith Its Capabilities

a. You must have a thorough knowledge ofcapabilities and limitations of your command ifyou are to employ it properly. Individuals in yourcommand must be assigned duties commensuratewith their capabilities. You must use sound judg-ment in the employment of your unit. Failure toaccomplish the mission causes a loss of confidence,which in turn destroys efficiency and brings aboutthe collapse of morale and esprit de corps.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Know, understand, and apply the princi-

ples of war.(2) Keep yourself informed as to the relative

operational effctiveness of various ele-ments of your command.

(3) Be sure that the accomplishment of tasksassigned to subordinates is reasonablypossible, but do not hesitate to demandtheir utmost effort in order to achieve aquick victory or to avoid defeat.

(4) Analyze any task assigned. If means atyour disposal appear' inadequate, informyour immediate commander and requestadditional means.

(5) Make every effort to equalize tasks pro-portionately, over appropriate periods oftime, among the several elements of yourcommand.

(6) Utilize the full capabilities of your unitbefore requesting assistance.

AGO ,5Cse 51

42. Principle XI-Seek Responsibility and Take Responsi-bility for Your Actions

a. You must seize the initiative in the absence oforders. By seeking responsibility, you developyourself professionally and increase your ability.Accept responsibility for all your unit does or failsto do.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Learn the duties and responsibilities of

your immediate supervisor.(2) Seek diversified assignments that will

give you responsibility and commandexperience.

(3) Take advantage of any opportunity thatoffers increased responsibility.

(4) Perform every task, large or small, to thebest of your ability. Your reward willconsist of inicreased opportunity to dem-onstrate your itness to perform biggerand more important tasks.

(5) Remember that you are responsible forall your command does or fails to do.

(6) Accept justified criticism and admitmistakes.

(7) Adhere to what you think is right; havethe courage of your convictions.

(8) Insure that a subordinate leader's failurewas not due to some error on your partbefore considering his relief. Get to thebasic cause of his failure-manpower is

52 AGO 2696C

valuable-and his replacement may beworse.

(9) Seize the initiative when a decision mustbe made and specific orders from higherheadquarters are not forthcoming. Dowhat you think your superior would orderif he were present.

AGO u24 53

CHAPTER 5INDICATIONS OF LEADERSHIP

43. Generala. There are four characteristics of a command

that are indications of success or failure in theexercise of leadership-morale, discipline, espritde corps, and proficiency. This manual treats thesecharacteristics as the indications of leadership.You are obligated to continuously evaluate yourunit using these indications of leadership as agage. This is the only sound way for you to knowwhether your unit is effective and able to performits mission.

b. As you evaluate your unit you will discoverproblems that are having an adverse effect on oneor more of the indications of leadership and areundermining the effectiveness of your unit. Thefollowing paragraphs define each of the indicationsand give methods for evaluating and developingthem.

44. Interrelationship of the Four IndicationsAll four of the indications of leadership contrib-

ute to the degree of effectiveness of a unit, and allare to some extent interdependent. No absenceswithout leave for a period of time, for example,may well indicate high morale and good discipline.Therefore, some of the items listed under morale

54 AGO 2S96C

will necessarily appear under discipline, profi-ciency, and esprit de corps. Although discipline,esprit de corps, and proficiency are dependent onthe degree of morale present, all four should beconsidered of equal importance. The other threeare dependent upon morale because it is the sumtotal of all the attitudes of the individual. It canbe said that morale is the fertile soil in whichthe seeds of discipline, esprit de corps, and profi-ciency are sown. Thus, while you should strive formorale, initially, your efforts must always be di-rected toward building up all of the indications ofleadership to a high degree, as the absence orlessening of one will soon destroy the others.

45. Moralea. General. Morale may be defined as the indi-

vidual's state of mind-how he feels about himself,his fellow soldiers, Army life in general, and allthe other things that seem important to him. It isclosely related to his needs. If your actions in thetraining, operations, administration, and fightingof your unit, satisfy the basic needs of your men,you will produce favorable attitudes in them. Highmorale gives the soldier a feeling of conftdence andwell-being that enables him to face hardship withcourage, endurance, and determination.

b. Evaluation of Morale.(1) Morale does not remain constant but is

continuously changing. The state ofmorale of the members of your unit is animportant index to the effectiveness withwhich you are using the principles and

AGO 2695C 55

techniques of leadership. You can meas-ure morale by close observation of yourmen in their daily activities, by inspec-tions, by formal and informal interviews,and by the evaluation of administrativeand operational reports. Specific thingsto note are-

(a) Job proficiency.(b) Appearance.(c) Practice of military courtesy.(d) Personal hygiene.(e) Care of equipment.(f) Condition of mess and quarters.(g) Adequacy and suitability of rations.(h) Care of casualties.(i) Response to orders and directives.(j) Use of recreational facilities.(k) Attention during training.(1) Number of rumors.

(m) Number of quarrels.(2) Administrative reports concerning the

status of personnel, when properly evalu-ated, aid in measuring morale. Par-ticularly valuable are reports whichdeal with-

(a) Men absent without leave and de-serters.

(b) Malingerers.(c) Arrests, military and civilian.(d) Requests for transfer.(e) Sick call rate.

AGO 2695C

(f) Stragglers.(g) Self-inflicted wounds.(h) Damage to or loss of equipment

through carelessness.

46. Disciplinea. General. Discipline is the individual or group

attitude that insures prompt obedience to ordersand initiation of appropriate action in the absenceof orders. The exacting discipline demanded in amilitary organization is of necessity much greaterthan the type of discipline demanded in school,church, or home. One of the major purposes ofdiscipline is to instill in a command a helpful,potent spirit that will foster group identity andcohesion and motivate the individual to withstandthe shock of battle. It results from effective train-ing and intelligent leadership. Before a man canact resourcefully in the absence of orders he musthave an understanding of what is to be done andthe role he plays. This requires training. Beforehe can respond willingly and intelligently toorders, he needs the same understanding andability, plus confidence in his superiors. Thisrequires leadership.

b. Evaluation of Discipline. Things to watchfor are-

(1) Attention to details.(2) Harmonious relations between units and

individuals.(3) Attention to duty.(4) Promptness in reporting for duty.

AGO 2695C 57

(5) Respect for superiors.(6) Proper conduct of individuals at all

times.(7) Attention to cleanliness, dress, and

saluting.(8) Attendance at sick call only when medi-

cally necessary.(9) Promptness in responding to commands,

directives, and other orders.

47. Esprit De Corpsa. General. Esprit de corps is the loyalty to,

pride in, and enthusiasm for a unit shown by itsmembers. It implies devotion to the unit, accept-ance of responsibility by individuals, and jealousregard for the honor of the unit. Esprit de corpsis a spirit above and beyond the aggregate per-sonalities of the individuals in a unit. I- amountsto the unit's personality. It expresses the unit'swill to fight and win.

b. Evaluation of Esprit De Corps. Esprit decorps depends on the satisfaction the members getout of belonging to a unit, or their confidence intheir leaders and on their attitude toward othermembers of the unit. Evidences of esprit are-

(1) Expressions from the men showing en-thusiasm and pride in their unit.

(2) A good reputation among other units.(3) A strong competitive spirit.(4) Willing participation by the members in

unit activities.

58 AGO 2695C

(5) Pride-in the traditions and history of theunit.

(6) Readiness on the part of the men to helpone another.

(7) The belief that theirs is the best unit inthe Army.

48. Proficiencya. General. Proficiency is the technical, tactical,

and physical ability of the individual and the unitto perform their job or mission. Unit proficiencyis the sum of the skills of all the individuals in theunit welded together by the leader into a smoothrunning team.

b. Evaluation of Proficiency. Proficiency resultslargely from training; therefore, supervision oftraining should occupy the major portion of yourtime as a commander. This is the one sure methodyou have of judging the proficiency of individualsand of the unit. You will get proficiency when youdemand the highest possible standard. Some ofthe marks of proficiency you should watch forare-

(1) Personal appearance and physical condi-tion of the men.

(2) Appearance and condition of weapons andequipment.

(3) Willing acceptance and discharge of re-sponsibility by subordinates.

(4) Businesslike operation of the unit.(5) Troop leading ability of junior leaders.

AGO 2695C 59

(6) Promptness and accuracy in passingdown orders and instructions.

(7) Promptness and accuracy in reportingand disseminating information.

49. Development of the Indications of Leadershipa. The development of the indications is a con-

tinuous concern. The operation and training ofyour unit must be carried out with the view in mindof developing the leadership indications. If youunderstand the forces that produce desired results,you will be better able to direct your efforts alongproductive lines.

b. Certain known actions have proved to developa specific indication. An action designed to im-prove one of the indications of leadership may alsodevelop the others. Following are the indicationsand some specific steps that will develop each:

(1) Morale.(a) Teach belief in the cause and mission.(b) Instill confidence in self, training,

equipment and leaders.(c) Insure job satisfaction by carefully con-

sidering job assignments.(d) Keep your men cognizant of your con-

cern and the Army's concern for theirwelfare.

(2) Discipline.(a) Demonstrate discipline by your own

conduct and example.(b) Set high standards of performance and

insist they be met.

60 AGO 2695C

(c) Institute an impartial system for pun-ishment and an equitable distributionof privileges.

(d) Remember, discipline is a result ofmutual confidence gained throughtraining.

(3) Esprit de corps.(a) Start the men off right in the reception

program by an orientation of the unit'shistory, traditions, and present role.

(b) Develop the feeling that the unit mustexcel.

(c) Recognize achievements of the unitand its members and see that they areproperly publicized.

(d) Make use of ceremonies, symbols, andslogans.

(e) Use competition to develop teamwork.(f) Make use of decorations and awards.

(4) Proficiency.(a) Train your men in their individual

duties.(b) Emphasize teamwork through the

chain of command.(c) Establish a sound physical conditioning

program.

AGO 2695C 61

CHAPTER 6LEADERSHIP PROBLEM AREAS AND THE

PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS,

Section I. PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

50. Generala. Leadership requires the solving of a variety

of problems. These problems cannot be ignored,and must be handled promptly in the most effectivemanner possible. If you fail to solve these problems,they may adversely affect the efficiency of your unit.

b. Some of the more common problem areas youwill encounter are those of selection and develop-ment of junior leaders, the senior-subordinate re-lationship, reception and integration, assumptionof command, and counseling.

51. Leadership Problem Solving Processa. You cannot always rely upon your experiences

and observations as guides for determining meansof arriving at sound decisions. Problems are oftenmuch more complex than they appear to the casualobserver and experiences are many times mislead-ing. Therefore, it becomes necessary that you de-velop a thinking process which can be used to solveproblems in an orderly and analytical manner.

b. The leadership problem solving process is asound and analyticil approach that helps you to

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decide on "actions and orders" for the solution ofleadership problems. There are three general stepsin this process--recognize the problem, make anestimate of the situation, and take action.

(1) Recognize the problem. A problem existsin a unit when an incident occurs or con-ditions exist which adversely affect oneor more of the leadership indications.However, to think of a problem as beingsolely one of discipline, morale, espirit decorps, or-proficiency, will not satisfy thefirst step in the problem solving processas there are many different incidents andconditions in a unit which influence eachof these indications. Unless you under-stand what incidents or conditions presenta problem, you will allow many of theseto persist which will counteract youreffort to develop and maintain an effectiveunit.

(2) Make an estimate of the situation. It isnecessary to take positive and immediateaction when dealing with problems thatarise within your command. However, be-fore taking corrective action you shouldrealize that a basic underlying causeexists. If the problem is to be entirelyeliminated, or at least minimized, youmust take additional steps to determinethe cause. A rash leader who jumps toconclusions and does not attempt to exer-cise insight will often create a more seri-

AGO 2695e 63

ous problem than the one he is attemptingto correct. Carefully analyze facts. De-termine possible solutions and comparetheir strong and weak points. Select thebest solution available.

(3) Take action. After making a completeestimate of the situation in order to selectthe best possible solution, select "actionsor orders" to complete solving of theproblem. The selected "action or order"will be guided by the same considerationsas listed in paragraph 4f. Having decidedon what to do, it remains for you to putyour plan into effect and check results.Remember, 'one of the most outstandingfactors which distinguishes a successfulcommander from a mediocre one is theability to select sound "actions and or-ders." Solve problems daily-do not letthem accumulate-they multiply with in-action.

Section II. PROBLEM AREAS52. Assumption of Command

a. Many conditions exist in military leadershipthat require rotation and replacement of leaders.This poses a problem for the leader who must as-sume command of a unit on short notice.

b. In assuming command of a unit, plan everymove with the thought that the first impressionyou make will be a lasting one. Essential elementsof planning an assumption of command follow:

64 AGO 2695C

(1) Observe your unit for a period of time be-fore making any major changes. This in-sures that your actions and orders willbe based on facts.

(2) Evaluate the indications of leadership inthe unit. The majority of leadershipproblems originate in the areas coveredby the indications. Judicious applicationof the problem solving process will ex-pedite the solving of leadership problems.Evaluate your junior leaders to determinetheir strengths and weaknesses. Utilizeall possible means to further the develop-ment of your subordinates. Evaluate theeffectiveness of each subordinate elementunder your command with a view towardraising its level of proficiency.

(3) Orient your unit on your policies and de-sired standards. Set and maintain thehighest standard attainable. The unitmust be motivated to reach the ultimategoal of an effective unit.

(4) Set the example for your unit and juniorleaders.

53. Selection of Junior Leadersa. No foolproof method has been devised'to de-

termine whether a man will be a leader. Successfulleaders with the responsibility for selecting leadershave used the following means to obtain informa-tion:

(1) Interview. A personal interview is a val-uable device to use to observe potential

AGO 2695C 65

539933 0-60 -5

leadership characteristics, and will oftenprovide useful information not; availablefrom other sources. Whenever possible,plan the interview. Look for the follow-ing qualities during the interview:

(a) Poise.(b) Ability to express ideas.(c) Evidence of sincerity and honesty.(d) Frankness.(e) Pleasing personality.(f) Grooming.

(2) Observation. This is a reliable method ofgaining information when conducted overa period of time. Observe for the follow-ing:

(a) Possession of a positive attitude andapproach toward all tasks.

(b) A desire to seek and accept responsi-bility.

(c) The ability to see a problem in itsproper perspective. This ability issimply the capacity to divorce personalemotions from facts.

(d) Loyalty to his men as well as to hissuperiors.

(e) The ability to perform consistently ina superior manner under adverse con-ditions.

(f) The respect and admiration the individ-ual merits among the members of theunit.

(3) Recommendations. Seek recommendations~~~~~~~66 ~~~AGO 2695C

regarding the abilities of the potentialleader. The previous jobs held, amountof responsibility, and relationship tothe recommending officer are amongthe things that should be considered inevaluating these recommendations.

(4) High standards. This is an excellent in-dication of competence. Neatness, correctposture, proper behavior, and punctualityare some of the qualities to look for inan individual's standards.

(5) Administrative records. When recordsare available, use them to obtain generalbackground information.

b. Commanders have obtained good results inthe past using the following criteria in selectingmen for command positions:

(1) Demonstrated ability to do the job (firstconsideration).

(2) Personality as noted by personal contactwith the men.

(3) Length of service.(4) Experience in the job or similar jobs.(5) Seniority.

54. Development of Junior Leadersa. Consider not only the leadership that you ex-

ert, but also that of your junior leaders. Thequality of your leadership is reflected in the juniorleader's ability. Take every opportunity to teachyour junior leaders the fundamentals of leadershipand their application in order that they may be-

AGO 2695C 67

come more effective. A sense of responsibility injunior leaders is best developed by the assignmentof duties, setting the standards of accomplishment,setting a personal example, operating the unitthrough the chain of command, wise counseling,and supervision. The commander must. be con-scious of the dangers inherent in the usurpation ofthe junior's prerogatives. Junior leaders must begiven complete authority appropriate to theirpositions.

b. The development of leadership in juniorleaders must be a constant concern. A good juniorleader not only possesses a sense of responsibilitybut also possesses leadership ability. This abilitycan be developed through study, practice and ex-perience in command. This means that juniorleaders must be trained. This training is accom-plished through-

(1) Periodic rotation of duty assignments(professional education).

(2) Leadership instruction.(3) Special duty assignments.(4) Training inspections and field exercises.(5) Attendance at unit and Army service

schools.(6) Proper study and reading.

c. In dealing with junior leaders, maintain asdirect and personal a relationship with them asthe situation permits. Let them know what youexpect of them, how they are getting along, andways to improve. Give them credit when due, andbe careful to avoid favoritism.

68 AGO 2695C

d. With rapid turnover of leaders in every unit,replacement of these individuals is a pressingproblem. A system of planning for and preparingthese replacements in advance is essential. Thereis a necessity for training replacements for eachkey position so that two substitutes are alwaysavailable. This planning for leaders, in depth ofthree, becomes even more important in combatwhere turnover is greater.

e. The leadership ability of junior leaders willhave to be of a higher quality in the future thanit has been in the past. The concept of atomic war-fare will require that small unit leaders rely moreand more on their abilities and resources. Unitswill be required to operate with little feeling ofmutual security and with limited supplies. Newerweapons, greater distances between units, newtactics, and more advanced means of communica-tion will produce leadership problems which haveno parallel in military history. Success or failurewill depend upon how effective commanders are insolving these new problems. Junior leaders mustbe trained to cope with these new challenges, oneof the most pressing of which will be the conserva-tion of fighting strength.

55. Senior-Subordinate Relationshipa. The relationship that exists between the offi-

cer and noncommissioned officer must be one ofrespect and confidence. This same relationshipmust be maintained between officers of differentrank. As a junior officer, you must be respectfulAGO 2695C 69

and obedient to your superiors before you can ex-pect your men to respect you.

b. The proper senior-junior relationship is onein which there is close mutual confidence and trustwithout overfamiliarity. Overfamiliarity breedscontempt and has a tendency to tear down the re-spect of the men. Base your actions on the wayeach man performs his job, never on any prejudiceyou may hold.

c. Your personal influence is a great; asset inbuilding harmonious relationships among the lead-ers of your unit.

d. Proper senior-subordinate relationship meansyou must know your men and look out for theirwelfare. Any leader who does not know his mendoes not know the effectiveness of his unit.56. Counseling

a. Counseling is talking over a problem withsomeone. It involves the clearing up of a problemor pointing the way to a solution by discussion orby advice. The most effective counseling is thatwhich encourages a person to think out his ownsolution. You accomplish this by exhibiting an in-terest in the problem and by encouraging the manto talk freely. Then, by injecting pertinent ideasand comments, you guide the man's thinking to-ward a logical solution to his problem.

b. The purpose of counseling is to help developthe ability of each individual to take care of him-self-to stand on his own feet without being de-pendent on others. The end result of counseling

70 AGO 2t95C

is clear-to teach the individual to .adopt, as hisown, habits of mind and emotion that will enablehil4 to solve his own problems as they arise, notto encourage him to continue relying upon externalhelp.

c. The range of personal problems arising with-in a unit is vast and varied. Problems which mayrequire counseling are those involving grievancespertaining to rank and promotion, job assignment,discrimination by others, financial problems, familytroubles, morale problems, and many other factorsinvolving the individual's well-being. It is neces-sary that you help the individual solve his problemsso that his mind will be free from worry and hecan concentrate on the job at hand. Proper counsel-ing will assist the man in solving his problems.

d. An understanding of human behavior willhelp you to find a plausible solution to your men'sproblems. Always attempt to understand why aman thinks and acts the way he does.

e. When initiating a counseling program, thefollowing should be included:

(1) All leaders within a unit should be ori-ented on the functioning, the need for,and the benefits derived from a counsel-ing program.

(2) Leaders should make themselves availableat any time to give guidance and assist-ance.

(3) The soldier should be oriented to take hisproblems to his immediate leader, and notto violate the chain of command.

AGO UMsC 71

f. Following are certain fundamental rules con-ducive to effective counseling:

(1) Use common understandable words andphrases in your discussions.

(2) Never talk down to your men.(3) Retain any information secured during

counseling in strict confidence.(4) Make full use of assistance available from

the staffs, services, and higher headquar-ters. You should know where to get theinformation, the channels, and ii possible,know by name the people to whom refer-rals are made. When you put the soldierin direct contact with the agency or serv-ice, you strengthen the soldier's confi-dence in your ability. Some of theseagencies or services are-Chaplain, ArmyMedical Service, The American RedCross, Legal Assistance Officer, TheArmy Emergency Relief Society, Inspec-tor General, Personnel Officer, Informa-tion Officer, Education Officer, and Fi-nance Officer.

57. Reception and Integrationa. The new soldier, finding himself almost en-

tirely separated from his friends and family, mustdevelop a feeling of being part of a group by form-ing new friendships. In military life he finds thathe has much less freedom of choice than in privatelife, and he has little or no privacy. He feels un-important. You can make his adjustment less diffi-72 AGO 2695C

cult by explaining the reasons for regimentationduring his first few days of service. Tell him aboutthe process of training which makes it impossiblefor him to live, work, and play as he did in privatelife. Explain that the Army cannot provide theconveniences of civilian homes and communities.

b. On the other hand, the new soldier may findin the military life a personal freedom greater thanhe was allowed in his hometown. The restrictionsformerly imposed by his parents, teachers, church,and community are remote to him. This suddenrelease may lead to a great deal of thoughtless andunbridled behavior. Personal counsel and neces-sary restrictions sometimes help control this prob-lem.

c. It is particularly important that you takespecial care in the adjustment of the new men,especially in the first few months of service. Dur-ing this period, the seeds of future personalitydisorders are usually sown. These disorders willnot develop if preventive measures are used.

d. New men must be classified and assigned tounits and integrated in such a way that the re-quirements of the various component units of theorganization are met first and that each individualis assigned to a position where he can be expectedto perform best. Often problems of morale developafter you have carefully considered the needs ofthe unit