EKHS31

Master’s Thesis (15 credits ECTS)

May 2019

Supervisor: Bo Göransson

Examiner: Karl-Johan Lundquist

Word Count: 12565

Master’s Programme in Innovation and Global Sustainable Development

Fostering Inclusive Innovation

The Role of Universities and Private Businesses

by

Annika Ralfs

an7227ra-s@student.lu.se

Abstract

Inclusive innovation is seen as a means to counteract the issue of growing global inequality.

Particularly universities and private businesses are engaged with its promotion. However, the

concept of inclusive innovation has deficiencies concerning the operationalisation and

measurement. In default of extensive primary data, a set of a hundred and two inclusive

innovations has been gathered from twenty-one sources and thereupon analysed. The findings

confirm that inclusive innovation is a prominent issue in developing countries, in particular.

In this sample, universities and private businesses contribute to the generation of inclusive

innovations primarily at the level of addressing a marginalised group with the outcome of an

innovative process. Innovations that include disadvantaged individuals in the innovative

process tend to be initiated without the involvement of the two actors. These process inclusive

innovations are more likely to be supported by universities than by private businesses. In

general, more attention should be paid to innovators from marginalised groups of society.

Thus, all actors of the innovation system can contribute to the fostering of inclusive

innovation and the reduction of inequalities.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor Bo Göransson for his constructive assistance and

encouragement throughout the process of thesis writing. I am also grateful for the advice I

received from the Academic Skills Services and in additional Econometrics Labs. Special

thanks are due to Michel Peters and my family – Martina, Dirk and Lennart Ralfs – for their

unconditional support.

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Research Problem ....................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Aim and Scope ........................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Outline of the Thesis .................................................................................................. 5

2 Theory ............................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Previous Research ...................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Theoretical Approach ................................................................................................. 8

3 Method............................................................................................................................. 16

3.1 Sourcing Strategy ..................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Method of Case Assessment .................................................................................... 18

3.3 Approach .................................................................................................................. 20

4 Findings and Analysis .................................................................................................... 21

4.1 Descriptive Analysis ................................................................................................ 21

4.2 Results ...................................................................................................................... 26

4.3 Discussion of Results ............................................................................................... 28

5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 32

5.1 Research Aim ........................................................................................................... 32

5.2 Implications .............................................................................................................. 32

5.3 Future Research ........................................................................................................ 33

References ............................................................................................................................... 34

Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 39

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List of Tables

Table 1: Definition of the levels of inclusiveness (Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho,

2014) ......................................................................................................................................... 11

Table 2: Types of university involvement ................................................................................ 13

Table 3: Types of private business involvement ...................................................................... 14

Table 4: Case assessment ......................................................................................................... 18

Table 5: Number of inclusive innovations presented by author ............................................... 21

Table 6: Types of innovation in the sample ............................................................................. 22

Table 7: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of innovation ................................... 23

Table 8: Inclusive innovations by continents and countries .................................................... 23

Table 9: List of disadvantaged groups addressed by the innovations ...................................... 25

Table 10: Distribution of all inclusive innovations .................................................................. 26

Table 11: Distribution of outcome inclusive innovations ........................................................ 27

Table 12: Distribution of process inclusive innovations .......................................................... 27

Table 13: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of university involvement ............. 28

Table 14: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of private business invovlement ... 28

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Levels of inclusive innovation (Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014, p.

178) ............................................................................................................................................. 9

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1 Introduction

Inequality has become one of the most pressing global issues of our time (Brundenius, 2017).

Inequality is growing concerning economic indicators as well as with regard to the access to

drinking water and health care (Lundvall, Vang, Joseph & Chaminade, 2009) and knowledge

(Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). The mechanisms of advancing globalisation seem to

reinforce these tendencies and create winners and losers (Sen, 2000). Seemingly, to

experience economic growth, increasing inequality has to be accepted (George, McGahan &

Prabhu, 2012). While the gap between countries of the Global North and South partially

closes, disparities within countries are growing (Brundenius, 2017). Even among the

emerging countries with high economic growth rates like India, the number of people living

below the poverty line of US$ 1.25 per day has increased (Papaioannou, 2014). The

modernisation processes that advance economic development in emerging countries bear the

danger of excluding the weaker members of society who are unable to adapt (Hall, Matos,

Sheehan & Silvestre, 2012). Also in industrialised nations, the upcoming resentment towards

“globalist elites” (p. 82) hints at the consequences of increasing economic and cultural gaps

between different groups of society (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef, 2018).

According to George, McGahan and Prabhu (2012), the apparent trade-off between growth

and rising inequality can be counteracted. Promoting inclusive growth is increasingly seen as

a remedy for the unequal development and has been declared a top priority, for example, by

the government of India (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). With the 12th Five Year Plan

(2011-2015), the Chinese government has shifted the focus from unconditional economic

growth to enlarging the group of beneficiaries (Schroeder, Dalton-Brown, Schrempf &

Kaplan, 2016). Similarly, the South African government has increased its efforts in inclusive

growth (Phiri, Molotja, Makelane, Kupamupindi & Ndinda, 2016). Also policymakers in

industrialised countries, for example, in the US have taken action to stop the widening of

income gaps and provide new opportunities for marginalised members of society (Lowe &

Wolf-Powers, 2018). There are several options for achieving inclusive growth.

Recently and with increasing popularity, the concept of inclusive innovation has come up at

the intersection of development and innovation studies (Papaioannou, 2014). The term refers

to innovations that address the needs of a marginalised group (George, McGahan & Prabhu,

2012) and aims to reduce the gaps between privileged and disadvantaged groups of society

(Papaioannou, 2014). Thus, the concept adds a strong normative mission to innovation

research (Schroeder et al. 2016). Accordingly, putting more emphasis on inclusive

innovations can comply with Altenburg’s (2009) request for more equality strengthening and

poverty reduction in innovation systems research.

Inevitably, the innovation system needs to be analysed to determine under which conditions

inclusive innovations can be generated and developed. Various actors have become engaged

with inclusive innovations. The roles of universities and private businesses are of particular

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interest in this context as there are diverging trends and views. Both universities1 (Arocena,

Göransson & Sutz, 2015) and private corporations (Gupta, 2009) have been criticised for

potentially being an excluding element. At the same time, both are developing their own

strategies to address issues of inclusion (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017; Mendoza

& Thelen, 2008).

1.1 Research Problem

Innovations are broadly defined as “both radical and incremental changes to products

(including goods and services) and processes” (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). The research on

inclusive innovations is typically examined in the context of innovation systems (Heeks,

Foster & Nugroho, 2014). Innovation system research can provide insights and

recommendations to policymakers who seek to establish an innovative environment

(Schroeder et al. 2016). The underlying assumption is often that – through innovation –

emerging countries can achieve development in the sense of catching up with the

industrialised countries (Pansera & Owen, 2018). However, there are different approaches in

the innovation systems literature which entail distinct views on the issue of inclusive

innovation. The narrow definition of an innovation system restricts learning to science,

technology and innovation (STI), whereas a broader definition also encompasses experienced-

based learning by doing, using and interacting (DUI) (Brundenius, Lundvall & Sutz, 2009).

Lundvall et al. (2009) argue that the former is of minor relevance to the innovation processes

in developing countries.

Furthermore, Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014) indicate that innovation systems of

developing countries have to meet challenges related to more unpredictability and a complex

1 In the following, the term universities will refer to private and public universities as well as to research

institutes and other academic facilities.

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social structure where both demands of the global markets and the needs of the poor have to

be met. Moreover, their innovation systems have not evolved together with a stable market

economy and government institutions as in technologically advanced countries (Trojer,

Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014).

Moreover, technological innovations from STI do not automatically address and solve social

issues (Pansera & Owen, 2018). On the contrary, advanced technologies such as nano-

technology are being criticised for targeting the consumerism of high-income groups rather

than solving the essential needs of the underprivileged (Schroeder et al. 2016). At the same

time, many impoverished or remote regions dispose of valuable indigenous knowledge and

tacit practices that have been developed over generations and are frequently neglected by the

conventional STI approach (Gupta, 2006). Following the broad definition of innovation

systems, more consideration should be given to the role of these actors who are frequently

disregarded (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015).

The research field on inclusive innovations is still in its infancy (Grobbelaar, Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis, 2017). So far, research on inclusive innovations is limited to either the

description of individual cases or the conception of theoretical frameworks (Heeks, Foster &

Nugroho, 2014). Moreover, many studies focus on concrete policy implications that can be

derived from the cases and theory (e.g. Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014; Hall et al. 2012;

Phiri et al. 2016). Larger collections of cases frequently examine either the process of

university-led innovations (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017) or typologies of the

business strategies employed by private corporations (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008; Angeli &

Jaiswal, 2016). Indeed, Hall et al. (2012) state that the majority of studies, the private

company perspective has been taken.

A weak point of the construct of inclusive innovations is the lack of appropriate and uniform

operationalisation and standards of measurement (Swaans, Boogaard, Bendapudi, Taye,

Hendrickx & Klerkx, 2014). The problem of operationalisation becomes apparent when

looking at the broad diversity and contrariness of definitions. The major difference in the

understandings is whether for an innovation to be inclusive, the marginalised group needs to

be involved in the innovative process or merely addressed by its outcome. Many authors

accept both cases for the labelling of an innovation as inclusive (Fressoli, Around, Abrol,

Smith, Ely & Dias, 2014; George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012) whereas others categorically

demand participatory involvement (Sengupta, 2016). Underlying these two different types of

inclusive innovations, distinct motives for inventiveness can be assumed. Pansera and Owen

(2018) distinguish the market-based and grassroots approaches. Among others, Grobbelaar,

Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017) refer to top-down and bottom-up strategies, respectively.

Nonetheless, Pansera and Owen (2018) state that these fundamentally different approaches

are more adequately described as the opposing ends of a continuum because of overlaps and

hybridisation. Ultimately, every example of inclusive innovation is unique, so the

classifications tend to be rough rather than precise.

Also concerning assessment and standards of measurement, the concept of inclusive

innovation remains rather vague. For instance, the availability of panel data on entrepreneurs,

firms and consumption patterns is limited, especially for developing countries (George,

McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). Moreover, typical indicators of innovation like R&D expenses

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and patents tend not to capture small-scale and incremental DUI innovation processes as they

often appear in emerging economies (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef, 2018) where a

substantial share of economic activity occurs in informal sectors (Phiri et al. 2016). For

example, most of the innovations gathered and documented by the volunteer-based Honey

Bee Network (HBN) in India are not suitable to be protected as intellectual property (Gupta,

2006). Indeed, many innovations are inclusive because of their reliance on open-source rather

than patents (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017). Evidence shows that both R&D

investments and patenting are highly concentrated even among the OECD members (Phiri et

al. 2016). If inventiveness was defined exclusively by the number of patents or the like, a

small elite of corporations and universities would dominate innovative capacity (Gupta,

2006).

Most of these issues of operationalisation and data scarcity seem to be intrinsic to innovative

processes in developing countries and inclusive innovations. Furthermore, the variety of

definitions and perspectives complicates the matter. Therefore, this study constitutes an

attempt to make inclusive innovations more quantifiable by collecting and examining a large

number of cases.

1.2 Aim and Scope

This thesis aims to draw preliminary conclusions about how different actors of the innovation

system contribute to the generation of inclusive innovation. Specifically, the focus will be on

the roles of universities and private businesses.

This will be examined on the basis of an extensive collection of a hundred and two (102)

inclusive innovations. The collection of cases is not restricted to a particular sector or region.

It involves examples of inclusive innovations from developed as well as developing countries.

Furthermore, innovations addressing various groups of marginalised individuals are

considered.

After constructing the set of inclusive innovations, it is employed to approach the following

research questions:

RQ1: Which patterns can be found across the examples of inclusive innovation?

RQ1a: Which regions, groups of marginalised individuals and types of

innovations show the highest visibility?

RQ2: How does the involvement of universities and private businesses differ with respect to

the inclusiveness of an innovation?

The study attempts to contribute to the, until now, largest collection of qualitatively assessed

cases to perform preliminary quantitative analysis. Accordingly, the study is at the

intersection of both types of methods and has to deal with respective issues. It represents an

explorative approach to a relatively new field of research.

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1.3 Outline of the Thesis

The paper is structured as follows. In the theory Chapter 2, the primary underlying concepts

are defined and differentiated. Additionally, the relevant constructs for the research question

are operationalised. In the methods Chapter 3, the process of case collection is explained with

regard to the search for examples and their categorisation. Furthermore, the method of data

analysis is presented. Chapter 4 contains the findings and analysis as well as their critical

discussion. Lastly, in the conclusion Chapter 5, the main findings of the study are summarised

and discussed. Limitations as well as implications of the study are pointed out.

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2 Theory

The theory chapter will consist of two parts. In the first part, the distinct understandings of

inclusive innovation will be compared and contrasted and relevant related concepts will be

introduced. The second part aims to clearly define and operationalise the relevant units of

examination for this study: the level of inclusiveness, university and private business

involvement.

2.1 Previous Research

Inclusive innovations are defined by the purpose of creating chances for the improved well-

being of marginalised groups (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). Marginalisation can occur

in the form of inequalities on the vertical level concerning economic status or a horizontal

level relating to inequalities based on gender, geographical location, natural and social

environment or ethnicity (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014). More specifically, the

groups excluded tend to be women, disabled, and ethnic minorities, and most prominently the

poor (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014). The barriers which inhibit entering and engaging in

the market include geographical remoteness, unfamiliarity with conventions outside the low-

income community, exclusion from infrastructures such as financial services and lacking

opportunities to develop human capital in the form of education or training (Mendoza &

Thelen, 2008).

Attributing an innovation as inclusive distinguishes it from the mainstream or conventional

innovations which address high or middle-income customers (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho,

2014). Arocena, Göransson and Sutz (2015) point at the imbalance between inclusive and

conventional innovations that originates from a weak commercial interest even though social

interest is significant. There is said to be a “mismatch between the demands of the poor and

the market offer” (Pansera & Owen, 2018, p. 28) which is caused by “severe market failures”

(Kahle, Dubiel, Ernst & Prabhu, 2013, p. 223), information asymmetry in particular

(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Attempts to buffer the deficits of the market through political

interventions tend to be long-ranging, and examples have not always proved successful

(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Consequently, underprivileged parts of society tend to be

excluded from being customers. Moreover, the development of innovations in the sense of

STI is usually performed by a highly-skilled workforce, which also systematically excludes

certain individuals from the innovative process (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). Even

though entrepreneurship is recognised as a means of poverty reduction, the fostering of

entrepreneurial activity in emerging economies can be exclusive when directed solely at high-

end capability development (Hall et al. 2012).

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Related concepts

The umbrella term inclusive innovation covers a range of distinct concepts with implicit and

explicit political connotations (Pansera & Owen, 2018). The different notions will be clarified

and compared in the following. As has been mentioned before, rather than clear-cut opposites,

the transitions between different concepts are fluid.

Pro-poor innovations are products and services that specifically address the group of people

marginalised because of their relative economic poverty (Papaioannou, 2014). Pro-poor

innovations also encompass frugal innovations, which Papaioannou (2014) defines as

simplified, cheaper versions of sophisticated technologies. In contrast, Kahle et al. (2013)

state that the best frugal innovations are not “merely cheap replicas of existing products” (p.

221). What both definitions have in common is that they are developed to suit the needs of the

lower income group (Papaioannou, 2014; Kahle et al. 2013). Similarly, the notion of base-of-

the-pyramid (BoP) refers to disadvantaged individuals in resource-poor societies and regions

of the world (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016). The symbol of the base of the pyramid indicates that

this group represents a majority – of roughly 4 billion – rather than a minority in the world

population (Hammond, Kramer, Katz, Tran & Walker, 2007). Pro-poor innovations tend to fit

Pansera and Owen's (2018) market-based approach. Often, these are developed by

multinational or other private companies that want to introduce their goods to emerging

markets (Pansera & Owen, 2018). In such cases, the cognitive gap between producers and

consumers can be big, particularly when private businesses with special expertise, for

example, in healthcare address underprivileged users (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016). While some

authors are convinced that the market-based approach can ensure the development and scaling

up of welfare-enhancing innovations and thus serve basic needs and raise living standards

(Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016; Mendoza & Thelen, 2008) or even lead to political empowerment

(Kahle et al. 2013), others like Papaioannou (2014) and Sengupta (2016) claim that

addressing the poor merely as users is not sufficiently inclusive.

In contrast to pro-poor stands the concept of from-the-poor innovations which emphasises the

participation of the marginalised in the process of innovation and thus represents a bottom-up

development (Pansera & Owen, 2018). Sengupta (2016) demands participatory democratic

governance for innovative processes to be inclusive. She (2016) claims that participation of

underprivileged individuals can help to reinforce their self-esteem and to bridge gaps in

heterogeneous societies by enabling dialogue and mutual learning. The notion of grassroots

innovation movements refers to innovations for social or environmental improvement that

originate from pathways other than conventional science (Fressoli et al. 2014) and are usually

based on the traditional, indigenous knowledge of local communities (Gupta, 2006). Some

definitions therefore strictly require the innovators to be from the marginalised group (Gupta,

2006; Papaioannou, 2014) whereas others allow external actors like academics to be involved

(Fressoli et al. 2014). Also in BoP research, the important role of the underprivileged as

entrepreneurs is emphasised and seen as a measure of poverty-reduction (Hall et al. 2012). It

is intrinsic to small-scale and incremental innovations that they cannot be assessed by the

common measures of innovativeness like patents, R&D expenses or sales (Papaioannou,

2014). As a vast majority of them will never be documented, they are often referred to as

below-the-radar innovations (Papaioannou, 2014). It is important to note that inclusive

innovations need to have a positive impact on the excluded part of society and that they foster

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development (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). That is because entrepreneurship at the base-of-the-

pyramid is not necessarily productive. Hall et al. (2012) hint at unproductive or even

disruptive forms of entrepreneurship like crime or trafficking, which do not improve

conditions in local communities.

In this study, the broader definition of inclusive innovation is employed. It covers directing an

outcome at the marginalised group as well as including them in the innovative process. That is

important to cover a broad range of cases and display the diversity of examples. Nonetheless,

this important distinction will be considered.

Criticism

In addition to the difficulty of being narrowed down and measured, the concept of inclusive

innovation has also been criticised for potentially provoking negative connotations. On the

one hand, Heeks, Foster and Nugroho (2014) discuss if, without the label of inclusiveness,

these would not be seen as proper innovations. On the other hand, they argue that this label

could have a belittling effect because true innovations would not need a distinct attribute.

Moreover, Sengupta (2016) reasons that the term inclusion implies a decision by those in

power to include a group in society. This would indicate the passivity of the marginalised

rather than acknowledging the plurality of society and equal participation (Sengupta, 2016).

However, the labelling of the term facilitates the understanding and prioritisation of the issue

(Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014), which is why it is justifiable to use it.

2.2 Theoretical Approach

The innovation systems approach sees innovations as outcomes of interactive learning

processes and thus emphasises the importance of multiple and diverse actors (Chaminade,

Lundvall & Haneef, 2018). Indeed, Kuhlmann and Rip (2015) report an increasing number

and diversity of the actors and call for better concertation of those aiming to address grand

societal challenges.

As a matter of fact, networks and platforms seem to be of crucial importance for inclusive

innovators. Examples can be found on the national level such as the Honey Bee Network

(Gupta, 2009) as well as on the regional level such as the sector-specific innovation platforms

described by Swaans et al. (2014). According to Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014),

cluster initiatives represent another approach of linking actors to strengthen the relationships,

foster trust and inclusive development. Increasingly, innovation intermediaries are important

elements within the network as these link actors and translate between their demands and

supplies (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014). This model fits the central role of community

and informal institutions found in low-income regions in particular (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).

Networks such as the Peoples Science Movement in India or the Social Technologies

Network in Brazil can function as intermediaries between grassroots innovators and the

mainstream system of innovation development (Fressoli et al. 2014). The Honey Bee Network

offers to support grassroots innovators on two levels: thousands of innovations are scouted

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and documented and for a smaller number of cases, the HBN and associated organisations can

offer assistance in funding, patenting and commercialisation (Fressoli et al. 2014).

The triple helix model of regional innovation includes government alongside the private

business and university actors (Lowe & Wolf-Powers, 2018). In this study, the emphasis will

be placed on universities and private businesses as actors in the system of innovation and how

they can contribute to inclusive growth. Of course, governments, non-governmental

organisations (NGOs) or social movements are crucial actors as well. However, they will not

be in the focus of this study.

Eisenhardt (1989) states that in deriving theory from case study research, the presentation of a

priori constructs is crucial for the definition of construct measures. To be able to test potential

hypotheses, it is important to sharpen the constructs by using unequivocal definitions and a

form of measurement (Eisenhardt, 1989). Thus, the following section is essential for the

study’s validity as the relevant items of investigation – the level of inclusiveness and the

involvement of universities and private businesses – largely rely on the following definitions.

Levels of inclusiveness

For the collection of innovations, the broad

definition of inclusiveness will be employed. Yet, to

further distinguish between distinct levels of

inclusiveness, different categories will be discussed

in the following.

Based on the many different conceptions of the

broad term of inclusive innovations, Heeks, Foster

and Nugroho (2014) model a ladder of inclusive

innovation that consists of six levels increasing in

inclusiveness. The stages range from the mere

intention of an innovation to address the needs of

disadvantaged members of society to innovations

being created “within a frame of knowledge and

discourse that is itself inclusive” (Heeks, Foster &

Nugroho, 2014, p. 177-178). However, despite their

(2014) detailed definitions of individual steps, in

practice, it proves difficult to differentiate between

the six levels and evaluate the impact of an innovation. Consequently, for this study, the

model was adjusted and narrowed down to the most important distinction, namely if the

innovation output is aimed at the marginalised (levels 1-3) or if they are included in the

innovative process (levels 4-6) (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014), see Figure 1. In the

following, these two different levels of inclusiveness will be referred to as outcome inclusive

and process inclusive. This distinction is consistent with the necessary criteria for innovations

that Papaioannou (2014) derives from the basic needs approach: meeting equitable needs as

well as improving participation.

Figure 1: Levels of inclusive innovation

(Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho,

2014, p. 178)

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Naturally, using only two categories of inclusiveness signifies a simplification. Besides

addressing a marginalised group as producers or consumers, there is a third option of

addressing them as employees (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). For example, the fashion company

Filip + Inna engages in the preservation of traditional Philippine clothing by selling fabrics

made by disadvantaged artisans on the global markets (Herrera, 2016). While the

marginalised are included as producers in the manufacturing and given the opportunity of

work, they are not participating as innovators in the generation of ideas, which is why this

innovation classifies as outcome inclusive. From one perspective, employment can mean a

higher degree of empowerment than a product (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). From another

perspective, the concept of inclusive innovation aims to shift the focus from the

underprivileged as receivers to active innovators (Gupta, 2006). Therefore, the definition of

process inclusiveness will be strict in requiring participation in the creative process.

Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge that outcome inclusiveness can vary with regard

to empowerment. More examples include formal registration (Yadav, 2014) as well as

microfinance and microinsurance services which primarily address disadvantaged individuals

as customers or receivers but in a long-term perspective contribute to their empowerment and

participation, for example, in entrepreneurship (Kahle et al. 2013). These services offer the

underprivileged the opportunity to make use of their existing ideas, motivation, and skills

(Mohan & Potnis, 2010).

Furthermore, it is important to carefully observe at which point the marginalised become

engaged in the innovation process. For example, Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017)

distinguish between the involvement of local community members in the design, development

or implementation of an innovation. Out of the three, only the design relates to the creative

generation of the innovation, which is why it is assigned to the level of process inclusiveness.

Thus, a home-care-application that was developed in a joint effort of university members and

community caretakers (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017) can be described as process

inclusive while including the end-users in the production or distribution of an innovation

(Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017) will be classified as outcome inclusive. Again, the

boundaries are not clear-cut, which bears the risk of bias due to researchers’ judgement.

Most importantly, to be process inclusive the innovation requires to be generated by the

disadvantaged members of society. For instance, an initiative of Vaatsalya Hospital aimed to

attract doctors back to their rural home regions, which they left for their studies (Angeli &

Jaiswal, 2016). While they might have belonged to the underprivileged remote areas in the

past and can identify with the locals, they are not in a disadvantaged position anymore. That is

why, even if the respective doctors had been actively involved in the generation of this idea, it

would not have been classified as process inclusive.

To have a clear framework and definitions of terms, the simplified two-level version adapted

from Heeks, Foster and Nugroho's (2014) model is presented in Table 1. It also includes the

refinements concerning employment opportunities, the stage of development at which the

participation begins and the aspect of empowerment. While in the ladder model (Heeks,

Foster & Nugroho, 2014), every level requires all levels below to be fulfilled, this does not

apply to the definitions presented here. Accordingly, an innovation can be generated by the

marginalised without being aimed at them as users.

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Of course, this model of only two categories is a simplification of the variety of types of

innovations. Nevertheless, this strict differentiation is a necessary step in operationalising the

abstract concept of inclusiveness to later enable a reliable assignment of cases. It is important

to note that in default of data, this study does not assess indicators concerning the quality of

an innovation and how much impact it has on the marginalised group it is directed to.

Table 1: Definition of the levels of inclusiveness (Adapted from Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014)

University Involvement

The university system is a central element to innovation systems both in industrialised and

industrialising countries. They contribute to growth and development through various

channels such as research or the provision of a skilled workforce to the labour markets

(Brundenius, Lundvall & Sutz, 2009; Lowe & Wolf-Powers, 2018). Kuhlmann and Rip

(2015) point at new and more actors involved in science, technology and innovation policy

and the resulting increased complexity. There are two major trends which possibly have

opposite effects on the role of universities in the context of inclusive growth.

On the one hand, universities and research facilities are becoming increasingly connected with

but also dependent on the industry. This close connection and orientation of university

education to serve the purposes of the industry has been criticised (Brundenius, Lundvall &

Sutz, 2009). The external funding can create pressure of publishing at a high frequency and

restricts the choice of topics (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). Essentially, this might

create a disparity in weighting profitability and social necessities (Schroeder et al. 2016).

On the other hand, research institutes on global and national levels have shown growing

interest in the field of inclusive innovations for several decades (Fressoli et al. 2014).

Brundenius, Lundvall and Sutz (2009) describe a stream of research about the Third Mission

of universities that seeks to shed more light on the social dimension of the relationship of

universities and societies, apart from the provision of knowledge and workforce.

Level of inclusiveness Definition Inclusiveness

indicator

Outcome inclusive The disadvantaged group is addressed by the

outcome of an innovation. They are involved as

end-users or producers or involved in the

innovative process at the stage of development or

implementation. The innovation might contribute to

the marginalised group’s empowerment in the long

run.

0

Process inclusive The disadvantaged group is leading the innovative

process or involved at the stage of design. The

outcome is not necessarily directed at the group

itself.

1

12

Developmental universities enforce this integral mission most consequently (Brundenius,

Lundvall & Sutz, 2009). These play a significant role in fostering the democratisation of

knowledge, access to education, and shifting the research agenda towards more diverse and

inclusive issues (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). Furthermore, there is a great emphasis

on concepts like Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) which aim to align societal

needs and ethical considerations with the generation and commercialisation of innovations

(Schroeder et al. 2016).

The stronger focus on social values and development counteracts the criticism of universities

to be an excluding element. This reproach derives from the fact that knowledge and access to

higher education tend to be reserved to privileged members of society (Arocena, Göransson &

Sutz, 2015). Not only are the outcomes of conventional research directed primarily at the

needs of higher or middle-income groups but also the possibility to participate in research and

learning is inhibited for the underprivileged (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012). An example

of a particularly exclusive industry is nano-technology. On the global as well as on the

individual level, very few countries or researchers have the opportunity to operate in this field

(Schroeder et al. 2016).

Moreover, there might be cognitive gaps resulting from the disparity of realities. Mainstream

research institutes tend to be structured in a centralised manner, which could be conflicting

with the innovations developed in alternative pathways (Fressoli et al. 2014). For instance,

while also approving the effectiveness of certain traditional practices, conventional scientists

tended to view indigenous inventions of Gupta’s (2006) Honey Bee Network skeptically. The

mentioned factors contribute to a relative inflexibility of the system, which tends to reinforce

social exclusion.

At the same time, universities and research institutes offer great opportunities to support the

inclusion of marginalised groups (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015). For example, high

technology outcomes can address the most pressing issues of low-income groups such as

medication, and it is even being discussed if the technology itself should be accessible for

everyone (Schroeder et al. 2016). Frequently, researchers and university teachers act as

intermediaries in the innovation system that connect and mediate between the diverse actors

(Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014). Universities’ involvement in inclusive or grassroots

innovations offers the opportunity of providing resources, advice and potentially scaling up

the initiative (Fressoli et al. 2014).

Knowing the opposing trends that universities and other research institutes are experiencing

and their potentials to ex- and include, it is interesting to see their effect on the generation of

inclusive innovations. To be able to evaluate their involvement, categories need to be clearly

defined. Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017) assume inclusive innovation projects to

be university-supported or university-led when faculty members, students or administrators

“play a key role in the project” and “it is likely that the project would not have happened” or

“would have looked very different” (p. 9) without their involvement. This assumption will

also hold for the study at hand. It is important to state that the university will be considered as

an external actor. That is, the innovator having received tertiary education will not be a

relevant category. Furthermore, there will be a gradation between no involvement, which also

13

includes the documentation of the case, supporting involvement and leading involvement. The

categories are further specified in Table 2.

Private Business Involvement

According to Chaminade, Lundvall and Haneef (2018), firms play a decisive role in

innovation processes as “the unit that introduces new ideas in the form of new processes and

new products and services” (p. 29). Indeed, the share of multinational corporations (MNCs) in

global R&D amounts to 50 percent (Arocena, Göransson & Sutz, 2015).

A couple of decades after the emergence of NGOs and development agencies, private

businesses like MNCs or small and medium corporations have appeared as actors in the

development context (Pansera & Owens, 2018). In recent years, the involvement of the

private sector in innovations that target disenfranchised customers has evolved as a

consequence of the improved technological capabilities in developing countries which made

poor customers become an accessible mass market (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014).

Kahle et al. (2013) see private corporations to be in a position to initiate and enable

innovations that help to reduce marginalisation and poverty. What is more, Mohan and Potnis

(2010) find for India’s microfinance sector that large financial institutions have a more

significant outreach to the poorest than donor funded organisations.

Yet, Chaminade, Lundvall and Haneef (2018) consider that in the context of inclusive

innovations the definition of firms as “the unit” (p. 29) that innovates might exclude

innovators who are not formally organised in businesses. In fact, to some authors,

development in the informal sector is a central aspect of inclusive innovations (Chaminade,

Lundvall & Haneef, 2018). Similarly, Gupta (2009) accuses the neglecting of small-scale

producers from remote areas and the imbalance in their trade with powerful corporations.

Table 2: Types of university involvement

Type of Involvement Definition Involvement

Indicator

No involvement University actors do not participate in the

innovative project or merely document it.

0

Supporting involvement University actors provide resources, know-how

or coaching, take up and develop an idea,

support the patenting or support the

commercialisation.

1

Leading involvement University actors lead the innovative project or

are the innovator.

2

14

The term private business can include a variety of models that have distinct implications for

the system of innovation. The definition of inclusive innovations covers both profit and not-

for-profit orientation (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef, 2018). For example, Marin and Arza

(2009) find that multinational corporations represent an important channel through which

knowledge and technology generated outside a developing country can be introduced to its

national innovation system, for instance, via multinational corporation subsidiaries. Private

businesses can also include developing countries’ champion firms that offer a chance to

combine knowledge of the local environment and the international knowledge network

(Barnard, Bromfield & Cantwell, 2009). However, Barnard, Bromfield and Cantwell (2009)

find for the case of South Africa’s Sasol that the champion firm seems not to promote weaker

local firms in the innovation system but instead follows the path of foreign multinationals. Of

course, local entrepreneurs can also be providers of inclusive innovation (Hall et al. 2012).

A general risk of for-profit activities in a field that addresses social needs is that pressure to

generate returns for investors could undermine the social mission (Mohan & Potnis, 2010). In

addition to the motive of profitability, corporate social responsibility (CSR) can motivate

companies to engage for inclusive growth (Herrera, 2016). At the intersection of for-profit

and not-for-profit models, there are social business models which do not only serve the

purpose of creating financial returns but also contribute to the enhancement of welfare

(Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).

To evaluate the impact that private businesses have on the inclusiveness of an innovation, the

gradation of involvement needs to be specified beforehand. The level of inclusiveness has

been defined by the fact if innovators stem from the disadvantaged group – regardless of their

status as formal or informal entrepreneurs. Consequently, the notion of private business

involvement explicitly refers to the involvement of external corporations – that is, external to

the disadvantaged group. This involvement could be in the form of help with the

Table 3: Types of private business involvement

Type of involvement Definition Involvement

indicator

No involvement No external private businesses participate

in the generation of an innovation or they

merely document it.

0

Supporting involvement External private businesses provide

coaching, access to distribution channels,

know-how, or support the

commercialisation via licensing.

1

Leading involvement An external private business is leading the

innovative project or has started it as the

innovator.

2

15

commercialisation of the innovation, for example, via licensing as was the case with the real-

time, low-bandwidth video solution project reported by Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis

(2017). Another example could be CocaCola that lets non-profit organisations distribute

social products to remote areas via their transportation network (Kahle et al. 2013). Again, the

involvement will be classified in three gradations – no involvement, supporting and leading

involvement – which are further specified in Table 3.

16

3 Method

In this chapter, the proceeding of data collection will be described. It is essential to depict the

method of search and selection of inclusive innovations so that it can be traceable. Of course,

the inevitable biases and limitations of the proceedings also need to be considered.

Ultimately, the approach to the analysis of the data set will be described.

3.1 Sourcing Strategy

As has been mentioned, research on inclusive innovations is relatively new and usually

limited to the description of individual cases or theoretical frameworks. In default of

quantitative data on the diffusion of inclusive innovations and the like, a larger number of

cases has been aggregated to be able to derive propositions about the roles of universities and

corporations in the generation of inclusive innovations. In a new field, inducting theory based

on case study research is seen as an appropriate method (Eisenhardt, 1989). Consequently,

cases of inclusive innovation presented in scholarly articles have been chosen as the unit of

investigation for this meta-study. The paper follows an exploratory approach in that it shows

an attempt to make inclusive innovations more quantifiable and derive preliminary

conclusions.

The guiding objective during the search for cases was to collect as many examples as possible

from reliable sources. In considering the trade-off between the depth of the individual case

and amount of cases, more emphasis has been placed on the quantity. That means, the search

for cross-case patterns is prioritised over within-case analysis (Eisenhardt, 1989).

The same principle has been applied concerning the geographical and sectoral contexts of

innovations as these have not been narrowed down. Qualitative case studies tend to be region

or sector-specific, which improves their explanatory power but limits the generalisation to

other countries or fields (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016). Not restricting the search to a region or

sector of observation compromises the validity of the outcomes (Eisenhardt, 1989). However,

this allows a collection of a greater amount of innovations.

In order to limit the amount of potential cases and ensure the reliability of sources, the

mentioning of the innovation in scholarly articles has been made a necessary prerequisite.

Additionally, a few cases stem from reports from the NGO PROLINNOVA (Rüter &

Piepenstock, 2008; Letty & Walters-Bayer, 2010).

Naturally, only descriptions of innovations that provide relevant information on university

and private business involvement could be included. Examples of inclusive innovations are

not necessarily taken from detailed case studies. However, it was a necessary precondition

17

that the evaluation of university and private business involvement as well as the level of

inclusiveness could be derived from the presentation of the case.

Search for cases

The search for relevant articles on inclusive innovations has been conducted with the help of

keyword searches (Creswell, 2014) in the computerised databases Google Scholar and

LUBsearch. Based on suitable articles and citations, forward and backward searches helped to

find more authors reporting on inclusive innovations. However, it needs to be considered that

these forward and backward searches bear the danger of finding only related sources based on

similar understandings of the topic.

To further expand the search, platforms specialised in the documentation of inclusive

innovations and the connection of actors have been employed. Smith, Around, Fressoli,

Thomas and Abrol (2012) gathered various networks to provide an overview. Among these

are, for instance, Brazil’s Social Technologies Network or PROLINNOVA. However, the

sheer amount of cases – the Honey Bee Network alone listed over 100,000 ideas (Smith et al.

2012) – and time constraints do not allow including all cases in the collection. Moreover, the

cases documented in these databases frequently do not provide sufficient information with

regard to university or business involvement. Accordingly, innovations from these databases

can only be included in the collection when also presented in a scholarly paper.

Ultimately, an important consideration is when to close the search for additional examples of

inclusive innovations. In the theory of qualitative research, saturation describes the point at

which the collection of additional data does not add new features to a study (Gentles, Charles,

Ploeg & McKibbon, 2015). Moreover, Gentles et al. (2015) specify that theoretical saturation

is reached when enough information is collected to develop the occurrences of the categories.

In this study, the point of saturation will be reached when a broad variety of models is

covered. This is the case when every possible combination of the types of university and

external business involvement is included.

Limitation and bias

Even though guidelines and proceedings have been defined beforehand and followed during

the search for cases, clearly the selection of innovations cannot be random. Yet, as opposed to

quantitative research, qualitative research does not endeavour to show a representative part of

the population (Gentles et al. 2015). That is why a quantitative analysis based on non-

randomly selected qualitative case studies can only have a limited force of expression. There

are several sources of selection bias to be discussed in the following.

Firstly, the selection of cases made by the authors of articles might distort the picture.

Eisenhardt (1989) states that case study research does not usually rely on random sampling,

and there is a tendency to purposefully present extreme situations and polar types. Moreover,

she (1989) suggests that case studies tend to be selected on the basis of the theory which they

are supposed to confirm or extend. Thus, it is very likely that examples of inclusive

innovations presented by the same authors embody very similar models. By contrast, others

might have deliberately picked highly differing cases.

18

Secondly, there can be bias in which inclusive innovations can be found on the basis of the

literature search described. In general, it can be assumed that all of the examples of inclusive

innovations which have been reported on are above-average successful. Accordingly,

restricting the collection of innovations to those published in scientific papers is problematic

because this proceeding only considers rather prominent cases while below-the-radar

innovations are neglected. By expanding the search in networks such as the HBN, more

grassroots innovations can potentially be considered; however, being documented on such a

platform also depends on specific conditions.

Thirdly, relying on the description of others – in most cases from only one source – means to

be dependent on the researchers’ presentation of the case. Consequently, any leaving out of

information or the role of an actor in the articles can potentially bias this study. Moreover,

some authors might have an interest in embellishing the innovation they present.

To sum up, it is important to understand that this study cannot claim to be representative

because of the mentioned reasons. Nevertheless, it aims to cover a broad range of models of

inclusive innovation so that university and private business involvement can be examined.

This can be achieved by prioritising quantity. Ultimately, declines in the representativeness

have to be accepted in exchange for a higher degree of reliability of the sources.

3.2 Method of Case Assessment

In documenting the cases of inclusive innovations, an extensive data set has been set up, see

Appendix. For all of the cases assessed, the entries displayed in Table 4 have been made.

Many of the items, for example, relating to the type and context of an innovation are relevant

for approaching research questions RQ1 and RQ1a in search of common patterns.

Every innovation has been given a consecutive number. This has also been done because

innovations are not always given a clear name. In such cases, a short description was inserted

in the column for the name. The type of innovation refers to the distinction of product or

service innovations as opposed to process innovations. This distinction is not always clear-cut

as there are combinations; however, the most suitable category has been chosen. Furthermore,

a detailed description and partly information on the formation has been recorded. Importantly,

Table 4: Case assessment

General Information Context Source Indicators

Consecutive number

Name

Type of innovation

Detailed description

Disadvantaged group

Region

Country

Stakeholders

Author

Article

Year

Additional source

University involvement

Private business involvement

Level of inclusiveness

19

the disadvantaged group at which the innovation is directed is defined. This proceeding

provides an unequivocal basis for the decision between inclusiveness in the sense of outcome

or process.

Additionally, the context of the innovation with regard to region and country has been noted.

This is important for enabling a more specific examination of distinct regions later in the

analysis. To keep a good overview, the names of relevant stakeholders have been noted in an

extra column.

Another crucial feature to the innovation is the source it has been reported in. The source has

been captured by noting the author, article and year of publication which can also be found in

the references. It is important to note that the description and categorisation of the inclusive

innovations has been made based on the information of the source at the time of publication.

Consequently, the innovations’ further development has not been followed up on because of

time constraints and a high risk of not finding equally accurate and reliable descriptions.

However, when a more recent or detailed study was available, that one has been preferred.

That being so also examples of inclusive innovations that are planned or have failed are

included. In case complementary sources have been employed to complete the picture, these

have been recorded in an additional column.

Most importantly, the indicators of the relevant items for answering the research question

RQ2 have been assessed. The involvement of universities and private businesses as well as

the level of inclusiveness of the innovation has been evaluated based on the construct

definitions from Chapter 2.

Exemplary categorisation

In order to be transparent and traceable, some examples of assessing and categorising

innovations will be given in the following. These include cases to illustrate the guidelines

stated before.

The categorisation of the example of innovation has been made based on the description of

the case at the time of publication. For instance, Gupta (2006) mentions the farmer Bhanjibhai

Mathukia who invented a three-wheeled tractor that was lighter than any comparable model

on the market and could be assembled from readily available parts. The invention caught the

attention of the Honey Bee Network and associated research institutions that promoted its

documentation and recognition (Gupta, 2006). Gupta (2006) reports that they developed a

technology transfer agreement which allows a private corporation to manufacture and market

the tractor in return for a royalty. This innovation has been categorised as a process

innovation since the innovator stems from the marginalised group. At the point of description

in Gupta’s (2006) paper both research institutes and a private business are involved in the

spreading and commercialisation, which is why they were both assigned supporting

involvement.

Cases might be taken from any step in the innovation process, even before the

commercialisation of the product as is the case with nanodrugs against tuberculosis, which

Schroeder et al. reported on in 2016. Also initiatives that eventually collapsed like DrumNet

(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008) have been included.

20

In case it was available, a more detailed study has been preferred over the one found first.

This was the case, for example, with the microfinance provider BancoSol which is mentioned

in Mendoza and Thelen's (2008) collection and described in more detail in Lal and Lobb's

(2016) case study.

3.3 Approach

After presenting the method of case collection, in the following section, the second major part

of the study is described: the analysis based on the constructed data set.

The first part of the analysis is descriptive and aims to answer the first research questions

(RQ1, RQ1a) of which are common characteristics across the hundred and two (102) cases of

inclusive innovation. It is a common strategy in the search of cross-case patterns to establish

categories or dimensions that show within-group similarities and intergroup differences

(Eisenhardt, 1989). Examples of inclusive innovations will be grouped according to specific

characteristics such as the authors who presented them, the innovations’ home countries, their

types and the marginalised groups that are addressed.

In the next part, the second research question (RQ2) of how university and private business

involvement differ with respect to the inclusiveness of an innovation is approached.

Ideally, to test the involvement of universities and private businesses for significant

differences concerning the level of inclusiveness, a regression analysis could have been

employed. Since the research design contains a dichotomous outcome variable and two

categorical predictor variables, logistic regression could have been an appropriate method

(Peng, Lee & Ingersoll, 2002). However, such a regression analysis would not yield reliable

estimates because a critical assumption is violated. Logistic regression demands that the

sample is random, and observations are independent from each other (Peng, Lee & Ingersoll,

2002). This cannot be assumed for the data set constructed on the basis of qualitative cases.

As has been mentioned before, the collection of examples suffers from certain selection

biases, and the innovations are not independent of each other when reported by the same

author. Consequently, regression analysis has not been used for this problem.

A common method of analysing cross-case patterns in case study research is to use cell

designs based on the categories set in advance (Eisenhardt, 1989). This scheme has been

employed in the analysis instead of a regression. Still, the primary focus has been on the

distinction of outcome and process inclusiveness in relation to university and external

business involvement. This can be done based on the predetermined levels of inclusiveness

and types of involvement.

The tables for the summaries and comparisons of inclusive innovations have been generated

in Stata. The outputs are compared and related to the theory which has been discussed in

Chapter 2. Yet, it is important to note that conclusions derived from the data set are not

suitable for an inference to the whole of the inclusive innovations. The reason for that lies in

the non-randomness of the sample due to selection biases.

21

4 Findings and Analysis

In the following chapter, the findings and analysis of the data set will be presented. At first,

the data set will be described with regard to the sources, types of innovations and regions as

well as concerning the marginalised groups addressed by an innovation. Furthermore,

differences in the level of inclusiveness will be considered concerning the roles of universities

and private businesses. Ultimately, the findings will be discussed in the context of the

previously introduced theory.

4.1 Descriptive Analysis

Based on the described methods of searching and assessing cases of inclusive innovation, a

data set of 102 examples has been constructed. In the following, the composition of the case

collection is presented descriptively.

Table 5: Number of inclusive innovations presented by author

Author/s Year Freq. Percent

Angeli & Jaiswal 2016 13 12.75

Burns 2015 1 0.98

Fressoli, Around, Abrol, Smith, Ely & Dias 2014 3 2.94

García, Eizaguirre & Pradel 2015 2 1.96

Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis 2017 15 14.71

Gupta 2006 14 13.73

Hall, Matos, Sheehan & Silvestre 2012 2 1.96

Herrera 2016 4 3.92

Kahle, Dubiel, Ernst & Prabhu 2013 5 4.90

Lal & Lobb 2016 1 0.98

Letty & Walters-Bayer 2010 2 1.96

Lowe & Wolf-Powers 2018 1 0.98

Mendoza & Thelen 2008 26 25.49

Mohan & Potnis 2010 2 1.96

Pansera & Owens 2018 1 0.98

Papaioannou 2014 2 1.96

Rüter & Piepenstock 2008 1 0.98

Schroeder, Dalton-Brown, Schrempf & Kaplan 2016 1 0.98

Swaans, Boogaard, Bendapudi, Taye, Hendrickx & Klerkx 2014 1 0.98

Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist 2014 4 3.92

Yadav 2014 1 0.98

102 100

22

Firstly, the sources included in the study are examined. There are a total of twenty-one

different authors and groups of authors. As can be seen in Table 5, the number of cases

reported in the articles varies greatly between one and twenty-six. That is because detailed

case studies of one particular innovation (e.g. Swaans et al. 2014; Burns, 2015) have been

included as well as broad overviews of the topic and typologies (e.g. Mendoza & Thelen,

2008; Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).

As was presumed beforehand, authors have put distinct focuses on the selection of

innovations they present. This can be with respect to industry, actors involved and models of

inclusive innovations. For example, Angeli and Jaiswal (2016) study inclusive innovations

specifically in India’s healthcare sector, while Mendoza and Thelen (2008) present examples

from various fields and regions. Grobbelaar, Tijssen and Dijksterhuis (2017) took the

university perspective for their exploratory study and analysed fifteen university-led projects.

In contrast, Herrera (2016) examines different models of how businesses can generate

innovation for impact. Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014) exemplify the formation of

inclusive clusters initiated by scientific and political initiatives, whereas Gupta (2006)

documented exclusively innovations that originated in grassroots structures.

Secondly, the distribution of the types of innovations has been considered. As shown in Table

6, the sample of innovations consists of product and service innovations as well as process

innovations. Service innovations constitute 44%, so almost half of the sample, whereas

product and process innovation account for 29% and 26%, respectively. Consequently, this

sample seems to suggest that most innovations directed at the needs of the disadvantaged are

service innovations. Still, it is important to recognise that the boundaries are not always clear

and there are also combinations of these types of innovation.

Table 6: Types of innovation in the sample

Furthermore, the share of process inclusive innovations for the different types of innovations

has been examined. It is important to clarify that process, product and service innovations are

distinguished for the type of innovation. This is not to be confused with the level of

inclusiveness for which outcome and process inclusiveness are two categories. As these two

levels have been assigned the indicators 0 and 1 respectively, the mean of inclusiveness can

be interpreted as the share of process inclusive innovations.

Consequently, Table 7 shows that for this sample of innovations, product innovations have

the highest share of process inclusive innovations. That is, the marginalised group was

included with product innovations in 37% of the examples. Roughly 26% of the process

innovations have been generated with the marginalised group included. The lowest share of

Type of

innovation

Freq. Percent

Process 27 26.47

Product 30 29.41

Service 45 44.12

Total 102 100.00

23

process inclusive innovations in this sample has been the generation of new services with

roughly 16%.

Thus, while service innovations are the most frequent type of innovation in this sample, they

show the lowest propensity of marginalised individuals to be involved in the innovative

process.

Thirdly, the distribution of regions and countries covered in the sample is presented. Table 8

lists the number of inclusive innovations per continent and country. In this collection of cases,

Africa and Asia are the regions contributing to the vast majority of innovations, namely 34

and 49. It is striking that both contain countries – South Africa and even more so India – with

outstandingly many examples reported. The continent with the third highest number of

inclusive innovations in this sample is Latin America. There are only three examples of

inclusive innovations directed at marginalised groups in industrialised countries of Europe

and North America as well as one from Japan. Unfortunately, this small number of cases does

not allow a meaningful comparison of developed and developing countries. Furthermore,

seven innovations are addressing disadvantaged groups in several or no specific regions and

countries.

Table 7: Share of process inclusive innovations by type of innovation

Type of

Innovation

Inclusiveness

(0 = outcome, 1 = process)

Mean Std. Dev. Freq.

Process .259 .447 27

Product .367 .490 30

Service .156 .367 45

Total .245 .432 102

Table 8: Inclusive innovations by continents and countries

Africa Freq. Asia Freq. Latin America Freq.

Kenya 5 Bangladesh 1 Bolivia 3

South Africa 21 China 1 Brazil 4

Tanzania 1 India 41 Mexico 1

Uganda

Multiple Countries

5

2

Japan

Philippines

1

5

Peru 1

Total 34 Total 49 Total 9

Europe North America Multiple Continents

Spain 2 USA 1 Multiple Countries 7

24

Ultimately, the marginalised groups which are addressed by the inclusive innovations in the

data set are listed in Table 9 (p. 25). As has been mentioned before, the disadvantaged group

addressed by an inclusive innovation is one of the central features assessed for this data set.

Firstly, it is important for the evaluation of inclusiveness because process inclusiveness

demands the participation of members of the marginalised group in the innovative process.

Secondly, it is interesting to see which groups are addressed by the collected innovations and

which barriers they helped to overcome.

The groups which the innovations are directed to are in part defined by highly specific

characteristics. Certain categories could have been merged; however, that would have

prevented to show the broad variety of inclusive innovations developed to address very

specific problems.

What can be seen from the list is that the underprivileged groups are either defined by their

profession or by the barrier that excludes them from participating in society. That is, many

innovations address a particular occupational group, most prominently farmers and specific

subgroups such as livestock farmers. Furthermore, there are other professional groups

addressed, for example, healthcare workers, salt workers or blacksmiths. It can be assumed

that these occupational groups are addressed because of their relatively low income or bad

working conditions. Additionally, many marginalised groups are defined by the barrier which

hinders their participation in society or in the markets. As described by Mendoza and Thelen

(2008), these barriers can be the lack of infrastructures such as electricity, healthcare or

financial services, missing opportunities to develop human capital, for instance, literacy or

simply geographical drawbacks such as remoteness or precarious neighbourhoods. There are

innovations specifically addressing women and female workers as these appear to be in a

disadvantaged position because of their gender. The most prevalent barrier which is

seemingly linked to all the characteristics mentioned are low and irregular income flows

(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Hence, one can state that marginalisation occurs on the horizontal

and even more obviously on the vertical level, as Trojer, Rydhagen and Kjellqvist (2014)

suggested.

25

Disadvantaged group addressed Freq.

basketers (often women, disabled, HIV victims) 1

blacksmiths and metalworkers 1

children from low-income backgrounds 1

farmers 16

female livestock keepers 2

healthcare workers in underprivileged regions 4

illiterate 1

illiterate and low-income population 2

inhabitants of old worker's district, migrants 2

livestock producers 1

low-income communities 1

low-income patients 6

low-income patients in Mumbai 1

low-income patients in remote areas 4

low-income segments 11

lower-income families outside Manila Region 1

microentrepreneurs from developing countries 1

patients in semi-urban and rural areas 1

population in remote areas 10

population in remote areas, illiterate 1

population in rural areas 1

population in semi-dry areas 1

population in townships 7

population without access to electricity 2

population without access to financial services 4

population without access to fast internet 1

population without access to insurance 1

population without access to safe water sources 2

rural artisans 2

salt workers 2

seaweed farmers (mostly women) 1

slum dwellers and rural inhabitants 1

smallholder farmers 2

subsistence farmers 1

tanners and flayers 1

tuberculosis patients 1

unregistered population 1

women entrepreneurs 1

women from impoverished regions 1

workers with limited formal education 1

Table 9: List of disadvantaged groups addressed by the innovations

26

4.2 Results

In the following section, the data set is analysed with respect to the levels of inclusiveness.

This is necessary to answer the research question (RQ2) of how university and private

business involvement potentially differ.

As a first step, the distribution of inclusive innovations has been examined concerning the

types of involvement of universities and businesses. Table 10 provides an overview of the

distribution of examples for both levels of inclusiveness. It is apparent that the sample of

cases covers every combination of the different types of involvement of universities and

private businesses. Hence, saturation has been reached in the sense that the collection captures

every constellation of these two actors.

However, the number of examples varies greatly. Innovations with leading business

involvement and no or merely documenting university involvement are by far the most

frequent observation. There are forty-three of such examples. In contrast, only one example of

an innovation has both leading university and external business involvement. Sixteen of the

inclusive innovations in the sample have been generated without the involvement of

universities and external businesses. However, it needs to be noted that not all innovations

developed without business and university involvement are necessarily generated by the

marginalised alone; for example, there might be NGOs or public actors involved.

For this study, the difference between outcome and process inclusiveness has been

determined as the significant gradation for the inclusiveness of an innovation. Thus, next, the

distribution in the sample will be regarded for both separately. In the comparison of Tables 11

and 12, it becomes apparent that there is a high disparity between 77 outcome inclusive

innovations and only 25 process inclusive innovations.

Table 11 reveals that the majority of outcome inclusive innovations has been developed with

high involvement of one actor and no involvement of the other. Forty-three innovations have

been initiated by private businesses and did not include universities in the process. Fifteen of

the innovations in the sample have been led by universities and did not involve external

businesses. Seven outcome inclusive innovations have been generated without private

businesses or universities involved. Since the marginalised group is not involved in their

Table 10: Distribution of all inclusive innovations

Private Business

Involvement

None Supporting Leading Total

University

Involvement

None 16 3 43 62

Supporting 9 5 2 16

Leading 18 5 1 24

Total 43 13 46 102

27

generation either, other actors of the innovation system must be leading these projects. In

general, comparatively few outcome inclusive innovations have been developed with

supporting involvement of either universities or external businesses.

Table 12 shows the distribution of process inclusive innovations in the sample. What is

striking is that the number of process inclusive innovations seems to decrease as external

private businesses become more involved. There are no cases of process inclusive innovations

with leading private business involvement. Also for leading university involvement, there are

only three cases. However, there is a total of thirteen examples of process inclusive

innovations generated with supporting university involvement. Nine process inclusive

innovations are generated without the help of either universities or businesses.

Next, the shares of outcome and process inclusive innovations are examined with respect to

the three respective types of involvement of universities and external businesses. Since the

two levels of inclusiveness – outcome and process – have been assigned indicators of 0 and 1,

the means in Tables 13 and 14 can be viewed as shares of the process inclusive innovations in

the total sample.

Table 13 shows that supporting university involvement comes with the highest propensity, of

81%, to accompany process inclusiveness, whereas out of the innovations with no

involvement and leading involvement, 15% and 13% were process inclusive.

Table 11: Distribution of outcome inclusive innovations

Private Business

Involvement

None Supporting Leading Total

University

Involvement

None 7 3 43 53

Supporting 0 1 2 3

Leading 15 5 1 21

Total 22 9 46 77

Table 12: Distribution of process inclusive innovations

Private Business

Involvement

None Supporting Leading Total

University

Involvement

None 9 0 0 9

Supporting 9 4 0 13

Leading 3 0 0 3

Total 21 4 0 25

28

In contrast, Table 14 reveals that no business involvement coincided with 49% and supporting

business involvement with 31% of the innovations being process inclusive. Again, none of the

innovation that originated from leading business involvement was process inclusive.

To sum up, the results presented in this section provide insights in the relation of

inclusiveness and university and private business involvement. The majority of outcome

inclusive innovations in this sample is either led by a university, a private business or another

actor of the innovation system. Comparatively few outcome inclusive innovations have been

supported by universities or external businesses. Among the process inclusive innovations, a

large share has been generated without the involvement of either of the two actors.

Additionnaly, most of the innovations that are supported by a university are process inclusive.

4.3 Discussion of Results

In the discussion, the findings from the previous sections are analysed and critically

discussed. At first, the general composition of the sample is related to the theory.

Consequently, it can be examined if the patterns found in the course of the first research

questions (RQ1, RQ1a) are in accordance with the theoretical presumptions. Furthermore, the

difference between process and outcome inclusiveness is considered. Lastly, the roles of

private businesses and universities are analysed to approach the second research question

(RQ2) of how they differ in promoting process inclusive innovation.

The sample

There are certain striking features in the data set which are caused by the presence of the

concept of inclusive innovation, for example, the outstanding numbers of inclusive

innovations from India and South Africa. Reasons for these could be the prioritisation of

inclusive innovations by the Indian government (George, McGahan & Prabhu, 2012) resulting

from the fact that India is the country with the highest absolute number of people living in

Table 13: Share of process inclusive innovations

by type of university involvement Table 14: Share of process inclusive innovations

by type of private business invovlement

University

Involvement

Inclusiveness

(0 = outcome, 1 = process)

Mean Std. Dev. Freq.

None .145 .355 62

Supporting .813 .403 16

Leading .125 .338 24

Total .245 .432 102

Private

Business

Involvement

Inclusiveness

(0 = outcome, 1 = process)

Mean Std. Dev. Freq.

None .488 .506 43

Supporting . 308 .480 13

Leading 0 0 46

Total .245 .432 102

29

poverty (Mohan & Potnis, 2010). Also South Africa continues to be among the world’s most

unequal countries with respect to income (Brundenius, 2017) and the African National

Congress government has engaged in the promotion of inclusive innovations (Phiri et al.

2016). There are two mechanisms through which the prioritisation of inclusive innovation in

specific countries could lead to more visibility in the literature. Firstly, the efforts might have

promoted the development of more inclusive innovations. Secondly, the popularity of the

issue might have shifted the focus to inclusive innovators who had been there before.

Presumably, both explanations hold to a certain degree.

It is peculiar that the sample only contains one inclusive innovation explicitly directed at

China’s marginalised population even though its government aims to promote the concept

(Schroeder et al. 2016). It might be a coincidence that only one inclusive innovation from

China has been found in the literature search conducted. Alternatively, it might indicate that

the idea has not received as much attention as in India, for instance.

Similarly, more economically developed countries are sparsely represented in the sample.

Again, this might be a coincidence or show that deliberate action for inclusive growth is not

prioritised as much as in some developing countries. A possible explanation for fewer

inclusive innovations in developed countries could be that these states have well-functioning

structures in the public sector to cushion the market failures which cause the exclusion of

parts of the population (Mendoza & Thelen, 2008). Moreover, it is striking that various

relevant stakeholders from the Global North engage in inclusive innovations in the Global

South. Examples are the cluster initiatives in Uganda and Tanzania that had been advanced by

the Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist,

2014), microinsurance offered by the German Allianz in southern India (Kahle et al. 2013) or

US-based Procter & Gamble that developed an in-home water purifier for emerging markets

(Mendoza & Thelen, 2008).

Also the shares of types of innovation from Table 6 might not be representative. The fact that

only the tip of the iceberg is captured with this method of literature search becomes apparent

when looking at the disparity of process innovations as opposed to products and services.

Accordingly, it can be assumed that particularly small-scale and incremental process

innovations in developing countries remain below the radar (Chaminade, Lundvall & Haneef,

2018). Nonetheless, it seems reasonable that services constitute a major share in the total of

inclusive innovations (Table 6) as they help to serve such basic needs as registration (Yadav,

2014).

Also the share of process inclusive innovations by type of innovation (Table 7) needs to be

viewed critically. It is very likely that the share of process inclusive product innovations is

overestimated compared to the other types because this constellation is very dominant in the

examples taken from Gupta (2006).

Level of inclusiveness

Importantly, the gradation of the levels of inclusiveness is based on the distinction between

outcome and process inclusiveness. Even though process inclusiveness is understood as

superior by many authors or even as the only way in which an innovation can be inclusive

30

(Sengupta, 2016), in the eyes of Kahle et al. (2013) outcome inclusiveness is also essential for

improving the lives of underprivileged individuals.

There is an apparent disparity between 77 outcome inclusive innovations as opposed to 25

process inclusive innovations. The reasons for that possibly result from the mechanisms that

promote the publication of a case. The highest absolute numbers of process inclusive

innovations are found in combination with no business involvement and no or supporting

university involvement. Accordingly, these are innovations which are initiated by members of

the marginalised group alone or perhaps in cooperation with a different actor of the

innovation system. It is reasonable to assume that these examples are less likely to gain

prominence unless they are deliberately searched for and documented, for example, by

Gupta's (2006) Honey Bee Network. Without the interest of powerful actors like universities

and corporations to advertise their ideas, innovations are more likely to remain below the

radar. That is also why various authors (e.g. Fressoli et al. 2014; Hall et al. 2012) call for a

stronger focus on process instead of outcome innovations.

Furthermore, as has been mentioned before, the definition of outcome inclusiveness in one

category is strict and rather simplistic. The measure does not distinguish between providing

the poor with a product of consumption or a product that enables its users to increase their

agricultural yields, for example, agricultural sprayers (Gupta, 2006). Similarly, there is no

further distinction between regular services and services like formal registration (Yadav,

2014) which allow the marginalised to participate in society and markets. Moreover, also job

opportunities or training, for example, provided by the Sulabh International Institute of Health

and Hygiene (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016) are included in this category even though they

potentially contribute to the empowerment of individuals.

Private business involvement

What can be clearly seen from Table 9 is that the described method of case search yielded a

majority of cases with business involvement. Thus, the findings are in accordance with the

prevalence of studies from a company perspective, which Hall et al. (2012) mention.

The analyses seem to indicate that process inclusiveness is more likely when private

businesses are not involved or only supporting. However, this is partly due to the strict

definition of business involvement as external. In many cases, the innovators may well be

organised in corporations and benefit from the private business structure; however, that has

not been assessed in this study. Table 12 reveals that no process inclusive innovations from

the sample have been generated with leading external business involvement and just a few

with supporting business involvement. Still, many corporations contribute to the inclusion of

the marginalised at the level of outcomes, for example, by developing an affordable mobile

phone that is accessible for the illiterate as has been done by Motorola (Mendoza & Thelen,

2008). Moreover, a multitude of innovations have the potential to improve living conditions

in the long run, for instance, by buffering crop failures with insurances (Mendoza & Thelen,

2008), providing rural artisans with employment (Herrera, 2016) or making healthcare more

affordable by optimising processes (Angeli & Jaiswal, 2016).

31

These cases seem to prove that the motive of private businesses to strive for profitability can

be aligned with social interests. Moreover, it can even drive the development and

advancement of new ideas. However, it is crucial to consider Mohan and Potnis' (2010) plea

that the pressure for profitability can be particularly harmful in a field that deals with the

livelihood of disenfranchised individuals.

University involvement

Concerning the engagement of universities and other research facilities, the trend of

increasing interest in the field of inclusive innovation (Fressoli et al. 2014) can be confirmed.

There are many initiatives started and led by university actors to purposefully develop

innovations for disadvantaged groups (Trojer, Rydhagen & Kjellqvist, 2014; Grobbelaar,

Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017). However, it is intrinsic to these university-led initiatives to be

planned top-down and generate primarily outcome inclusive innovations. In contrast,

supporting university involvement in this sample was highly associated with process

inclusiveness. Examples are projects which are initiated by members of the marginalised

group and taken up by a research institute (Gupta, 2006) or innovations that were jointly

designed by university actors and end-users (Grobbelaar, Tijssen & Dijksterhuis, 2017).

Accordingly, there are many examples of universities aiming to comply with the Third

Mission and contribute to social development (Brundenius, Lundvall & Sutz, 2009).

Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that this cannot only be achieved by innovating

for the disadvantaged group but also by recognising their own innovative capabilities and

providing support. Promoting meaningful innovations generated outside the academic context

can be a way to enable a more inclusive discourse (Heeks, Foster & Nugroho, 2014).

To sum up, interesting conclusions can be drawn from the sample of inclusive innovations

presented in this study. They largely confirm the theoretical considerations from previous

research. However, there are limits to the explanatory power of the study that lie in the

buildup of the sample and the simplicity of the underlying categories. Furthermore, it needs to

be considered that no conclusions can be drawn with respect to the quality of an innovation or

the actual impact it has on the marginalised group.

32

5 Conclusion

The concluding chapter will relate back to the initial considerations and summarise the

findings. Additionally, it will cover policy implications and suggestions for further research.

5.1 Research Aim

A significant contribution of this study is the aggregation of a hundred and two (102)

inclusive innovations that has been conducted following predetermined guidelines. An

analysis of so many cases across different sectors, continents and with no specific model of

innovation has, to the best of knowledge, not been done before.

However, it needs to be considered that this proceeding has certain shortcomings. Inclusive

innovations that are collected in a literature search like this are biased towards above-average

success and prominence. In general, the sample of cases found should be interpreted as an

indicator of the popularity of documenting these cases rather than an indicator of their actual

occurrence. It can be assumed that the innovations reported in scholarly articles represent only

the tip of the iceberg; especially because inclusive innovation may include every small-scale

incremental improvement. Thus, this proceeding cannot completely make up for the

deficiencies of the construct of inclusive innovation, which is difficult to operationalise and

measure. Furthermore, it can only provide selective insights into innovation processes in

developing countries.

Even though they potentially simplify complex cases, the strict definitions set in advance

allowed the unequivocal categorisation of inclusive innovations. Moreover, the large number

of examples and the multitude of models and perspectives provide a broad overview of the

topic. Thus, despite the various points of critique of the method and severe limitations to the

data set, it could represent a first, preliminary step towards making inclusive innovations

quantifiable.

5.2 Implications

The number of cases has proved that inclusive innovations are a prominent issue across many

regions and sectors. Firstly, this could be due to the increasing popularity of the concept,

which promotes the acknowledgement and documentation of examples. Secondly, it might be

the consequence of the prioritisation of the issue by policymakers, universities and private

33

businesses. Importantly, the recognition of innovative processes other than conventional STI

is fostered.

Even though the quality and impact of innovations could not be assessed in this study, many

examples show that inclusive innovations improved the living conditions of marginalised

individuals and thus contribute to the reduction of poverty and exclusion. Accordingly,

inclusive innovations are a means to counteract the increasing inequalities that occur

worldwide and especially within countries.

Important practical implications for countering inequality can be derived from this

preliminary study. Both universities and private businesses have proved to contribute to the

generation and implementation of inclusive innovations, primarily at the level of outcomes.

When it comes to process inclusive innovation, the results seem to indicate that universities

are more likely to promote it when involved in a supporting function. Yet, more quantitative

research is required to confirm the findings. To generate innovations which are inclusive with

respect to the process, it seems that neither universities nor private businesses are needed in

leading roles but rather supporting the development. In general and particularly in innovation

systems research, more attention should be paid to the issue and to innovators from excluded

groups.

5.3 Future Research

Because the field of inclusive innovations is not very advanced, there are multiple

opportunities to expand the research in the future, especially following new quantitative

approaches. Accepting a high amount of time and effort, representative primary data can be

collected and analysed with respect to different contexts of inclusive innovations. Primary

data from developing countries can provide more insights in the innovative processes outside

mainstream research or following DUI approaches. Moreover, comparisons between

developing and developed countries might yield more insights in the challenges they face and

how to best counteract growing inequalities in both settings. Detailed cases of inclusive

innovation in industrialised countries can shed more light on the question if public institutions

compensate for private businesses and universities to fulfill the basic needs of the

disadvantaged. Apart from governments, universities and private businesses, other actors of

the innovation system like NGOs can be examined with respect to the promotion of inclusive

innovation. Importantly, future research should develop methods to assess and evaluate the

outreach of inclusive innovations.

34

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Yadav, V. (2014). Unique Identification Project for 1.2 Billion People in India: Can it fill institutional voids and enable ‘inclusive’ innovation, Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice, vol. 6, no. 1, pp.38–48, Available through: LUSEM Library website http://www.lusem.lu.se/library [Accessed 27 May 2019]

39

Appendix

# Innovation Description Author Year Country

1 brine treatment

against

contagious virus

(animals)

cures for foot and mouth disease, a highly contagious virus that causes ulcers in

the hooves and mouths of infected animals. Farmers are reluctant to use vaccines

and medicines to prevent and treat the disease; they may balk at the high cost or

mistrust the medication, scientist approved method (p. 52)

Gupta 2006 India

2 hot sand practice

against

contagious virus

(animals)

forced his infected animals to walk on hot sand. The farmers who practice this

technique believe that the hot sand kills the organisms responsible for the disease,

scientist approved method (p. 52)

Gupta 2006 India

3 Shodh Yatris journey of exploration, meet farmers, learn about their experimental techniques,

and share what we learned, promote informal learning among children (p. 53-55)

Gupta 2006 India

4 three-wheeled

tractor

three-wheeled tractor, Bhanjibhai Mathukia, who has the equivalent of a 4th

grade education and comes from a small village in the Jungarh district, developed

the 10 horsepower tractor out of various readily available components, He used

the gearbox and rear wheels of an old Mahindra jeep, and the front tires of a Fiat

Padmini, a miniature car popular in India, along with a fixed-speed “stationary”

engine normally used to pump water (p. 54)

Gupta 2006 India

5 Aruni-tilting

bullock cart

tilting cart, earned a patent from the United States Patent and Trademark Office

(USPTO) (p. 55)

Gupta 2006 India

6 knapsack

agricultural

sprayer

knapsack sprayer in which a spring-loaded dead weight taps into the user’s

natural body movements to generate the compression needed for spraying. The

innovative design makes the user more productive by lowering his or her fatigue

(p. 55)

Gupta 2006 India

7 agricultural

sprayer

uses the rotational energy of a wheel to power the spraying (p. 55) Gupta 2006 India

40

8 lightweight

backpack sprayer

designed to suit the needs of small farms, nursery owners and women (p. 55) Gupta 2006 India

9 motorized micro-

sprayer

motorized micro-sprayer (p. 55) Gupta 2006 India

10 motorcycle-based

tractor

motorcycle-based tractor, use for sowing, plowing, and, with a quick changeover,

for transportation, patented by USPTO, farmers have relied on bullocks to pull

plows, but fodder there has also been scarce, local mechanic created a multi-use

machine out of a motorcycle by developing removable attachments (p. 55-56)

Gupta 2006 India

11 washing machine

operated by foot

pedals

a washing machine operated by the same kind of foot pedals used in a bicycle,

total cost of her machine was under $40 (p. 58)

Gupta 2006 India

12 water level

monitor and

pump switch-off

a system that could monitor the water level, indicate when the water level

dropped beyond permissible limits, and then automatically: to attach a box with a

rope to the pipe that discharges the wastewater switch off the pump, most salt

making families in the area began using it (p. 58-59)

Gupta 2006 India

13 milk as a natural

inhibitor of plant

viruses

farmer’s practice of dipping his hands in milk before sowing tobacco seeds,

mechanism approved by scientists, combination of milk and pesticides more

effective than pesticides alone (p. 59-60)

Gupta 2006 India

14 gas that emanates

from cow urine

cooking with the gas that emanates from cow urine, keeps the tank full to 9 feet,

draining the excess into the garden as fertilizer. The gas that forms from the urine

occupies the top 2 feet of the tank and he pipes it into the kitchen through a

regulated valve mechanism (p. 61)

Gupta 2006 India

15 Farmer-led

documentation

(FLD)

in Bolivia AGRECOL Andes Foundation introduced farmer-led documentation

to rural communities, the documentation process starts at the community level (p.

27)

Rüter &

Piepenstock

2008 Bolivia

16 Alerta leveraged existing telephone lines and internet servers in order to create a shared

information platform, called Alerta. Alerta allows Peruvian health officials and

practitioners to share up-to-the-minute information on health issues, thus

enabling them to respond faster to health emergencies and better serve many

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Peru

41

remote rural communities (p. 440)

17 SMART Money over-the-air payment system for mobile phones, It allows a retailer to load a

customer’s airtime electronically and therefore helps minimise physical product-

distribution costs. Also, product distribution becomes faster, more efficient and

more secure and enables consumers to reload and purchase airtime even in

remote rural areas, Subscribers can then use a SMART Money card like a debit

card to pay for goods and services at a network of retail stores and restaurants, or

to make withdrawals from

ATMs (p. 440-441, 443)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Phillipines

18 G-Cash offers a service which allows customers to send and receive money via a mobile

phone, facilitates money remittances, and many other transactions, with just a

text message or SMS, cost of money transfer decreases substantially and access

to transfer services for remittances is extended to geographically remote areas,

message. Funds can then be deposited and cashed at G-Cash affiliates and GTel

offices throughout the network. Funds transfers (from sender to recipient and

from G-Cash account to payout in cash) are

communicated via text message. A 1% processing fee is charged both to deposit

and to receive funds (p. 441-442)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Phillipines

19 WIZZIT phone banking (or m-banking), enhance access to banking services, An account

offered by WIZZIT costs less than the lowest-cost full-service bank accounts

offered by the Big 4 (p. 441)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 South

Africa

20 WIZZ Kids markets its services through more than 2,000 ‘WIZZ Kids’, who are typically

young individuals from the lower-income population who know the target market

well , educating potential customers about WIZZIT, the WIZZ Kids earn a

commission for each new customer (p.441-442)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 South

Africa

21 market

information

system

market information system (MIS) which harnesses the power of modern ICTs to

empower smallholder farmers to negotiate more efficiently and participate more

successfully in markets, access market information (for example, via mobile

phone and internet) and advertise their stocks for sale or their demands for farm

inputs, such as fertilisers and seeds, using the KACE website’s sell-and-bids

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Kenya

42

function (p. 441)

22 GrameenPhone provides women entrepreneurs in rural villages in Bangladesh with the

opportunity to earn a living from retail access to phone services in the villages

where they live. 2004, 75,000 ‘phone ladies’, each generating average additional

income of some $1,000 per year, were providing phoneservice access to about

half the country’s rural population (p. 442)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Bangladesh

23 Celpay SIM-based mobile phone payment system, Funds are deposited in a Celpay

account, using the cell phone to transfer from a bank account or, if the user is

unbanked, depositing cash at a partner (p. 442)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Multiple

24 NTT-DoCoMo i-

Mode FeliCa

Cell phones with embedded multi-application smart chips, Phones are loaded

with cash deposits at terminals. Phones can be used as pre-paid electronic cash,

credit cards, travel tickets, access control cards, authorisations to access corporate

networks, or entry cards such as for club memberships or loyalty programmes (p.

442)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Japan

25 DrumNet an emerging network of rural farm-business support centres delivering

agricultural extension, credit, and marketing services to smallholder farmers, a

cashless microcredit programme that links commercial banks, smallholder

farmers, and retail providers of farm inputs, and, second, market services offered

through an integrated marketing and payment system with large-scale buyers,

farmers, transporters and field agents, address both credit and market limitations

by integrating the two services in order to augment farm productivity and

improve efficiency in the overall business chain (p. 444)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Kenya

26 e-Choupals internet kiosks, serve both as a social gathering place for exchange of information

and an e-commerce hub, internet-ready computer, typically housed by one

farmer, serves an average of 600 farmers in 10 surrounding villages (p. 444-445)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 India

27 Microsoft

FlexGo

microleasing and pay-as-you-go solutions, prepaid scheme for obtaining a

computer (p. 445)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Brazil

28 Patrimonio Hoy Through a well-planned savings programme Patrimonio Hoy allows lowincome

families to obtain access to services, cement and other building materials on

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Mexico

43

credit , put differently (and perhaps more creatively), the flexible payment

scheme allows them to ‘purchase their house in instalments (p. 445)

29 Bushnet's tiered

pricing approach

For access to its High Speed Data Network Ten By Ten, Bushnet charges those

who can afford it (for example, financial and commercial enterprises) $200 per

month, but non-commercial institutions like schools, clinics and local community

centres only $50 per month (p. 445)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Uganda

30 Coarsucam,

tiered pricing for

anti-malaria pill

Plans are also under way to use tiered pricing in Sanofi-Aventis’ initiative to sell

the branded version of a new, easy-to-take pill to treat malaria, called Coarsucam,

in poor countries. Sanofi announced that it will incentivise pharmacists’

organisations in poor countries to sell Coarsucam at two different prices – less

than $1 to low-income customers and $3 to $4 (p. 445)

to those who can afford it

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Multiple

31 Jijenge savings

account

personalised contractual savings product with an emergency loan facility

attached, Customers in the lower-income market segments define the length of

the contract and the periodicity of the deposits. If taking out longerterm contracts

customers are offered a premium rate, but penalties are imposed for premature

withdrawals from the account, On demand, all Jijenge savings-account holders

can access an emergency loan of 90% of the value saved in their Jijenge savings

account (p. 448)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Kenya

32 BASIX’s

weather-index-

insurance product

index-insurance contracts, like the ones offered by BASIX, are different from

more traditional insurance contracts because they combine a number of useful

features: involves relatively fewer administrative and operational costs (Its

payout is based on rainfall levels), one of the chief benefits from weather index

insurance is that moral hazard problems and instances of claims manipulation are

minimised to the extent that farmers have no control over what triggers the

insurance, one of the chief benefits from weather index insurance is that moral

hazard problems and instances of claims manipulation are minimised to the

extent that farmers have no control over what triggers the insurance (p. 448-449)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 India

33 Global Index

Insurance

Global Index Insurance Facility (GIIF) has been conceptualised bythe World

Bank to help close the gap between the often unmet demand for access to

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Multiple

44

Facility (GIIF) insurance products in developing countries, and global insurance (and

reinsurance) markets, The objective of the GIIF is to jump-start a commercial

market for index-based insurance products in developing countries by ‘crowding

in’ the private sector (p. 449)

34 Mzansi Account offer a basic card-based transactional and savings account, the account is

primarily a collaborative effort, in which the participating banks shared the

marketing costs to develop the brand and establish the standard, clients enjoy the

network of an expanded banking platform at relatively low cost, thus potentially

contributing to the expansion of access to financial services in South Africa (p.

450)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 South

Africa

35 weather index

insurance

weather index insurance for castor and groundnut farmers in India. It was the first

time that an agricultural finance institution passed the systemic risk of its crop

lending portfolio on to the international weather-risk markets, weather-linked

insurance serves as a hedge for BASIX’s portfolio in regions where crop yields –

and hence repayment rates – show a high correlation with rainfall (p. 450-451)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 India

36 Cash Agent

Model

ICICI Bank’s Cash Agent Model was piloted via existing internet kiosks owned

by local entrepreneurs. The kiosks were transformed into cash agents and kiosk

owners became distributors of remittances to the rural public, This leads to lower

production costs than these would otherwise have been if the bank had had to set

up its own infrastructure; and it also taps an existing retail and marketing network

with which the target consumers are already familiar (p. 451)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 India

37 Motofone F3 cell phone that is designed to be affordable and accessible for illiterate people,

and includes long-lasting batteries and durable design (p. 451)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Multiple

38 Smart cards and

digital fingerprint

recognition

technology

a privately held financial fund, deployed new technology-based products and

systems in Bolivia in order to expand its markets and improve its service. Smart

cards and digital fingerprint recognition technology are implemented in all

Prodem FFP branch offices and so-called ‘Smart ATMs’, as well as stand-alone,

voice-driven Smart ATMs in local languages with colour-coded screens (p. 451-

452)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Bolivia

45

39 user-friendly,

low-cost village

ATM

use fingerprint scanning to identify savers, designed to withstand the difficult

conditions – for example, extreme weather conditions and power outages –

encountered in rural areas (p. 452)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 India

40 PuR Purifier of

Water

affordable in-home water purification technology, which produces high-quality

drinking water from otherwise unsafe sources and is easy to use and distribute in

rural areas where access to safe drinking water is often limited (p. 452)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Multiple

41 credit-life

insurance

the outstanding loan balance is written off in the event of the borrower dying,

which results in better risk management for the client’s family, the client’s group,

and ultimately, the MFI itself (p. 452)

Mendoza &

Thelen

2008 Uganda

42 System of raised

grass baskets in

which her hens

lay eggs

system of raised grass baskets in which her hens lay eggs (p. 30) Letty &

Walters-

Bayer

2010 South

Africa

43 effective means

of ensuring that

her goats return

home every

evening

effective means of ensuring that her goats return home every evening (p. 29-30) Letty &

Walters-

Bayer

2010 South

Africa

44 Swayam Krishi

Sangam (SKS)

Microfinance

it stood out in the microfinance industry in India for the scale it had achieved in

providing microcredit to the rural poor suffering from financial exclusion,

converted to a for-profit company in August 2005 (p. 220)

Mohan &

Potnis

2010 India

45 Microlending

(Kiva.org)

peer-to-peer lending portal in 2005 where profiles of microentrepreneurs from

developing countries are posted, Kiva partners with existing MFIs in the

developing world,

who choose qualified borrowers, distribute the loan and collect repayments, loans

as small as 25$ (p. 222)

Mohan &

Potnis

2010 Multiple

46 eco-friendly yarn,

naturally

coloured cotton

A key product sold in this and other nearby tourism locations is locally produced

naturally coloured (and sometimes organic) cotton used in garments, hammocks,

and other textile products. The underlying technology was also locally developed

Hall et al. 2012 Brazil

46

by the nearby Campina Grande research station of the government controlled

Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (p. 799-800)

47 brocade sewing women from impoverished communities are now participating in the value chain

by sewing brocades based on local culture on garments for the tourism market (p.

800)

Hall et al. 2012 Brazil

48 microinsurance general insurance in South India with life and accident elements for about

US$2.50 a year (p. 226)

Kahle et al. 2013 India

49 microinsurance microinsurance for 6.5 million are low-income and excluded, and five million are

women and children (p. 226)

Kahle et al. 2013 Multiple

50 Digital Green produces videos of innovative farmers in India for other farmers to learn from

and improve their farming techniques and productivity (p. 226-227)

Kahle et al. 2013 India

51 Rural internet

kiosks

self-contained, solar-powered terminals with several computers and mobile

phone-charging possibilities. Often they employ local entrepreneurs as

franchisees who manage the kiosk and provide support to users, These kiosks

offer tutorials, education, or transaction possibilities and thus provide

connectivity to remote areas (p.227)

Kahle et al. 2013 India

52 ColaLife social business and non-profit organization that works at the BoP by providing

social products via Coca-Cola’s distribution channels to remote areas (p. 227-

228)

Kahle et al. 2013 Multiple

53 Money Maker

Irrigation Pump

This innovation was designed by the KickStart International non-governmental

organization (NGO), and has been used by some poor Kenyan farmers at a cost

of US$100. This foot-powered pump costs less than a diesel pump and can

irrigate up to two acres of land per day, helped a number of poor farmers to move

from rain-fed agriculture to irrigated farming (p. 8-9)

Papaioannou 2014 Kenya

54 Goat Farmers

Innovation

Platform

Innovation platforms (IPs) represent an example of putting an inclusive

innovation system approach into practice by bringing different types of

stakeholders together to address issues of mutual concern and interest with a

specific focus on the marginalized poor (p. 239)

Swaans et

al.

2014 Multiple

55 Computer-based teach an illiterate individual to read in a fraction of time, only 40 h of training, at Papaioannou 2014 India

47

Functional

Literacy (CBFL)

US$2 per individual (p. 8)

56 Unique

Identification

(UID)

building the world’s biggest and advanced biometric based database of identities

for 1.2 billion people at a remarkable pace (p. 38)

Yadav 2014 India

57 Lake Katwe Salt

Cluster Initiative

formed a local leadership group in the village, find ways to refine the salt Katwe,

representing salt workers, Researchers at Mbarara and Makerere Universities

have conducted research on how to refine the salt to table salt quality (p.432)

Trojer,

Rydhagen &

Kjellqvist

2014 Uganda

58 Zanzibar

Seaweed Cluster

Initiative,

Tanzania

aims both to improve cultivation and increase income through production of

seaweed products locally, Meetings between farmers and buyers of dried

seaweed for export were arranged, which led to constructive dialogue about

pricing and optional market orientations. Cluster activities include research into

novel farming techniques and new species (p. 434)

Trojer,

Rydhagen &

Kjellqvist

2014 Tanzania

59 Basketry Cluster,

Luwero, Uganda

cultural heritage of basketry, training, pattern sharing and establishment of a

venue for joint activities, registration, was initiated in October 2005 in Bombo

and Wobulenzi, Luwero District, and had the following rationale as expressed in

the business plan of the basketry cluster , basketry is mainly done by women and

it is a key catching activity for the disabled, HIV/AIDS victims and youth who

are directly affected by the unemployment waves (p. 433)

Trojer,

Rydhagen &

Kjellqvist

2014 Uganda

60 Katwe Metal

Cluster,

Kampala,

Uganda

cluster firms employ more than 3 000 people and the product range is wide, from

repairs of heavy lorries to security gates and restoration of used refrigerators,

Much of the activities have been informal, but the cluster initiative made many of

the firms realise the benefits of registration, get assistance on how to address the

local government on issues such as power supply, water and sanitation,

Occupational health is one of the most apparent issues (p. 433-434)

Trojer,

Rydhagen &

Kjellqvist

2014 Uganda

61 Mitticool fridge constructed out of clay and working without electricity on the principle of

evaporative cooling, invention was granted Indian patent (p. 282-283)

Fressoli et

al.

2014 India

62 One Million

Cisterns

build simple cement-layered containers that collect rainwater from the roof, with

a capacity of around 16,000 litres, enough to sustain a family’s needs through the

Fressoli et

al.

2014 Brazil

48

Programme

(P1MC)

region’s drought season, self-building aspect of the cisterns is intended to foster

relationship-building in the community (p. 284)

63 vegetable-based

tanning

technology

cleaner vegetable-based techniques for leather processes, developed in the 1950s

by the Central Leather Research Institute, but remained filed on a shelf,

unimplemented in practice (p. 286)

Fressoli et

al.

2014 India

64 Fabra i Coats Fabra i Coats building became a collective site for cultural and social initiatives

emerging in the district, to offer other spaces for the recreation of social-cultural

relationships, because the absence of services for almost two decades prompted a

strong social solidarity and stimulated bottom-up strategies (p. 97)

García,

Eizaguirre

& Pradel

2015 Spain

65 Ateneu Popular 9

Barris

Ateneu Popular 9 Barris created in the old industrial premises, has become a

referential cultural centre for the promotion of arts, especially circus arts (p. 98)

García,

Eizaguirre

& Pradel

2015 Spain

66 M-PESA M-PESA has played in accelerating the development of Kenya’s financial

system, Today, there are more than 26.2 million M-PESA accounts, representing

more than two-thirds of the Kenyan population, The pilot project that eventually

evolved into M-PESA began as a partnership between Safaricom, a local

microfinance institution (MFI), and the Commercial Bank of Africa (p. 2, 7)

Burns 2015 Kenya

67 Phinma

Education

Network (PEN)

comprises four universities' catering primarily to lower-income families outside

National Capital Region, PEN's toughest challenge inmaking tertiary education

accessible to lower-income families is deficiency in secondary school education.

PEN has an open enrolment policy, requiring only a secondary school diploma.

PEN has a student-centered approach to education, the ‘Success Ladder’,

dividing each course into ‘success chunks’, a set of competencies necessary to

progress to the next step (p. 1727-1728)

Herrera 2016 Phillipines

68 Phinma

Properties

first commercial developer to focus on low-priced medium- and high-rise

housing in urban locations (p. 1728)

Herrera 2016 Phillipines

69 mHealth project provides a medical information booking service using SMS, providing navigation

assistance (location of and directions to hospitals) and information on hospitals,

doctors, departments, and medical policies. China Mobile is also developing

Herrera 2016 China

49

several projects offering remote consultation and diagnostic services (p. 1728-

1729)

70 Filip + Inna brand's mission is to revive and preserve ancient traditions by working with

indigenous groups of artisans, providing opportunities for livelihood and

capability enhancement (p. 1729)

Herrera 2016 Phillipines

71 Sulabh

International -

public toilets

successful business model to install toilets after carefully understanding the value

that consumers could attach to the product, creation of a service experience in

public toilets, where also bath, laundry, and accommodation were offered, health

promotion and education activities (p. 493)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

72 Vaatsalya

(Karnatakabased

budget hospital

chain)

gain the trust of its patients by ensuring long-term commitment to the local

community (p. 493-494)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

73 Aravind Eye

Hospital (AEH)

providing finest quality eye care to a maximum number of patients at minimum

cost, AEH overcame these constraints through a well-planned outreach program

that centred on the use of eye camps, organized with the help of local business or

social organizations, bus travel (p. 494)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

74 Tejas XR 6000

X-ray

provide high resolution digital images for superior radiology diagnosis, low-cost,

easy-to-use (p. 495)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

75 Mac 400 ECG

machines

cost less than a fifth of conventional machines available in the market, and

produce ECG reports at less than US$1.00 (p. 495)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

76 care units

(CCUs)

providing low-cost quality cardiac care to all, connected with the main hospital

through video conferencing (p. 495)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

77 Aurolab indigenous production of intraocular lenses (IOLs), brought down the price of the

IOL at nearly US$ 6 per each without any compromise in quality (p. 495)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

78 Vaatsalya's

doctor incentive

leveraging the intrinsic motivation of health professionals, attract doctors who

grew up in rural and semi-urban area but had moved to large towns (p. 496)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

79 Task reallocation a shift of caregiving from higher skilled to lesser skilled professionals, as part of

the necessary transition to enable low-cost business models in health care, create

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

50

an intermediate level of expertise to deal with emergency and nonintervention

heart procedures (p. 496)

80 Large bed

capacity

treat a maximum number of patients, affordability through scale effects (p. 497) Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

81 Deskilling in

surgical process,

assembly line

model

shortage of qualified ophthalmologists, trained support staff and nurses perform

all the activities before and after the operations, 1/1000 of the cost of eye surgery

in UK (p. 497, 501)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

82 Tiered pricing,

cross-

subsidization

philosophy

mix of wealthy and low-income patients, affluent consumers pay relatively

higher price for a product or service compared to their underprivileged

counterpart (p. 497)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

83 Dial 1298 a paramedical service, provides well-equipped fine quality ambulance services in

the city, patients were charged as per their ability to pay (p. 497-498)

Angeli &

Jaiswal

2016 India

84 Group lending BancoSol targeted Bolivia's poor entrepreneurs, providing these clients with

access to the types of lending services typically available only to the wealthy,

continued to focus on group loans (p. 3)

Lal & Lobb 2016 Bolivia

85 nanodrug for

tuberculosis

Researchers in South Africa are therefore working on a way to incorporate

tuberculosis drugs into nano-particles so that they are released slowly into a

patient’s bloodstream, raising the possibility that a regime of daily pills could be

replaced by a single weekly dose (p. 183)

Schroeder et

al.

2016 South

Africa

86 Water Quality

Reporting Tool

A mobile phone application for collecting and sharing water quality information

(p. 9, 12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

87 Low-bandwidth

video solution

Real-time video solutions for lowbandwidth environments, offers a completely

new technology to a previously excluded market. The project’s commercial spin-

off company, uses the platform to new markets and to give smaller content

providers access to these markets (p. 11-12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

88 Waste-based The implementation and testing of a waste-based energy generation system (p. 9) Grobbelaar, 2017 South

51

energy

generation

system

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

Africa

89 IT-based home

care system

A web- and mobile based administration system for home-based care, mobile-

based health treatment adherence project, researchers from the local university

and a European university worked together with staff from a local health centre

to develop the solution (p. 12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

90 Mobile health

risk assessment

app

A mobile phone health risk assessment application, mobile phone application to

test its impact on the training of community health workers and the health

screening process in a low-resource setting, community health workers were

taught how to measure cardiovascular risk using a mobile phone application (p.

11-12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

91 Emergency

Guidelines

Application

A mobile phone application giving healthcare practitioners easy access to South

African emergency guidelines (p. 9, 12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

92 Urban Planning

Project

Urban planning for informal community, including re-blocking, breaking down

and rebuilding shacks, In the urban planning project, community members gained

knowledge about urban planning and building processes, and learned how to

organize and mobilize themselves; direct transfer of knowledge and know-how to

community members, to empower them in their role of codesigner, co-producer

or consumer, helps engage communities in interactive learning trajectories (p. 9,

14)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

93 Multi-purpose

water platform

Multi-purpose water platforms for informal settlements, the multi-purpose water

platforms developed by faculty and students at a university’s department of

architecture. In the Imizamo Yethu community where the platforms were built,

an estimated 9464 households make use of shared toilets and taps, with a service

ratio of 61:1 households per toilet and 394:3 households per tap, aim of the

washing platforms project was to provide more dignified places for water

collection, spaces for the washing of clothes and the integration of these with

shared toilet facilities. The platforms also serve as social gathering spaces and

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

52

clean areas for children to play (p. 11)

94 Fire detector

device

A low cost fire detecting and an early warning system for urban informal

settlements, the very concept of fire detection had to be rethought as available

technologies are very sensitive to smoke, which make them less suitable for a

township environment, offers a completely new technology to a previously

excluded market. The project’s commercial spin-off company, uses the platform

to new markets and to give smaller content providers access to these markets (p.

9, 11-12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

95 Suitable fence A fencing material that is ‘unstealable’ (i.e. cannot be used for fuel, contains no

metal – taken for recycling), cheap and safe, provide a preschool with low-cost

fencing that would not be at risk to be stolen or vandalized, i.e. used as fuel (such

as wood used for heating), had no scrap metal value (such as steel or wire which

could easily be stolen) and the material would not block visibility (which might

hide criminal activity in the area) (p. 10, 12)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

96 Last mile

telephone

connectivity

projects

Solution for last mile telephone connectivity for rural areas in South Africa,

systems for access to power and a backup system were located at the head office

of a partnering NGO, the proposed network will be installed by the locals, after

being trained in basics of wireless networking, VoIP, dimensioning of solar

system, and the billing system as a way to increase local buy-in of the network

(p. 13-14)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

97 Solar based

mobile power

station

A solar-based mobile power station (p. 9) Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

98 Mobile-based

health treatment

app

An automated, mobile phone-based treatment adherence support solution,

software platforms used are open source (i.e. low cost) and widely available, easy

to customize and suitable for use by non-technical staff (p. 9, 13)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

99 Sustainable

housing

An affordable, energy-efficient and owner building-based housing solution (p. 9) Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

53

100 Water purfication

solution

A simple and safe water purification solution, aim of this project was to develop

clay pots that could purify water in a simple and safe way. The technology that

was developed would transform the use of the pots, but their look and feel

(‘architecture’) would remain the same (p. 9, 11)

Grobbelaar,

Tijssen &

Dijksterhuis

2017 South

Africa

101 Mother Earth Mother Earth (ME) arose in 2011 from Industree Crafts, a social enterprise

founded in 1994 to support rural artisans that were considered a sunset sector by

the government, lever urban markets to create demand for Indian rural crafts,

business model is based on a nationally-distributed network of Self-Help Groups

(SHGs), an idea borrowed from Grameen Bank (p. 26)

Pansera &

Owens

2018 India

102 co-location of

manufacturing

and R&D

In North Carolina’s Biotechnology Center, one finds an example of a workforce-

centred institutional ‘policy platform’ – an integrating governance mechanism

that brings together a variety of local institutional actors with the goal of ‘joining-

up’ diverse interests and perspectives, From its inception in 1981, the Biotech

Center has adopted a range of strategies in support of high-paying job growth for

recent university graduates, Equally important, it has helped pull down the

bioscience career ladder so that it now includes ‘rungs’ for those with modest

technical training beyond secondary education, including workers displaced from

North Carolina’s traditional manufacturing industries, textiles, furniture and

tobacco processing (p. 833)

Lowe &

Wolf-

Powers

2018 USA