Found Sounds UNCG Musicology Journal

Volume 1 Issue 1 ­ Fall 2015

Staff

Editor­in­Chief Enoch Robbins

Assistant Editors Nicole Kuker Kelly Norris

Editors Sara Horton Janine Neprud

Faculty Advisor Dr. Elizabeth Keathley

Table of Contents

Fennell’s Vision: The ‘Wind Ensemble’ Concept

Thomas Breeden

Nobuo Uematsu: The Man behind the Music of Final Fantasy

Mario Castillo

The Shape of Japanese Music Before, During, and After the Meiji Restoration

Christopher Girgenti

FENNELL’S VISION: THE ‘WIND ENSEMBLE’ CONCEPT

Thomas Breeden

ABSTRACT:

This paper will explore the influence and legacy of Frederick Fennell and his vision of the wind ensemble concept. It seeks to illuminate the contributions of this landmark figure in the history of ensembles of wind instruments in regards to instrumentation, repertoire, nomenclature, and popularity.

The paper will begin with an exploration of the history of the wind band from early Middle Ages itinerant groups to the professional bands directed by the likes of Patrick Gilmore and John Philip Sousa, and finally to the conception and creation of the Eastman Wind Ensemble. It will include Fennell’s own thoughts and writings on the wind ensemble and reference the compositions commissioned and the recordings produced by Fennell and the Eastman Wind Ensemble. Lastly, it will conclude with a summation of Fennell’s influence and legacy through his ideas, writings, recordings, conducting, and advocacy of the wind ensemble concept.

FENNELL’S VISION: THE ‘WIND ENSEMBLE’ CONCEPT

Thomas Breeden

Ensembles of wind musicians began in the Middle Ages as itinerant bands composed of

troubadours and other traveling musicians, performing from town to town for whoever would

stop and listen. These rag­tag groups existed as the only ones of their kind until the military and 1

aristocracy began to establish their own private wind bands, especially in Germany. It was not 2

until the fifteenth century that there were groups that performed regular concerts, and the modern

idea of a “band” was established. 3

The “band,” however, continued to take a back seat to the orchestra during this time. It

wasn’t until Mozart began to write his wind serenades that an ensemble of winds took on a life of

its own; moving from a source of novelty for courtly dances or a source of cheap entertainment

to climbing the ranks of musical literature to join the top orchestral works. Other composers, 4

such as Haydn, Beethoven, Berlioz, and Wagner, among others, followed Mozart’s lead in

writing for wind instruments and incorporated them into their symphonies, concertos, and other

major works.

Early works for wind bands began to emerge in the 1800s, which was partially due to

improvements in instrument technologies , but also in the adaptation and recognition by major 5

composers to this up­and­coming musical ensemble. Military bands became more common in the

United States and the United Kingdom, including the establishment of the U.S. Marine Band in

1 Foster, Robert E, Wind Bands of the World: Chronicle of a Cherished Tradition (Delray Beach, FL: Meredith Music Publications), 1. 2 Ibid., 2. 3 Whitwell, David, A Concise History of the Wind Band (Austin, TX: Whitwell Publishing), 25. 4 Fennell, Frederick, Time and the Winds. (Kenosha, WI: G. Leblanc Company), 10­11. 5 Ibid., 22.

1798, the longest functioning band in American history. This increasing recognition of wind 6

music and military bands, and the modernization of wind instruments by 1850 , paved the way 7

for the professional bands directed by the likes of Patrick Gilmore and John Philip Sousa, famed

bandleaders of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Patrick Gilmore was the conductor and bandleader of the Boston Brass Band in

Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts. In 1859, he took over the Boston Brigade Band which he

promptly renamed the “Gilmore Band” and transformed into the most popular and successful

professional band in United States history until that point. His band played from a “large library

of music of every kind, from serious to popular,” purchased by Gilmore. 8

Gilmore set the precedent for an audience­focused approach to the profession of band

leading and conducting. He was charismatic, energetic, and knew what the public wanted to hear,

staging popular Fourth of July concerts, promenade concerts based on those from England, and

tours throughout America during the Civil War and through Europe after the war. Gilmore 9

brought “visibility and exposure” to the world of the wind band, and was a prominent influence

in increasing the number of bands and bandleaders springing up around the country. 10

One of these bandleaders, John Philip Sousa, followed closely in Gilmore’s footsteps,

beginning his band in 1892—the year Gilmore passed away. Sousa emphasized the same 11

precision and talent of musicians in his bands, but wanted to “refine” the sound of the band by

6 Ibid., 37. 7 Fennell, Time and the Winds, 22. 8 Foster, 60. 9 Ibid., 61. 10Ibid., 90. 11Ibid., 94.

Breeden ­ 2

changing its instrumentation. He, like Gilmore before him, led many successful tours 12

throughout the country, playing “what people wanted to hear,” which mainly included

transcriptions of orchestral works, arrangements of popular tunes, and—of course—his famous

marches. Sousa advocated for the importance of crafting high­quality transcriptions for the 13

wind band, a trait that continued in one of his followers, Albert Austin Harding.

Despite the success these bands enjoyed, their financial stability depended on audiences

coming to hear them perform on tour. Performance opportunities began to disappear as their

prime venues, amusement parks and other popular attractions of the late 1800s and early 1900s,

lost business due to other forms of entertainment: the emerging styles of jazz and dance music,

new radio programming and increasing numbers of family road trips made possible by the

emerging automobile market. People were no longer as interested in going to hear band music,

and by World War I professional bands had nearly disappeared. 14

After World War I, bandleaders and music education advocates took advantage of the

mass production technologies made available to military bands for instruments and began to

formulate the idea of a nation­wide public school band program. Instrument manufacturers and

music publishing companies were quick to see the potential in this endeavor, and immediately

supported it. 15

This collaboration between instrument manufacturers, music publishers, and enthusiastic

educators set up school band programs with a solid foundation for success. Early programs

offered free instruction to students and a greater availability of higher­quality instruments. The

12 Fennell, Time and the Winds, 39. 13 Foster, 94. 14 Fennell, Time and the Winds, 40. 15 Ibid., 37.

Breeden ­ 3

first school band contest was held in Chicago in 1923, which helped to institute a “contest

repertoire,” which was one of the earliest examples of a cohesive repertoire for the wind band. 16

Music camps such as the National Music Camp (now Interlochen) and marching band programs

in major universities also contributed to the increase in band music education.

Albert Austin Harding, aforementioned follower of John Philip Sousa, became the

founding director of the University of Illinois band program, and expanded the concert band to

the largest instrumentation the ensemble had ever had. Harding set the model for the collegiate

bands of the time. In Fennell’s paraphrase: “the beginning and end of the movement may be seen

in the work of Harding himself.” The other universities that followed Harding’s example 17

included the University of Wisconsin, Northwestern University, Oberlin College, University of

Michigan, and—most importantly for the scope of this paper—the Eastman School of Music. 18

The Eastman School was founded at the University of Rochester, New York, in 1921 by

Joseph E. Maddy using contributions by Eastman Kodak founder George Eastman. In 1924,

Howard Hanson joined the School as director and would serve to be an influential force on

Eastman’s 1939 hire: a young Frederick Fennell.

Frederick Fennell arrived at the Eastman School of Music in 1939, and quickly became

an important landmark in the wind band lineage, alongside Gilmore, Sousa, Edwin Franko

Goldman, and A.A. Harding. He introduced a new conception of the concert band that was much

smaller and gave precedence to the composer and the development of a high­quality repertoire:

16 Ibid., 46. 17 Fennell, Time and the Winds, 50. 18 Ibid., 49.

Breeden ­ 4

“The Wind Ensemble.” In his March 1953 article in the American Music Teacher, Fennell begins

with a description of his first experience with this type of ensemble:

“In the Winter of 1951, an unusual concert of music for wind instruments was performed at the Eastman School of Music under the writer’s direction…The wonderful affect this concert had upon the discriminating audience is a pleasure to recall, as is the reaction of the players which was positive, articulate, and enthusiastic in the extreme.” 19

Fennell marks this moment as the direct precursor to “the establishment in the fall of

1952 of the Eastman Wind Ensemble.” The following summer, Fennell sent “a mimeographed 20

letter to approximately 400 composers in all parts of the world telling them of our [The Eastman

School of Music’s] plan to establish an ensemble of the following instrumentation:” 21

Woodwinds Two flutes and piccolo Two oboes and English horn Two bassoons and contra­bassoon One Eb clarinet Eight Bb clarinets, or A clarinets divided in any manner desired or fewer in number if so desired One Eb alto clarinet One Bb bass clarinet Choir of saxophones – two alto Eb, tenor Bb, baritone Eb

Brass Three cornets in Bb Two trumpets in Bb or five trumpets in Bb Four horns Two euphoniums (bass clef) Three trombones One Eb tuba One BBb tuba or two BBb tubas if desired One string bass

Other instruments

19 Fennell, Frederick, “The Wind Ensemble” American Music Teacher 2, no. 4 (March­April 1953): 12. 20 Fennell, “The Wind Ensemble,”12. 21 Ibid.

Breeden ­ 5

Percussion, harp, celeste, piano, organ, harpsichord, solo string instruments, and choral forces as desired

Fennell’s goal with this instrumentation was to be as “simple as possible” and to serve as

a “point of departure” for composers to write for this ensemble; where substitutions could be

made when desired and “[would] be welcomed” by the ensemble. Ultimately, he wanted to 22

create a “flexible” enough ensemble to perform “all of the great music written for wind

instruments” from the sixteenth century through to the present (then 1952). 23

Fennell credits Howard Hanson, the director of the Eastman School at the time, for

providing the environment “to bring the development of the academic and creative aspects of

musical education to new heights of attainment,” as George Eastman had done for the School of

Music. He also attributes this progress and creativity as dependent on a “full knowledge of 24

what has gone before,” as both he and Hanson shared. This philosophy was crucial to his

conception of Fennell’s supplement to musical education: the wind ensemble. 25

Part of Fennell’s vision in his conception of the new “wind ensemble,” was to establish

an ensemble that could play a vast range of music from the epochs of Western music history. In

his book, The Time and the Winds, he bemoaned the fact that there was an overwhelming

Romantic attitude towards the band’s repertoire, when not idolizing Gilmore, Sousa, and

Goldman. He envisioned an ensemble that could tackle more challenging and diverse repertoire;

where the ensemble could provide “the important feeling of individual responsibility which is,

22 Fennell, Time and the Winds, 52. 23 Fennell, “The Wind Ensemble,” 52. 24 Ibid., 51. 25 Ibid., 52.

Breeden ­ 6

perhaps, the greatest advantage of a small and intimate ensemble.” To achieve these goals, he 26

needed to reach out to established composers to get them interested in composing for this new

ensemble.

He did that with his summer 1952 letter to over 400 composers, from which he got an

encouraging sixty percent response rate. Invigorated by this feedback, especially early 27

responses from established composers Percy Grainger, Vincent Persichetti, and Ralph Vaughan

Williams, Fennell began his career­long advocacy of the power of the composer in defining

musical ensembles. As he said in his 1953 article, “The composer has always shaped the

development of those instrumental ensembles which have survived.” Donald Hunsberger, one 28

of Fennell’s successors as conductor of the Eastman Wind Ensemble, says of his mentor:

“[Fennell] places primary emphasis upon the development and support of composers on behalf

of the wind band.”

Fennell took this perspective of a composer­driven repertoire and ran with it, adding the

caveat that the responsibility “lies on the conductor” of the ensemble to help initiate and foster

this new repertoire by collaborating with composers to develop new works. As a conductor

himself, he reached out to many composers over the course of his career, and was responsible,

directly or indirectly, for the commissioning and premiering of over 150 works for the wind

ensemble, according to the Eastman School of Music website. 29

26 Ibid., 53. 27 Ibid., 12. 28 Fennell, “The Wind Ensemble,” 16. 29 “Eastman Wind Ensemble.” 1999. http://www.esm.rochester.edu/ensembles/ewe/ (accessed 28 April 2015)

Breeden ­ 7

The “Eastman Symphonic Wind Ensemble,” as Howard Hanson then called the group

because he believed it would sell more records, recorded many of these early works written for

the wind ensemble on Mercury Records. Fennell, however, quickly rejected the word

“symphonic” in the name because of its connotations, and thus it became the “Eastman Wind

Ensemble.” Composer W. Francis McBeth called this decision “ingenious” because “the term 30

‘band’ was too unsophisticated, and carried negative connotations,” but the term wind ensemble

complied more with Fennell’s vision of a “coming repertoire for winds” of “serious wind

literature.” 31

These recordings proved crucial to the success and popularity of both the Eastman Wind

Ensemble and the concept of the “wind ensemble” as a whole. The twenty­two recordings made

on Mercury Records provided “evidence of the excellent repertoire”—that Fennell helped to

produce, no less—“available for the wind band/ensemble at the time. The recordings increased 32

the popularity of the wind ensemble through widening its potential audience and by providing

conductors the opportunity to hear “the sound of Fennell’s new concept,” as many conductors

were still skeptical of Dr. Fennell’s work. They provided an exemplary performance of both the 33

contemporary and the traditional band literature of the time, and were the model not only in how

the ensemble was supposed to sound, but also in how to perform the repertoire.

In short, the impact of the Eastman Wind Ensemble, stated by one of Fennell’s pupils,

Frank L. Battisti, was “created primarily through their Mercury recordings.” This may not be 34

30 Battisti, Frank L. The Winds of Change: The Evolution of the Contemporary American Wind Band/Ensemble and its Conductor. (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications): 53. 31 Battisti, 56. 32 Ibid., 58. 33 Ibid. 59. 34 Ibid.

Breeden ­ 8

entirely correct, as Fennell’s enthusiasm, vision, and dedication to that vision were of utmost

importance to the success and longevity of the wind ensemble concept, but the Mercury

recordings did play a crucial part to the breadth of the wind ensemble’s visibility in the world of

concert hall music.

Fennell’s followers comprise a majority of band conductors and directors since his

establishment of the Eastman Wind Ensemble in 1952. Initially, the band music world was

confused by the difference between Fennell’s “wind ensemble” and any other concert band of the

time. They believed that “wind ensemble” simply meant a smaller group of musicians wearing

tuxes and tails, but that the philosophy and content of the band otherwise remained unchanged.

Charles Winkling, in an article in the December 1965 issue of The Instrumentalist explains:

“Conductors of large bands viewed the wind ensemble as a serious threat to the positions of themselves and their groups. Dr. Fennell did not intend or foresee this development, but due in part to his influence and also due to the ambiguity of the term wind ensemble, the band world has been in a state of upheaval.” 35

This was where they were wrong: the main difference of Fennell’s ensemble was in a

philosophy of excellence, individual responsibility amongst musicians, and accessibility to the

whole repertoire of wind music from the sixteenth century. Fennell did not wish for the

replacement of the large concert band, but a “supplement” to it. 36

Directors eventually caught on to this idea, beginning with early adopters such as Donald

Hunsberger (one of Fennell’s successors of Eastman Wind Ensemble), H. Robert Reynolds,

Frank Battisti, James Crott, John Paynter, and David Whitwell. , These conductors became the 37 38

35 Winkling, Charles, “The Wind Ensemble in the Small College” The Instrumentalist 20 (December 1965): 48. 36 Fennell, Time and the Winds, 52. 37 Battisti, 69. 38 Foster, 204.

Breeden ­ 9

foundation for Fennell’s vision coming to fruition, since the support of the conductors’

“dedication to good music and to the achievement of a high level of artistic performance” was

critical to the concept of the wind ensemble. Without these early advocates, Fennell’s “helpful

advice concerning the selection of repertoire and composers from whom to request

commissions,” and “constant source of support” for directors establishing their own ensembles,

the wind ensemble would not have been as successful, according to Frank Battisti. It turns out 39

that Charles Winkling was right about Fennell’s influence on the world of wind directors and

conductors.

His writings were equally influential. Aside from his seminal article “The Wind

Ensemble” in March 1953 and his book Time and the Winds in 1954, Fennell composed

countless articles on the established and up­and­coming repertoire of the band and the wind

ensemble. He wrote about Holst’s First Suite, calling it a “cornerstone” of the literature. He

wrote about Grainger, Vaughan Williams, Hindemith, Schuman, and countless other

composers—many of whom he had commissioned to write pieces. It was through these writings

that he explained the value of this new and pre­established repertoire for his wind ensemble

concept.

His efforts to contact composers and advocate on behalf of their value to wind conductors

and directors did not go unnoticed. His influence and enthusiasm for the ensemble and the

repertoire led to countless “compositions, and many others spawned through their creation, are

now staples of the repertoire [he] so fervently sought in his 1952 letter to composers.” 40

39 Ibid., 59. 40 Hunsberger, Donald, The Wind Ensemble and Its Repertoire (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press): 30.

Breeden ­ 10

After Fennell left Eastman and its now­famous Wind Ensemble to A. Clyde Roller in

1962, he went on to conduct for the Minnesota Symphony Orchestra, the University of Miami

Wind Ensemble (1965­1984), and the acclaimed Tokyo Kosei Wind Orchestra (1984­1996). 41

His prestige and influence followed him wherever he went, and he lead each of his

ensembles to great success. Clyde Roller continued his legacy at Eastman (1962­1965) through

the Mercury recording project until Donald Hunsberger took the podium (1965­2001). 42

Hunsberger led the Wind Ensemble through many successful premieres, tours, and recording

projects, including a very successful 1977 tour concluding with the premiere of Joseph

Schwanter’s revolutionary work and the mountains rising nowhere. Fennell’s vision for an 43

ensemble dedicated to the commissioning and celebrating of its own repertoire was well

established, and being carried on even after the ensemble he began—a testament to his

conviction and powerful educational ideals.

Ultimately, the influence of Frederick Fennell could be best summarized by Robert E.

Foster in his preface to Wind Bands of the World: “Bands have continued to evolve into more

sophisticated mature ensembles, to the point where, today, there are more new works being

created for band and wind ensembles than for any other instrumental ensemble.” Undoubtedly 44

this evolution could be traced back to the efforts of Frederick Fennell in establishing an

ensemble concept to promote high­quality performance standards, a vast repertoire, and “an

41 Foster, 201. 42 Ibid., 202. 43 Foster, 203. 44 Ibid., ix.

Breeden ­ 11

unqualified acceptance of concerted wind music on the same level as all other forms of

instrumental or vocal composition.” 45

45 Fennell, “The Wind Ensemble,” 12. Breeden ­ 12

Bibliography

Battisti, Frank L. 2002. The winds of change: the evolution of the contemporary American wind band/ensemble and its conductor. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications.

“Eastman Wind Ensemble.” 1999. http://www.esm.rochester.edu/ensembles/ewe/ (accessed 28

April 2015). Fennell, Frederick. “The Wind Ensemble.” American Music Teacher 2, no. 4 (March – April

1953): 12­16. Fennell, Frederick. 1954. Time and the winds. Kenosha, WI: G. Leblanc Company. Foster, Robert E. 2013. Wind bands of the world: chronicle of a cherished tradition. Delray

Beach, FL: Meredith Music Publications. Hunsburger, Donald. 1997. The wind ensemble and its repertoire. Rochester, NY: University of

Rochester Press. Whitwell, David. 2010. A concise history of the wind band. Austin, TX: Whitwell Publishing. Winkling, Charles. “The Wind Ensemble in the Small College.” The Instrumentalist 20

(December 1965): 48.

Breeden ­ 13

Nobuo Uematsu: The Man behind the Music of Final Fantasy

Mario Castillo

ABSTRACT:

Nobuo Uematsu is the original composer of the music and game sound in the Final Fantasy series. Known to be one of the most famous composers within this industry, his direction of sound in games has branched out vigorously in many directions since the first game of the series. Uematsu heavily influenced the direction of game sound history through his innovative works that make video game music stand up to par with even classical music, and through analysis, one may even find characteristics of classical composition styles in his works. His milestones were the very product of his own work, and left a big set of footprints for everyone else to follow within the game industry. Uematsu’s compositions in game sound were so impactful to his audience that to this day, decades later, people still talk about the immense feeling of nostalgia from those sounds.

Nobuo Uematsu: The Man behind the Music of Final Fantasy

Mario Castillo

The year is 2015, and Merregnon Studios just produced a digital album of Final

Symphony, a concert performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, and recorded at Abbey

Road Studios, published by X5 Music Group, a renowned record label. The composer behind 1

the works performed for the album is none other than Nobuo Uematsu (Born March 21st, 1959 in

Kochi, Japan), the genius behind the majority of music in the adventurous Final Fantasy series.

Known to be one of the most popular game series in video game history, this is no ordinary

accomplishment. After graduating from Kanagawa University with a degree in English,

Uematsu, who was self­taught, played the keyboard in several amateur bands and composed

music for commercials. That was his career path until the fateful day he joined Squaresoft (now

known as Square Enix) in 1985, where he went on to compose music for a multitude of game

titles. In 1987, he was asked by Hironobu Sakaguchi to compose for a game called Final

Fantasy, which ended up a huge success, becoming one of the best­selling video game series in

the history of this industry , selling over 110 million units worldwide as of 2014. This 2 3

eventually lead to Uematsu progressively leaving a conspicuous trail of milestones that have

been catching the eyes of many and changing the course of history in video game music. Nobuo

Uematsu’s innovative musical implementations in game sound brought forth new ways of

experiencing video game music and changed expectations of video game music. This can be seen

1 "Nobuo Uematsu Heads to Abbey Road to Record Final Symphony," (Spielemusikkonzerte, December 13, 2014), (accessed March 20, 2015).

2 "Nobuo Uematsu," LA Phil, (accessed March 23, 2015). 3 "Businesses,” Square Enix Holdings Co., LTD, (accessed April 4, 2015).

2

by looking at the sociology and psychology of game sound within his works and is visible

through the analysis of his compositions.

In 1999, his Final Fantasy VIII theme song, Eyes on Me, which featured Hong Kong pop

diva Faye Wong, sold 400,000 copies and went on to win "Song of the Year (Western Music)" at

the 14th Annual Japan Gold Disc Awards, a rippling moment in game sound history, as this was

the first time music from a video game has ever won the award. Following soon after that 4

success, Uematsu’s music saw a significant change in live performances. The first Final Fantasy

symphony concert was held in Japan in 2002, and was performed by the Tokyo Philharmonic

Orchestra, and it being a sold­out success lead to a concert series titled “Tour de Japon – music

from Final Fantasy”. In 2003, Uematsu formed The Black Mages, a group consisting of him 5

and his colleagues who arrange and expand his original works from the Final Fantasy series.

During that same year, his music from Final Fantasy was performed in a Symphonic Game

Music Concert outside of Japan for the first time. The concert was considered the official

opening ceremony of Europe's biggest video game convention, the GC Games Convention in

Leipzig, Germany. Uematsu's music has been a key element of Final Fantasy franchise's success

United Kingdom and the United States. In 2004, he formed his own company called Smile

Please Co., Ltd. while continuing to compose for Square Enix, among other companies as well. 6

That same year, his Final Fantasy music was the centerpiece of the first­ever video game music

concert held in the United States, titled Dear Friends, which was held at the Walt Disney

4 "Nobuo Uematsu," FFXIclopedia, (accessed April 4, 2015). 5 "Uematsu," LA Phil, (accessed March 23, 2015). 6 "Uematsu," FFXIclopedia.

3

Concert Hall in Los Angeles. This piece was played by the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra 7

and the Los Angeles Master Chorale and was conducted by Miguel Harth­Bedoya, director of

Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra. Uematsu’s style of composition is very diverse, containing a

list of classical style works, New Age music, and even hyper­percussive techno­electronica,

similar to songs by the '70s band Emerson, Lake and Palmer, one of his stated influences, along

with Simon & Garfunkel and Elton John. Uematsu has had a definitive impact on music in video 8

games, focusing the interest of many towards this side of the game industry. Nobuo Uematsu

appeared in Time Magazine's "Time 100: The Next Wave ­ Music" feature, and was recognized

as one of their listed "Innovators". His music was continuously becoming more popular, for

example, during the 2004 Summer Olympics, the United States synchronized swimming duet

Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova used two of his compositional works from the game Final

Fantasy VIII in their routines. During the following years, his works have been constantly 9

played during new concerts, such as Video Games Live, and Play!. Just this year, due to the

success of the Final Fantasy video game concert series, Final Symphony, the concert was

performed by London Symphony Orchestra and recorded at Abbey Road Studios, and made into

an album whose process was personally supervised by Nobuo Uematsu. The concert was first

performed in May 2013 and has seen sell­out success in Germany, United Kingdom, Japan,

Denmark, Sweden and Finland. These concerts typically featured some of the world’s leading

orchestras and soloists. 10

7 Tong, Sophia, "Behind The Games: Meet the Composers ­ Nobuo Uematsu," GameSpot, July 31, 2009.

8 “Abbey Road," Spielemusikkonzerte. 9 "Uematsu," FFXIclopedia. 10 “Abbey Road," Spielemusikkonzerte.

4

In video games, there was a time when people didn’t really care about the music

contained in the earliest games, as it all seemed like mindless beeping and buzzing, simple noises

to occupy the ears was all that they were to most. As stated by Farley: “The death of PacMan

was not an event that cried out for a symphonic requiem.” Some would say that music’s ability 11

to stir emotion and evoke more powerful imagery grew as technology advanced. As game sound

capabilities grew, so did the attachment people experienced in games due to their music. Starting

with the Famicom, the Final Fantasy series brought very emotionally driven music, which would

later transfer over to the SNES, or Super Nintendo Entertainment System, allowing Uematsu to

create music that would later become the roots of nostalgia for so many fans of the game series.

YouTube game reviewer Jeremy Jahns talks about his experience of the Final Fantasy VI game

for the SNES, emphasizing the most memorable aspects of the story thanks to the musical

themes within this game:

“Final Fantasy VI is a sprite based RPG from the SNES era, as much as that sounds like that compromises the experience, it does not compromise the experience at all….[during the opening of the game] this town is coming closer while this theme is playing and just and the beginning credits start and you’re like that’s what movies do, but it happened in 1994, in a SN game…the characters in FFVI had their own themes, not only is the theme to FFVI one of the best themes ever made, but the character themes are fantastic…We can’t talk about FFVI without talking about its soundtrack and its soundtrack’s composer, Nobuo Uematsu. The guy is a genius, complete musical genius. For comparison’s sake image paint to a painter is like an orchestra to a composer in which case using 16­bit super Nintendo MIDI technology to create music would be like a painter painting with Crayola crayons. What did Nobuo Uematsu do with that technology? He created the Sistine chapel with Crayola crayons, metaphorically speaking. I consider the FFVI soundtrack to be his masterpiece in more ways than one. I could just listen to it all day long, you’re listening to it, you’re like oh yeah there’s shadow again, there’s cyan, there’s terra and you’re just right back there emotionally with the characters that you bonded with.” 12

11 Farley, Christopher John, "In Fantasy's Loop," Time 157, no. 21 (May 28, 2001): 72, Music Index, EBSCOhost, (accessed March 23, 2015).

12 Jahns, Jeremy, "Final Fantasy VI Game Review," YouTube, February 17, 2013, (accessed March 25, 2015).

5

This music’s impact on many players is observable through the research of what social

and psychological responses developed in effects of what the game sound brought to the

experience of these games. In Final Fantasy VI, visible in Jahns’ review of the game, there is a

huge emphasis on the themes of the characters. One character in particular, has not a theme of

music, but simply a laugh, a synthesized descending staccato melody. Kefka, the main

antagonist of the game, comes with a trademark laughter representing his insanity. The short

melody is paired up with a looping two­frame animation of Kefka’s pixelated body and flapping

mouth, creating the sense of laughter, emphasizing the idea that the source of the sound comes

from the villain. This theme within the FFVI game has been notated to be one of the most

unforgettable noises in game history, noticeable in the videos posted online, and comments

made by fans of the game. A six second video of Kefka’s laugh and animation can be found on 13

YouTube. The video as of today in April 2015 has over 440 thousand views and over 1,400

comments. Quoted responses in the comment section video found by William Cheng reflect 14

the emotional impact this short sample of game sound has brought to fans: “How can a 16­bit

sound file manage to be so frigging CREEPY!?!?!...You hear that sound, you know things are

going downhill, fast. (HappleProductions, 2012)” or “And to think no voice actor could ever

provide this; only a simple synthesized choir instrument generated this memorable laugh that

haunts all of us to this day. (WitchChao, 2010).” Nobuo Uematsu had to change the 15

insignificant musical material in the game into sounds that were to take the form of the fantasies

13 Cheng, William, “How Celes Sang,” In Sound Play: Video Games and the Musical Imagination, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 57.

14 Libregkd, "Kefka's Laugh," YouTube, August 16, 2006, (accessed April 4, 2015). 15 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 76.

6

and heroic characters of the worlds within the game. The sounds that followed the characters on

their adventures had to appear in a manner that stimulated feelings of wonder and magic.

Uematsu here describes his experiences of game sound while creating video game music:

“The NES [Nintendo Entertainment System] only had three [melodic] tracks, and each of their sounds was very unique. I had to focus on the melody itself and think about how each chord would move the audience. I struggled to produce originality in the same three tones, just like any composer for that period. It’s amazing to listen to how composers […] had totally different creations by using the same three instruments” (quoted in Belinkie 1999) 16

Uematsu made the game sounds tell a story by presenting them as ideas of vocal expression. The

results weren’t always speech­signifying sounds, but sometimes ended up being emotional

expressions, such as the laughter of Kefka. Even without a speech­like aspect, a sound can say

more, depending on how it is depicted. Kefka’s laugh’s appeal originates from the listener’s

knowledge that the noise comes from Kefka’s mouth, allowing for the idea of vocal expression

in a game that contains no form of recorded speech. Early in the game, the player learns to

distinguish that sound as laughter through its pairing with Kefka’s pixilated body and flapping

mouth. Further into the story, the game occasionally presents the sound without the animations,

letting the sound manifest into a comprehensible idea of its own. Although this main antagonist’s

laughter is a powerful trademark of the game, there is another case of vocal ingenuity within this

title of the Final Fantasy series, an opera performance titled Maria and Draco, so full of emotion

and drama, with the main section of the opera being packed into the form of a musical Aria that

brought many fans to tears takes the crown of an emotionally filled experience within a 16­bit

limitation. This concept introduced minimalist ideas in game sound as sometimes being more 17

16 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 58. 17 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 59.

7

impactful towards an immersive gaming experience. Some people even saw the technological

advancement from the forcefully creative voice expression to real voice acting as a negative

development in some cases. Here, Cheng quotes Journalist Kirk Hamilton, who argues that voice

acting can sometimes hinder gameplay by distracting the gamer from an immersive musical

soundtrack:

Melody and voice­acting can very quickly come into conflict […] Final Fantasy VII [released in 1997] has no voice­acting, no ambient sound, and minimal sound effects. Every scene is drawn and punctuated by the music, and the story’s wide range of emotions is conjured entirely by enthusiastic, melodramatic melody. If you give yourself over to it, it’s spellbinding, like plunging your head into a deep well of sound and symphony. [...] Contrast the experience of playing FFVI with the more recent Final Fantasy XIII [released in 2009]. In [Final Fantasy XIII], characters are fully voiced, shouting their way through the entire 60­hour game. […] Our ears simply don’t have the bandwidth to process both a strong melody and a person talking. (2011; cf. Collins 2013: 70­76) 18

Hamilton makes a point that voice­recorded words can potentially compromise the experiences

intended to be taken in by the player. It is a fact that voices focus attention to the words,

belittling everything else in a scene. Changing focus away from clear speech may not be

impossible, but we are so conditioned to believe that speech symbolizes the communicative

efforts of people, as this instinct leads us to think of a speaking voice as someone having

something important to say, so, naturally, we find it appropriate for us to listen and focus our

attention towards intelligible speech. A very important exception to this would have to be

singing voices. Unlike speaking voices, singing voices carry musical characteristics that transfer

attention to or from the text, such as dynamics, accompaniment, and stylized melodies. Opera

styled singing, described as “capable of transcending speech altogether,” is said to manifest itself

as a clear exclamation which does not dilute an experience, but instead is a part of the

18 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 60.

8

experience, due to singing’s characteristic of being unrestricted by the instinctiveness of verbal

diligence. Opera today is an musical form known to be an educated art form and cultured, while 19

video games are seen as uncultured or a distraction, so when opera appears in video games, it can

be seen as an esoteric concept that shines light on things we typically overlooked in video games,

and the stories told in that light. In Final Fantasy VI, the opera Maria and Draco contains a

mezzo­soprano aria sung by Celes Chere, who is one of the main protagonists. The stage design,

large orchestra, and Romantic lyricism all characterize the scene as a nineteenth­century grand

opera. The rapid pulsing of singular tones created the effect of vibrato, synchronized with the

moving of the performer’s mouths, it gives the idea that the music was truly being sung by Celes.

The theme that is heard later on in the tragic scene located on an island where Celes becomes 20

depressed and attempts suicide (visible in the flute part of Arnold Morrison’s arrangement of

Celes Theme)(Ex. 1) , is the same theme found in the aria of the opera and can be seen in 21

Morrison’s arrangement of Uematsu’s Aria De Mezzo Carattere.(Ex. 2) 22

Example 1. Nobuo Uematsu, arr. by Arnold Morrison. Celes Theme. mm. 8­16

19 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 61. 20 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 64. 21 Uematsu, Nobuo, arr. Morrison, Arnold, “Celes Theme,” Final Fantasy VI Arrangements,

May 24, 2007. (accessed April 5, 2015). 22 Uematsu, Nobuo, arr. Morrison, Arnold, “Aria De Mezzo Carattere,” Final Fantasy VI

Arrangements, May 24, 2007, (accessed April 5, 2015).

9

Example 2. Nobuo Uematsu, arr. by Arnold Morrison. Aria De Mezzo Carattere. mm. 8­16

This is a very emotional scene for all players, who usually become immediately attached to the

theme because it shows a side of Celes previously thought to be non­existent, since she was

originally portrayed as an emotionless and hardened warrior. This sentimental theme is known to

many fans as one of the most nostalgic experiences in video game history. Visible in the

comments of the YouTube videos 22­Celes's Theme­FFVI OST and Final Fantasy VI Opera

Scene, this theme had a very emotional impact on so many of the fans of the game, such as

YouTube user Arausito’s comment in the Celes theme video: “Oh hey I remember this theme.

It's when...when...oh dear god. why am I crying?” and user WhiteBuddah’s comment of: “In 23

my opinion, one of the most iconic Final Fantasy moments. I seriously had tears in my eyes

while watching this scene. Nobuo Uematsu: you are a god among men.” There is no argument 24

here that this scene is an unforgettable moment in video game music history, as its success in

nostalgic nature gave way to new ideas to the series. I interviewed Matthew Wick, a friend and a

23 FF Radio, "22­Celes's Theme­FFVI OST," YouTube, July 2, 2008, (accessed April 5, 2015). 24 SeraphimZera, "Final Fantasy VI Opera Scene," YouTube, September 13, 2006, (accessed

April 5, 2015).

10

long­time fan of the Final Fantasy series, and asked him about his responses when going back to

listen to the music:

“…the Opera scene to me is just so beautiful. For me, just listening to the music pulls me into the world within the game, the world within the opera even. It even hits me in a nostalgic way, since I played the game quite a bit when I was younger. It brings my memories back to the 'classic' JRPG's of the SNES era. The music and the scene, it's all really powerful in the sense that just the one scene, combined with the music, is enough to bring your thoughts back to your childhood.”

This clear presence of nostalgia visible in this and previous Final Fantasy games would later

become the foundation for the ideas that helped shape the way Final Fantasy IX was to be

developed. Nostalgia is a very powerful tool that is common in the video game industry today,

very visible in FFIX, which used the concepts of lived memory and antiquarian fantasy in order

to create a nostalgic experience for new and older fans alike. This was done by going back to 25

characteristics found in the earlier games of the series, such as updating the black mage, sticking

to character job classes and simple combat systems, cartoon­like designs of the characters, and

reducing elements of technological advancement while including symbols of tales and fantasies

such as princesses, castles, and knights. These are all themes very different from the last two

previous games of the series prior to FFIX. For example, in Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy

VIII, we saw the abandonment of the class system for more realistic and complex combat, and

introduced graphics of more lifelike characters. One of the most important triggers of nostalgia 26

within the game would have to be the music of the game, the last soundtrack to be composed

solely by Nobuo Uematsu for the series. Uematsu enforced a nostalgic experience in the game

25 Kizzire, Jessica, "‘The Place I'll Return to Someday’ Music Nostalgia in Final Fantasy IX," In Music in Video Games: Studying Play, edited by K. J. Donnelly, William Gibbons, and Neil Lerner, (New York: Routledge, 2014), 183.

26 Kizzire, “The Place,” Studying Play, 185­187.

11

through musical reminiscence of the themes found in almost every game of the series, such as

the “prelude”, the “chocobo” themes, and the “moogle” themes, well known by most fans. As 27

well as this, Uematsu uses characteristics of music found in medieval and renaissance styles to

create the nostalgic feeling of a distant past, establishing the renaissance setting of the game to

its players, and letting them know that this game is a tribute to the classics of the Final Fantasy

series. The music of the introduction is titled The Place I’ll Return to Someday and has a score

that calls for three recorders, an instrument with a distinct sound associated with the medieval

period. The introduction piece’s form is similar to that of a pavan dance, a composition form

typically found during the renaissance period. Later on, and a classic characteristic of the Final

Fantasy series, the melody of the pavan is found throughout the rest of the game, reoccurring

most noticeably in the music A Transient Past and Ipsen’s Heritage, seen as variations of The

Place I’ll Return to Someday. When it comes to quality and musical density, soundtracks in 28

games today can certainly stand up against classical symphonies and film scores. But why does

the music of this nostalgic theme have a stronger pull towards fans? This is potentially caused by

the social implications in minimalist art and music, that less is more has always been an

appealing concept. So when one looks at the similarities of emotion when comparing synthesized

MIDI music in games with the real thing, it’s no surprise fans are more devoted to the original

version “not despite but rather largely because of its aesthetic constraints.” 29

The compositional forms of Nobuo Uematsu’s soundtracks have seen innovative

characteristics throughout the series, largely due to changes in technology, laying the foundation

27 Kizzire, “The Place,” Studying Play, 187. 28 Kizzire, “The Place,” Studying Play, 187­194. 29 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 71.

12

of expectations of music in video games as time progressed. In nearly every single Final Fantasy

game within the series, one can find a recurring theme in the music. This theme originated in the

first Final Fantasy game’s piece of music known as Prelude, or sometimes titled Crystal Theme.

The theme can be found referenced in many forms of arrangements related to the series, and

sometimes as homage to Nobuo Uematsu’s compositions. As for the piece of music, it saw a 30

variety of changes in sound and ideas that were correlated to what could be composed by the

technology at the time. The Prelude can be seen as a piece of music constantly rewritten as a

theme and variation, a new arrangement for every game containing thematic transformation, a

classical composition technique which developed in the Romantic period. This technique in

game theme music became the norm for the series, and future games and series to come, such as

Nintendo composer Konji Kondo’s music of The Legend of Zelda series, seeing the recurring

Overworld Theme music in every game of the series, with slight variations applied as the series

progressed and grew with available technology. Other ways the music of the series has shown 31

impact in expectations of music was in the way Umetasu’s soundtrack relied on MIDI from the

on­board synth chip of the PlayStation console to provide music, something that was previously

abandoned for a long time in video game music. Prior to Final Fantasy VII, most soundtracks

relied on Redbook technology for audio, a form of CD audio that allowed for recorded sound

effects, live instruments, and voice recording. The reliance of MIDI to provide in game music 32

permitted a livelier style of music, visible in the Battle Theme (also known as Let The Battles

30 "Prelude," Final Fantasy Wiki, (accessed April 5, 2015). 31 "Overworld Theme from The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past," Game Music Themes,

(accessed April 5, 2015). 32 Collins, Karen, "Press Reset: Video Game Music Comes of Age," In Game Sound an

Introduction to the History, Theory, and Practice of Video Game Music and Sound Design, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2008), 63.

13

Begin!) music transposition provided by Karen Collins (Ex. 3) , abolished the need to keep it 33

continuously looping, and allowed for quicker transitions between tracks. This was influential

since most other games on PlayStation and personal computers were typically seen using the

Redbook technology, and after Uematsu’s use of MIDI in FFVII, next generation console games

such as the Nintendo 64 and the Sega Dreamcast games saw persistent use of MIDI technology

once again. 34

Example 3. Nobuo Uematsu. Battle Theme. mm. 1­7

Besides more immersive styles of music, Nobuo Uematsu composed music similar to that

of formally trained composers, such as the Aria De Mezzo Carattere of the opera in Final

Fantasy VI, and the pavan­like piece titled The Place I’ll Return to Someday in his Final Fantasy

IX soundtrack with its theme and variations found later in the game titled. In FFIX’s soundtrack,

33 Collins, Game Sound, 70. 34 Collins, Game Sound, 63­71.

14

the form is laid out in a similar fashion to that of a sixteenth­century pavan, visible in Jessica

Kizzire’s image of the phrase structure of The Place I'll Return to Someday. (Figure 1) 35

Figure 1. Jessica Kizzire’s illustration of the phrase structure of The Place I'll Return to Someday.

The melody of the pavan, The Place I'll Return to Someday, would later be found in A Transient

Past and Ipsen’s Heritage, as a recurring musical idea within the game was a norm for Uematsu.

More particularly, in A Transient Past, the recurring melody from The Place I’ll Return to

Someday is not the only thing that was brought back in A Transient Past. The same binary

structure of the pavan, is found within A Transient Past, but with a slight change of inserting a

chant­like phrase that is ‘sung’ by synthesized voices before each section of The Place I’ll

Return to Someday. This can be seen in Jessica Kizzire’s chart of A Transient Past that 36

visualizes the insertion of the chant phrases before each section taken from The Place I'll Return

to Someday. (Figure 2) 37

35 Kizzire, “The Place,” Studying Play, 190. 36 Kizzire, “The Place,” Studying Play, 191. 37 Kizzire, “The Place,” Studying Play, 191.

15

Figure 2. Jessica Kizzire’s figure illustrating the insertion of the chant phrase in A Transient

Past.

Another example where self­taught composer Nobuo Uematsu uses classical techniques of

composition for form is the organization of the aria titled Aria De Mezzo Carattere of the opera

Maria and Draco, in Final Fantasy VI. The Opera’s structure consists of four main scenes,

starting with the Overture, the Aria De Mezzo Carattere, the Wedding Waltz & Duel, and the

Grand Finale, with each section lasting between three to five minutes. The aria’s form is 38

consisted of an intro, interlude, and coda which can be seen in William Cheng’s table illustrating

the overall form of Uematsu’s Aria De Mezzo Carattere. (Figure 3) 39

Figure 3. William Cheng’s table illustrating the form of Aria De Mezzo Carattere.

38 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 65­71. 39 Cheng, “How Celes Sang,” Sound Play, 71.

16

There is no argument that Nobuo Uematsu’s compositions are a major influence to video game

composers of today, and this use of formal classical techniques visible in his music would create

future expectations in game sound used to this day.

Nobuo Uematsu is known to be one of the most popular video game composers to this

day. His creativity and innovation is clear in his works of game sound and has greatly impacted

the video game industry, which is marked by his timeline and accomplishments. He brought

forth new ways of experiencing video game music, visible in the societal and psychological

responses of fans of the series concerning his game sound techniques. He also changed the

expectations of video game music for future developers, identifiable through the analysis of his

compositional works. The magic in Uematsu’s music has taken us Final Fantasy fans to a brand

new world, a fantasy world that we experienced emotionally, visually, and aurally, which we will

never forget for the rest of our lives.

17

Bibliography

Book Sources:

Cheng, William. “How Celes Sang.” In Sound Play: Video Games and the Musical Imagination, 57­91. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Collins, Karen. "Press Reset: Video Game Music Comes of Age." In Game Sound an Introduction to the History, Theory, and Practice of Video Game Music and Sound Design, 63­84. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2008.

Kizzire, Jessica. "‘The Place I'll Return to Someday’ Music Nostalgia in Final Fantasy IX." In Music in Video Games: Studying Play, edited by K. J. Donnelly, William Gibbons, and Neil Lerner, 183­198. New York, New York: Routledge, 2014.

Online Sources:

"Businesses.” Square Enix Holdings Co., LTD. http://www.hd.square­enix.com/eng/group/index.html#game1. (accessed April 4, 2015).

"Nobuo Uematsu Heads to Abbey Road to Record Final Symphony." Spielemusikkonzerte. December 13, 2014. http://www.spielemusikkonzerte.de/en/neues/ansicht/article/nobuo­uematsu­fuer­final­symphony­in­den­abbey­road­studios/. (accessed March 23, 2015).

"Nobuo Uematsu." LA Phil. http://www.laphil.com/philpedia/nobuo­uematsu. (accessed March 23, 2015).

“Nobuo Uematsu" FFXIclopedia. http://wiki.ffxiclopedia.org/wiki/Nobuo_Uematsu. (accessed April 4, 2015).

"Overworld Theme from The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past." Game Music Themes. http://www.gamemusicthemes.com/sheetmusic/supernintendo/thelegendofzeldaalinktothepast/overworldtheme/.(accessed April 5, 2015).

"Prelude." Final Fantasy Wiki. http://finalfantasy.wikia.com/wiki/Prelude. (accessed April 5, 2015).

Farley, Christopher John. “In Fantasy's Loop.” Time 157, no. 21 (May 28, 2001): 72. Music Index, EBSCOhost (accessed March 23, 2015).

FF Radio. "22­Celes's Theme­FFVI OST." YouTube. July 2, 2008. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoBn04lcNmo. (accessed April 5, 2015).

Jahns, Jeremy. "Final Fantasy VI Game Review." YouTube. February 17, 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBZSgIX7huw. (accessed March 25, 2015).

18

Libregkd. "Kefka's Laugh." YouTube. August 16, 2006. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CyZoe­r9qb0. (accessed April 4, 2015).

SeraphimZera. "Final Fantasy VI Opera Scene." YouTube. September 13, 2006. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgZXiHfNt0M. (accessed April 5, 2015).

Tong, Sophia. “Behind The Games: Meet the Composers ­ Nobuo Uematsu.” GameSpot. July 31, 2009. http://www.gamespot.com/articles/behind­the­games­meet­the­composers­nobuo­uematsu/1100­6214478/. (accessed April 4, 2015).

TantrisOST. "Final Fantasy 6 ­ Complete Soundtrack." YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLpjPht5mvg. (accessed March 23, 2015).

Uematsu, Nobuo, arr. Morrison, Arnold. “Aria De Mezzo Carattere.” Final Fantasy VI Arrangements. May 24, 2007. (accessed April 5, 2015). http://www.squaresound.com/arrangements/final­fantasy­vi/.

Uematsu, Nobuo, arr. Morrison, Arnold. “Celes Theme.” Final Fantasy VI Arrangements. May 24, 2007. http://www.squaresound.com/arrangements/final­fantasy­vi/. (accessed April 5, 2015).

The Shape of Japanese Music Before, During, and After the Meiji Restoration

Christopher Girgenti

ABSTRACT:

This paper explores the musical history of Japan, emphasizing the Tokugawa and Meiji eras. While these are only two of Japan’s many eras, they had the most impact on the musical aspects of society. As the Tokugawa shogunate forced the isolation of Japan from the Western World, it was during this time period that the Western World was expanding. Tensions arose between Japan and the West during the 1850s and 1860s, eventually leading to the overthrow of the shogunate. The result was the beginning of the Meiji era.

Why the Meiji era is highly critical to Japanese history is because once the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown, the new government reversed Japan’s isolation, stating that it should embrace Western ideals and practices in order to avoid colonization. Not only did this change the fundamental aspects of Japanese society, but it also lead to many musical changes. Western instruments and a formal music education were introduced, and as Japan became an imperial power military bands played a role in the shaping of Japanese society.

As the twentieth century progressed, so did the Westernization of Japanese music. What this paper argues is that once Japan re­opened itself, its music became more Western and less Japanese. In order to fully understand this argument, my paper includes a background of Japanese music history from its beginnings, so readers can examine how Japanese music has evolved over time. Japanese music today is very much Western­influenced, causing the line that defines Japanese music to become blurred. However, it is important not to make the assumption that all Japanese music is no longer Japanese in nature; there are still traditional elements that exist today, even though Western elements seem to have a stronghold.

Girgenti 1

The Shape of Japanese Music Before, During, and After the Meiji Restoration

Christopher Girgenti

From the beginning of the Tokugawa period (1603) until the Meiji Restoration (1868),

there was a span of over 250 years of isolation from the Western world. This period of isolation

closed Japan from Western influences. Western countries such as Portugal and Holland were

spreading their ideals eastward, but the Tokugawa shogunate disliked and feared what these

countries were bringing to Japan (specifically Christianity). Once the Tokugawa shogunate was

overthrown, Japan re­opened itself to the West, embracing its ideals and becoming a powerful

nation. Many aspects of Japanese society changed during and after the Meiji Restoration, one of

which was music. Because of the Meiji Restoration, Japanese music has become more Western

and less Japanese.

Ancient Japanese history is different in that “the exact ethnological origins of the Japanese

are not clearly known,” and during ancient times the indigenous people were not ethnically

united. The indigenous people were not united until the Yamato clan spread its power during 1

the first centuries A.D. During this period, the Japanese did not have a written language, so in 2

order to fully understand ancient Japanese music one must research Chinese sources, as the

Chinese had spread their ideas to the Japanese islands. The history of Chinese music is much 3

vaster compared to Japan’s, as “the history of Japanese music begins in the 8th century AD­

1 William P. Malm, Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, (Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1959), 24.

2 Malm, 24­25. 3 Malm, 25.

Girgenti 2

more than 2000 years after the origins of Chinese music.” Japan’s 8th century was known as the 4

Nara period. This period was “characterized by the formation of a political­administrative

system…modeled after China. Music and musical instruments, as well as Buddhism and

Confucianism, were introduced.” This period was the beginning of Japanese music history. 5 6

The court music of the Nara period “was all of Chinese, Korean, or Indian origin and was

played primarily by foreign musicians in its original style.” During this period, music was mainly

instrumental, but the spread of Buddhism to Japan influenced vocal music. Court music began 7

to further develop in the Heian period, which was still heavily influenced by Chinese music

styles, but now the musicians were Japanese, and the music itself was becoming more distinctly

Japanese. “The main genres born in this period are gagaku (court music) and syômyô (Buddhist 8

chant).” Of course, the Japanese also had native Shinto music (kagura). However, “by the 9 10

Kamakura period…court music in general was declining, while there was a steady growth of

more theatrical arts.” 11

Theatrical art started as Buddhist rituals and dances, and eventually became integrated

into popular traditions. Specifically, in the Kamakura period, sacred and secular music began 12

to intertwine. In the Muromachi (Ashikaga) period, theatrical arts took form in noh drama. 13 14

4 Dharma Deva, “Underlying Socio­Cultural Aspects and Aesthetic Principles that Determine Musical Theory and Practice in China and Japan,” 1999, Accessed October 5, 2014, 1.

5 Tomuku Yosihiko and Tukitani Tuneko, “Music Profile of Japan,” East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 7, Edited by Robert C. Provine, et al, (New York: Routledge, 2007), 535.

6 Malm, 25. 7 Malm, 26.

8 Malm, 30. 9 Yosihiko, 535­536. 10 Yosihiko, 536. 11 Malm, 31. 12 Deva, 6. 13 Malm, 32. 14 Malm, 32.

Girgenti 3

Noh drama was especially popular in the warrior class during this time, and continued to have a

role in government through the Tokugawa period. However, the Meiji Restoration caused the

noh to lose its political standing. There were also other types of theatrical arts besides noh 15

drama; these included kabuki and bunraku. One type of kabuki dance, kiyomoto­bushi 16

(kiyomoto), “came into being as a musico­social entity in 1814, but it was part of a complex

body of narrative music used to accompany dance in the kabuki theatre for several decades prior

to this date.” Founded in the 16th century, kabuki theatre is a highly sophisticated and highly 17

popular act in which “was well established by the mid­17th century.” 18

Other types of folk music appear throughout Japanese history, including “chamber music

for shamisen (a three­stringed plucked lute), koto, kokyû (a three or four­stringed bowed lute),

and syakuhati.” The modern shamisen came from Korea during the Momoyama period while 19

Japanese leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi was invading Korea. At the time, the instrument was called

jamisen, which was a three­stringed guitar, but it later evolved into the shamisen. Shamisen 20

music was prominent in the Tokugawa period, along with koto and shakuhachi. 21

As there were numerous genres of Japanese music, each genre had its own specific

theoretical practice. For example, “prestigious genres such as gagaku and syômyô developed

highly complex theories,” whereas “vernacular genres such as zyôruri (kabuki theater), in

contrast, had little systematic written theory, but relied instead on practical knowledge of

15 Deva, 8. 16 Yosihiko, 536. 17 Alison McQueen Tokita, "Mode and Scale, Modulation and Tuning in Japanese Shamisen Music: The

Case of Kiyomoto Narrative," Ethnomusicology 40, no. 1 (Winter 1996): 1­33, Accessed October 6, 2014, http://www.jstor.org/stable/852434, 1.

18 Deva, 9. 19 Yosihiko, 536. 20 Malm, 33­34. 21 Malm, 35.

Girgenti 4

melodic patterns and performance practice.” The theoretical practices of Japanese music were 22

based similarly to those of Chinese music. The octave was divided “into twelve ritu, or pitches,

roughly equivalent to the twelve Western semitones.” 23

When arranged in ascending order, the first five pitches thus generated (called kyû, syô,

kaku, ti, and u) formed a pentatonic scale, gosei [meaning] ‘five voices’. By adding a semitone

below ti (designated hen ti, where hen is equivalent to the Western flat) and another semitone

below kyû (hen kyû), the pentatonic scale could be expanded into a heptatonic scale, or sitisei

[meaning] ‘seven voices.’ 24

Although Japanese music adopted similar principles from Chinese music, Japanese music

as a whole is difficult to analyze and generalize due to “the many extant Japanese musical genres

from various historical periods.” Although there are many varying genres of Japanese music, 25

that does not mean that there are some commonalities in theoretical practice; “as for the whole of

Japanese music, all that can be said without further study is that the framework of the fourth (or

tetrachord)… is important for nō and early narrative (such as heike narrative), as is the pentatonic

scale for gagaku.” 26

Probably the most vital element in Japanese music is the pentatonic scale. The term

pentatonic scale was not used until the interactions between Japan and the West began, and was

“deliberately created by one of the first Japanese prewar composers who had been educated in

22 Komopa Haruko and Nogawa Mihoko, “Theory and Notation in Japan,” East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 7, Edited by Robert C. Provine, et al, (New York: Routledge, 2007), 565.

23 Haruko, 566. 24 Haruko, 566. 25 Tokita, 1. 26 Tokita, 2.

Girgenti 5

Western­style music.” The prominently used yonanuki (yo = four, na = seven, nuki = 27

omission) scale “is merely a Western major or minor scale with the two corresponding steps

eliminated. Thus, we can see that Japanese modality, as the construction of a melody, is really a

‘cultural marker’, rather than a conceptual building block for the composer.” 28

Another vital element in Japanese music is mode. However, it is difficult to distinguish

mode in Japanese music (or even Western music) because the terms mode and scale have been

interchangeable; thus, “Japanese musicologists are not consistent in their use of the two terms.” 29

Because of the many musical genres, “no one has yet developed a theory of mode which will

explain all of Japanese music.” However, stepwise motions are preferred over leaps because 30

“the Japanese people have no feeling for harmony,” in comparison to harmonic­based Western

music. 31

All forms of Japanese music were incorporated into the Tokugawa period. As William P.

Malm notes in his book, Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, “The Tokugawa period is a

treasure of Japanese music and represents the zenith of all the traditional arts.” Also, as noted 32

by Dharma Deva in the essay, “Underlying Socio­Cultural Aspects and Aesthetic Principles that

Determine Musical Theory and Practice in China and Japan,” “Today, most of the surviving folk

songs are from the Edo period of Tokugawa Shogun rule.” The Tokugawa period saw the 33

flourish of Japanese music (along with other Japanese ideals), but as previously mentioned, this

27 Carolyn S. Stevens, Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity, and Power, (New York: Routledge, 2008), 19.

28 Stevens, 18­19. 29 Tokita, 3. 30 Tokita, 1. 31 Stevens, 19­20. 32 Malm, 36. 33 Deva, 8.

Girgenti 6

is the period during which Japan was closed off from the Western world. In the book, Voices of

Early Modern Japan: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life During the Age of the Shoguns,

author Constantine Nomikos Vaporis states that “much of what we today associate with

‘traditional’ Japan either originated with, or found a popular audience in, Tokugawa times.” In 34

terms of musical developments, kabuki theater attracted large audiences and created a sense of

“popular (mass) culture.” 35

The Tokugawa period lasted for over two and a half centuries. Although, the Tokugawa

period was not entirely secluded from Western ideals, as it was not until after the shoguante was

established that Christianity was expelled from Japan. Before this expulsion, Christian

missionaries brought more than just religious ideals; they also brought musical ideals—in

Kyushu, the Japanese experienced their first performance of a Christmas Mass, and even learned

Gregorian chant. These events were the first exposure to Western music, yet no similar events 36

would occur until the late nineteenth century.

Beginning in 1853 with the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry at Edo bay, Western

imperial powers tried to force Japan to change its ways. However, after several years of

assessing whether or not to take on Western culture, the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown in

what is known as the Meiji Restoration (named after the Emperor Meiji). The Meiji government

fully adopted Western ideals and therefore “The Meiji Restoration of 1868 became much more

than the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate—it became the Meiji Revolution.” The Meiji 37

34 Constantine Nomikos Vaopris, Voices of Early Modern Japan: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life during the Age of the Shoguns, (Boulder: Westview Press, 2014), xvii.

35 Vaporis, xvii. 36 Tukahara Yasuko, “Foreign Musics Introduced Before the Meizi Era,” East Asia: China, Japan, and

Korea, Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 7, Edited by Robert C. Provine, et al, (New York: Routledge, 2007), 724.

37Vaopris, xix.

Girgenti 7

Restoration led to the implementation of “Western­style education (including the study of

Western music).” During this time, music education was introduced into elementary schools, 38

which caused a number of Western musicians and music teachers to come to Japan along with

many Japanese studying music abroad. 39

Although music in Japan was transformed tremendously by Western influences,

traditional music still remains. However, how music was shaped during and after the Meiji

Restoration depended on the government’s policies and regulations. “For example, syamisen

genres (such as nagauta and gidayû busi), which were connected with kabuki and bunraku

theater, were hardly affected by the Meizi Restoration, because traditional forms of performance

were secure under the new government. In contrast, ziuta, syôkyu, and syakuhati were severely

affected because the government made changes in their social and economic base.” 40

During the early years of Japanese imperialism (c. 1870­1890), band music was

introduced through European military bands. The Japanese were impressed by the European

military bands and therefore studied military music. Realizing that military bands could

strengthen morale and discipline, the army and navy ministries were created. “As Japan

embarked on the process of opening up to the West, local clan leaders who were jockeying for

position in the new political order actively sought to develop connections with foreign nations.

38 Nakamera Kosuke, “Western Musics Introduced in Japan in Modern Times,” East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 7, Edited by Robert C. Provine, et al, (New York: Routledge, 2007), 727.

39 Masakata Kanazawa and Yasuko Todo, "Collections of Western Music in Japan: An Introduction," Fontes Artis Musicae 56, no. 3 (2009): 238, Accessed September 25, 2014, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=5f4b8bf5­7879­4219­8c6e­15591d7104c9%40sessionmgr113&hid=101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=44921542&db=a9h.

40 Tiba Yuko, “Nationalism, Westernization, and Modernization in Japan,” East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol. 7, Edited by Robert C. Provine, et al, (New York: Routledge, 2007), 777.

Girgenti 8

Many of the delegations sent from Europe were accompanied by military bands, providing the

Japanese people with their first experience of Western music.” Band music, in general, began 41

to popularize during the early twentieth century and today there are bands in Japanese schools,

along with bands outside of the school system.” 42

The early twentieth century also constituted the spread of Western music through mass

media, such as magazines. Ongaku zassi (Music Magazine), was the first periodical of its kind,

making debut in 1900; however, “by 1912…there were seven periodicals devoted to music; and

by the end of the Taisyô era the number had increased to forty.” Even though Western music 43

was peaking in popularity, during the period of World War II Japan did not allow music,

musicians, nor composers from non­allied countries. After World War II, the once­ prohibited

were allowed back into Japanese society and “perhaps in reaction to wartime austerities, mass

communications burgeoned and foreign culture was introduced once again, now at an even more

rapid pace.” The main reason for the rapidity in the spread of Western music is modernization. 44

As Japan had radio and other forms of media, a variety of things could be spread quickly and to a

large amount of people, music included. Modernization, rather than musical developments,

caused Western music to spread widely into Japanese culture and thus created “‘modern’ popular

culture.” 45

As Western music popularized in Japanese society, Japanese composers were beginning

to emulate Western theoretical practices in their own works. For example, “Tōru Takemitsu

41 Kosuke, 727. 42 Kosuke, 728. 43 Kosuke, 729. 44 Kosuke, 729. 45 Luciana Galliano, Yōgaku: Japanese Music in the Twentieth Century, Translated by Martin Mayes,

(Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press Inc., 2002), 105.

Girgenti 9

(1930–96)…wrote scores for 100 films,” using a technique long used in Western music known

as “‘distorted iconism,’ in which an aural resemblance is altered so as to suggest transcendence.”

Although a scientific technique, the idea of semiotics gives music a more aesthetic approach to 46

analysis. 47

It is true that Japanese artists were adopting Western ideals and incorporating them into

their own works. Yasser Mattar argues in his article, "Miso Soup for the Ears: Contemporary

Japanese Popular Music and its Relation to the Genres Familiar to the Anglophonic Audience,"

is that “while Japanese hip hop and rock are affinitive to Anglophonic hip hop and rock, this

affinity is due to both Japanese and Anglophonic artists’ conformity to a stylistic formula, rather

than Japanese artists being clones of their Anglophonic counterparts.” However, when pop 48

singers began to emerge in Japan, the singers were “singing Anglophonic­sounding pop tunes

with lyrics that were often a mixture of Japanese and English.” Even in Japanese popular 49

music today, “many Japanese artists increasingly sport English names as stage names, use

English song titles, and sing partially in the English language.” 50

Even though Japanese music has been tremendously shaped over the past decade and a

half, the Japanese do not refer to their traditional genres of music when using the term music; to

the Japanese, the term music strictly refers to Western music. However, many of today’s

46 Christopher I. Lehrich, “Hearing Transcendence: Distorted Iconism in Tōru Takemitsu’s Film Music,” Signs and Society 2, S1 (Supplement 2014): S215, Accessed September 21, 2014.

47 Lehrich, S217. 48 Yasser Mattar, "Miso Soup for the Ears: Contemporary Japanese Popular Music and its Relation to the

Genres Familiar to the Anglophonic Audience," Popular Music & Society 31, no. 1 (February 2008): 113, Accessed September 15, 2014, http://web.b.ebscohost.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=5&sid=5f4b8bf5­7879­4219­8c6e­15591d7104c9%40sessionmgr113&hid=101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=28552268&db=a9h.

49 Mattar, 113. 50 Mattar, 114.

Girgenti 10

Japanese composers incorporate both Japanese and Western elements into their compositions.

For example, a modern Japanese composer may “write music using Japanese traditional

instruments but with compositional techniques associated with the conventions of

European art music; such compositions are, despite their cross­breeding, regarded as ‘Western

music’ in Japan.” 51

Eta Harich­Schneider, one of the great scholars of Japanese music, has claimed that the

best Japanese music is its folk music—that is, when it hasn’t been tampered with! And indeed it

is true that every region of Japan…has its own lively and colorful repertoire of music and song

that deeply reflects all aspects of Japanese culture, with its love of nature, its feeling of gratitude

for the beauty of nature and the emotions it evokes, and the thoughtfulness and care that

characterize social behavior. 52

The amount of blending between Japanese traditional music and Western music creates a

problem as it is now more difficult to define Japanese music. The Meiji Restoration caused 53

Western influences to spread rapidly and now there are more Western influences than Japanese

influences. Japanese music in its beginnings was very distinct, but Japanese music today is

becoming blurred in terms of its Japanese­ness because of the amount of Western elements.

51 Kanzawa, 284. 52 Galliano, 104. 53 Kanzawa, 284.

Girgenti 11

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