ColloquyVol.12,Fall2016,pp.1-21

Framing <Anarchy> in Civic Discourse: TheProfanityofChaos

JaredD.HermanAbstractKey texts circulating during the Gilded Age show how “anarchy” became anegative ideograph inpoliticaldiscourse.Following theworkofMcGee (1980),EdwardsandWinkler(1997),andCloud(2004),thisworkpositsthat<anarchy>cametobeassociatedwithevilduringtheGildedAge.Theideographicfunctionof <anarchy> is buttressed by the rhetorical force in the visual metaphor ofserpents synecdochically representing anarchism during the era. Foss’s (2005)perspective approach to visual rhetoric is incorporated to illustrate how visualimagery can support the function of ideographs. The unique character of<anarchy> leaves it perpetually antithetical to “civilization,” hence opposed to<theruleoflaw>.

Theartisticuseofwordsisparamountinpoliticaldiscourse.LabelscanbestrongpointsofidentificationformillionsofU.S.citizens,especiallyduringapresidentialelectionseason.Onceamoreprogressiveparty,havingchampionedabolition,theRepublicanPartyappearstohavetakenadrasticturntowardsnationalism.DonaldTrump,theRepublicannomineeforU.S.President,hasbeenaninfluentialforceintakingthePartyfurthertotheright,andhasevenreceivedpraisefromtheChairmanoftheAmericanNaziParty,RockySuhayda(Kaczynski,2016).Ontheotherendofspectrum,BernieSanders’sinclusiveandprogressiveplatformswere frequently summarizedbymainstreammediaoutletswitha single term:“socialist.”Possiblyrelatedtobeingtheonlycandidatewhoself-identifieswiththeterm“socialist”taggedonto“democratic,”Sanderswaslargelydismissedbythepopularmedia.OneexampleofSanders’slackofcoverageisevidencedinaspeechhegaveonMarch15,2016.Borchers(2016)commentsonthecoveragethat the speech received, stating, “Sanderswas theproverbial tree falling inaforestonTuesdaynight.Noneofthethreemajorcablenewschannels[Fox,CNN,norMSNBC]airedevenamomentofhisspeechlive”(para.1).Anotherexampleis seen inChris Cuomo’sdiscreditingof Sanderswith the single termduring aTownHallmeetingwhichwashostedbyCNN.CuomobeganhisdiscoursewithHillaryClintonbyharkeningbacktoher2008bidforthePresidency,saying,“here

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youareagain,anotherelection.Praiseandpromisecomingyourway,butanothernailbiter[...]withaself-describedsocialistnamedBernie”(Transcripts,n.d.). Though“socialist”taintedhiscampaign,Sanders’splatformisreminiscentofPresidentFranklinDelanoRoosevelt’sNewDeal,which,withadegreeofsuccess,lifted the United States out of the Great Depression. Nonetheless, themainstream media has been complicit in advancing a negative caricature ofSanders.Thishasbeenaccomplishedwithallusionstothetropeofdangerous,anti-American socialism.Awriter for CNNeven compared Sanders to the lateleader of China,Mao Tse-Tung,who ledChina from socialism to communism,killingmillionsalongtheway(Graham,2015).Thebadreputation“socialist”hasgarneredseemstoobscure“democratic”intheterm“DemocraticSocialist.”Anolder, and similar, negative caricature of socialismwas advanced in the presspriortotheNewDeal’simplementation,reflectedintheremarksofRepublicansenator,SimeonFess.Boettiger(1934)writesthatFranklinRoosevelt’s“‘recentstatements,’ declared Mr. Fess, ‘remove any doubt of his policy of statesocialism’”(ascited,para.7).JustdecadespriortotheNewDeal,andshortlyaftertheCivilWar,therewasasocialistmovementwithinthelaborclass.Itwasatthistime, during the birth pangs of the first Red Scare, that “socialism” becameinfamousintheUnitedStates’politicallexicon.WhileSandersisbringingthetermbackintotheforefrontofpublicandpoliticalconsciousness,inamorepositivewayanothertermhasbeenslippingfurther intoobscurityandbecomingmoreabstract.ProblemsandQuestionsInApril,of2015,FoxNewsairedasegmentwithBillO’Reillyemphasizingdruguse on the South side of Chicago, while he promoted mandatory minimumsentencing for drug-related crimes and denounced protests against policebrutality(O’Reilly,2015).Hiscommentsconcernedaregionthathistoricallyhasincluded a predominantly Black community. By the time O’Reilly’s remarksbecamepublic, theBlack LivesMatterMovementhadalreadygainednationalattentionasaninfluentialforceforspreadingthemessageaboutpolicebrutalityagainstunarmedU.S.citizens.A“chaotic”situationalsooccurredduringthesamemonthO’Reillydeliveredhiscomments,afteranofficer-involvedshootingtookplace in Chicago. The Chicago Tribune covered the story of an off-duty policedetective killing an unarmed woman. A Cook County judge chose not tosubstantiate the chargeofmanslaughteragainst thedetective, even though itwasnotedinthejudge’srulingthattheshootingwas“‘beyondreckless,’”andthedetective’s actions were “‘intentional and the crime, if there be any, is first-

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degreemurder’”(ascitedinEditorialBoard,2015).Ineffect,thedetectivewasacquittedduetoalegaltechnicality. DaysbeforetheChicagoTribunecoveredtheJudge’sdecisiononthecase,O’ReillyreferredtotheBlackLivesMatterMovementas“ananarchisticgroup...thatwantstoteardownthecountryand...istalkingaboutgenocideandreally,reallyextremethings”(SecularTalk,2015).Duringthefollowingmonth,onMay1,protestersassociatedwiththeBlackLivesMatterMovementmarchedtotheCook County jail in protest of the Judge’s decision. These situations highlighteventsthattranspiredmorethanacenturyago.Themarchcommemoratedthe129th anniversary of May Day and the month that seven anarchists foundthemselvesawaitingtrialintheCookCountyjailforabombingthattookplaceintheHaymarketareaontheSouthsideofChicago.Afterthebombingoccurred,“anarchy” became more heavily associated with the Labor Movement for aneight-hourworkday.Thepopularrootof“anarchy”thenstood(andstillstands)inoppositiontotheUnitedStates’visionofdemocracyastheruleof,for,andbythepeople.Yet,whenusedinpoliticalrhetoric,“anarchy”doesnotimmediatelyconnotethephilosophicalimplicationsgivenbyitsformalmeaning. O’Reilly’s reference to the Black Lives Matter Movement as “anarchistic”raisesquestionsaboutwhat“anarchy”signifiesincurrentpoliticaldiscourseandhow it carries an immediate, negative connotation in political rhetoric. Hisutteranceisnosmallvoicecryinginthewilderness;FoxNewsisasubsidiaryNewsCorp,ofoneofthemostpowerfulmediacorporationsinexistence.Theterm’snegativeassociativequalitiesarenotlimitedsolelytotheconservativeendofthepolitical spectrum. Elizabeth Warren, a progressive U.S. Senator, also used“anarchy”todescribetheconservative-ledgovernmentshutdownof2013.“SheslammedherRepublicancolleaguesontheSenatefloorThursday,callingtheman ‘anarchy gang’ for bringing the government to the point of a shutdown”(Gentilviso,2013,para.1).Ironically,WarrenexhibitedapositiveoutlooktowardtheOccupyWallStreetMovement(OWS),amovementlargelydescribedasbeinganarchistic (Welty, Bolton, & Zukowski, 2013; Gibson, 2013; White, n.d.).Speaking of OWS, Warren professed to “‘support what they do’” and evenclaimedtohave“‘createdmuchoftheintellectualfoundationforwhattheydo’”(ascitedinJacobs,2011,para.2).Ononehand,O’Reillynegativelyreferredtoamovementas“anarchistic,”devoidofanarchy’sformalmeaning.Ontheother,Warren characterized governmental actors as engaging in “anarchy” whilepraising a movement that is widely accepted to actually be anarchistic. Theambivalentreferentsthat“anarchy”signifiesprovidewhatBitzer(1992)termeda “rhetorical situation.” The apparent lack of a stable, concrete referent for

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“anarchy” in political discourse warrants an examination into its history as apolitically charged label. Doing this through an ideographic analysis helps tobetterunderstand itsusageasdescriptiveofpoliticallyunacceptablebehavior.Theforgettingof“anarchy”asanideologicalmovementalongwithitscolloquialreferentsof“chaos”and“disorder”providethebasisforthequestionsguidingthisproject,andtheinvitationtorecallhistoricalusagesof“anarchy.” Examining the term’s most pronounced usages in politically chargedrhetorical battles yields evidence regarding how the term acts as a negativeideograph,andtheideologiesitsusageshavepointedtowardsincontemporarypoliticaldiscourse.Thisworkconstitutesacasestudyofthekeyhistoricalperiodinwhich“anarchy”cametoacquirenewandmoreabstractconnotationsinthepoliticalsphere—aftera laborrallythattookplaceMay4,1886,whenabombexplodedintheHaymarketSquareareaofChicago.Theexplosionresultedintheinstantaneousdeathofonepoliceofficerandsevenanarchistsbeingconvictedonconspiracycharges,fourofwhomwerehangedfortheiroffenses.Thiseventhasbeenmemorializedaroundtheworld,yetitsomehoweludesrecallinpublicandmainstreamU.S. political consciousness. Yet “anarchy” continues to carrycurrency in contemporary political discourse. The first segment of this studyconsists of an overview of pertinent scholarship on ideographs. Following,differenttextsfromthe1880sand1890sareexamined,whichcharttheriseof“anarchy” as a negative ideograph. This argument is bolsteredwith a politicalcartoon that stands as a synecdochic representation for “anarchy” during thetime. A discussion of the argument being advanced is then offered beforeconcluding. Thisessayoffersacriticalperspectiveonwhatcanbecalledtheexigencefora response to extreme right-wing rhetoric that is increasingly becomingnormalized, which marginalizes voices from the moderate to far-left. Currentpoliticaldiscoursecallsforacollectiveremembranceofwhentheterm“anarchy”cametoprominence—duringtheLaborMovementforaneight-hourworkdayattheturnofthetwentiethcentury.Fromacriticallens,thisworkactsasareminderfor the public consciousness of the lingering impact of “anarchy.” It alsocontributestouncoveringpossibleideologicalcommitmentsthatunderwriteitsusages in contemporary political discourse. Whereas Warren’s invocation of“anarchy”isclosertoitsdictionarysenseofconnotingalackofaruler,O’Reilly’sreference to the term serves as an example of “anarchy” apparently beingemployedforthepurposeofstereotypinganentiregroupofpeople.Therangeof“anarchy’s”currentpoliticalusages,fromWarren’suseofitinthedictionarysenseoflackinggovernmentorrulershiptoO’Reilly’sessentiallypostcolonialuse

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ofthetermasanepithetsignifiesthatitcarriesanominousconnotationprimafacie,withitsreferentsincludingthelackof“civilized”society. “Anarchy” concretely referred to a political ideology, and a philosophyopposedtohierarchical rule,duringthebirthpangsofthefirstRedScare.TheseemingamnesiaintheU.S.consciousnessregardingthiserainvitesinquiryintohow“anarchy”came toacquireominous referentialqualities in contemporarypolitical discourse. An ideographic analysis is fitting for such a study. SenatorWarren’suseof“anarchy”todescribealackofgovernmentwithinagovernmentstandsasatestamenttotheabstractcharacteroftheterm.Similarly,ideographsare described as existing at both ends of the ladder of abstraction, becomingmoreabstractwhennotgivenconcretemeaningsinpoliticallychargedrhetoricalbattles (McGee,2001,pp.378-379).FirstcoinedbyMichaelMcGee(1980),anideograph acts as a “one-term summary of an aspect of a people’s historicalideology; for example, a clear case is the English word Liberty [emphasis inoriginal]”(McGee,2001,p.378).Conversely,“negativeideographscontributetoour collective identity by branding behavior that is unacceptable. Americansocietydefinesitselfasmuchbyitsoppositiontotyrannyandslaveryasitdoesbyacommitmenttolibertyandequality”(Winkler,2006,p.12).In2013,SenatorWarren’susageof “anarchy,”despiteher intendedmeaning,evinces theclearnotion that she did not consider the Republican-led government shutdownacceptable behavior—lending to the term the appearance of a negativeideographasdescribedbyWinkler(2006). While there is an abundance of scholarship on ideographs, this workhighlightstwoaspectsofideographicanalysisthatappeartohavebeenglossedover.First,muchoftheargumentfortheexistenceofideographsispremisedonOrtega’s (1957) concept of “languageusage” as “the essential demarcationofwholenations,” (McGee,2001p.8).McGee(1980)asserts“thesignificanceofideographsintheirconcretehistoryasusages,notintheirallegedidea-content”(McGee, 1980, pp. 9-10). Yet he also states that “earlier usages becomeprecedent,touchstonesfor judgingtheproprietyofthe ideograph inacurrentcircumstance”(McGee,1980,pp.10). Inthepresentstudy,specialattention ispaidtothenotionofthe“allegedidea-content”ofideographs.Winkler’s(2006)definition of negative ideographs opens a space for exploring associativerelationshipsthatusagesofanideographmayconjure,whichleadstoquestionsregardingtheir“allegedidea-content.” Secondly, in this study negative ideograph is used not only to refer tounacceptablebehavior—itisalsousedtodenotenegativeinthesenseoflacking(e.g.,negativespace).Whilethereisconsiderablescholarshiponideographsand

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theirpositiveusesinproppinguphegemonicideologies,itisbeneficialtothefieldof communication studies, specifically the rhetorical tradition, to build on itstheoretical framework of ideographs. Inquiring into how negative ideographswork to support hegemonic structures, not merely considered as beingantithetical to them, contributes to a more robust discussion on how theyfunction. Better understanding “anarchy’s” historical usages helps to uncovernuances in how the term is currently being employed, and contributes torhetorical studiesby adding to a vocabularyof negative ideographs. The term“anarchy” is unique in its ideological function as not merely having negativereferentialqualities,butalsoitsflexibilitytoincludetheideaoflackingideology.Thisworkalsoaddstotheportfolioofvisualrhetoricbyprovidinganexampleofhowmetaphorsvisuallyfunctiontobuttresstherhetoricalforceof“anarchy”asa negative ideograph. To date, the only work that considers “anarchy” as anegativeideographisfoundinanM.A.thesis,whichisalsoanextensionofthispresentwork.Ithasbecomeaconventionofscholarstoidentifyideographsbyenclosingtheminbrackets(<ideograph>).Inthepresentstudy,<anarchy>isusedtodenoteitsusageinideographicform,asdistinguishedfrom“anarchy”asatermof general expression. Exploring the usages of <anarchy> at the turn of thetwentiethcentury,duringtheheightoftheLaborMovementforaneight-hourworkday,helpstoshowtheideologicalcommitmentsbehinditsmanifestations.TheoreticalFrameworkIdeographsfunctionsimilarlytoAlthusser’s(2012)conceptionofanideologyinthat“anideologyalwaysexistsinanapparatus,anditspracticeorpractices,”and“thisexistenceismaterial”(ascitedinDurham&Kellner,2012,p.82).ForMcGee(1980), “ideology in practice is a political language, preserved in rhetoricaldocuments,with thecapacity todictatedecisionandcontrolpublicbeliefandbehavior”(p.5).IntheUnitedStates,this“politicallanguage”includestermssuchas“equality,”“property,”and“liberty,”whichareenshrinedintheU.S.mythos(andU.S.Constitution)ascharacteristicofthenation’sideologicalcomposition.This brief explanation illustrates McGee’s (1980) proposition that ideographsconstitute“thebasicstructuralelements,thebuildingblocks,ofideology”(p.7).McGee (2001) discusses how ideographs are set in competition due to theideologicalcommitmentsbehindtheirusages.Hecitesaninstanceof“argumentsinthe1970saboutso-called‘open-housing,’”whereheexplainsthat“liberty”and“equality”cameintocontentioninrelationshipto“property”(p.379).Heassertsthat“mostconstitutionalandrevolutionarypoliticalargumentsarecharacterizedby . . . struggles for thepower todefine ideographs inaconcretecase,either

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absolutelyorintheirstructuralrelationships”(p.379).McGee(2001)describesideographs as being especially pronounced in their usages during times ofextreme political importance, when they are “‘pulled down’ the ladder ofabstraction” andbecome concrete in theirmeaning; for example, “as politicalstreetfighting,inotherwordsLibertymaybedefinedinrelationshiptoReligion,Equality,Property,anddozensofotherideographs”(p.379). A more nuanced example of “equality” helps to further explain howideographsfunction.Therewasatimewheninthephrase“allmenarecreatedequal,”inthepreambletotheU.S.Constitution,includedthenotionof“equality”for all (wo)men. “Equal” came to mean differently after the ThirteenthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitution.Theusageof“equal”asonlyreferencingWhite,property-owningmenbecameoutdated,asdid“equality.”ThisexamplehighlightsMcGee’s (2001) explanation of how “an ideograph’s usage in losingcauses...isunacceptableaftertheloss,andallmeaningsthatcanbeshowntobe anachronistic (such as counting slaves as three fifths of a person) areunacceptable”(p.379).Thischangeintheideologicalconstitutionof“equality”shows how outdated usages of ideographs fall into obscurity and out of use.However, their previous usages become “touchstones” for later usages, andretain“aformal,categoricalmeaning”(McGee,1980,p.10).Thechangingusageof “equality” shows how an ideograph functions to both support hegemonicideologieswhileprovidingagencyforchangingtheirpoliticalcomposition.Thisexamplealsohighlightshowthe ideological ideaof“equality” issubjecttotheU.S.Constitution,hencethe“ruleoflaw.” Unlikeconceptionsof‘Ultimate’or‘God’terms,ideographsstrictlyrefertothe“social,ratherthanrationalorethical,functionsofaparticularvocabulary”(McGee,1980,p.8).Burke(1969)explainsa“god-term”as“theuniversaltitleorall-inclusiveepithettowhichanylessgeneralizedtermswouldberelatedaspartstowhole”(p.73).Weaver’s(1953)“Ultimateterms”includesboth“godterms”and “devil terms,” and he proposes “devil term” as “the counterpart of ‘godterm’”(p.222).Similarly,thereareideographsthatMcGee(1980)notesasbeingsubject to themeaningofothers. Forexample,during theWatergate scandal,PresidentNixontriedtouse<confidentiality>inanewcontext,subordinatedtothe<ruleoflaw>(McGee,1980,p.13).Here,NixonattemptedtogaintheUnitedStates’“permissiontoexpandthemeaningof‘confidentiality’andtherebyalteritsrelationshipwiththe‘ruleoflaw,’makingwhatappearedtobeanillegalactacceptable”(p.13).Despitetheethicaldimensionsofeitherterm,botharetakenat face value in their application to specific situations. They then becomeingrainedinvernaculardiscourseunderahegemonicideology,givingthemtheir

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functionas“conditionsofthesocietyintowhicheachofusisborn,materialideaswhichwemustacceptto‘belong’”[emphasisinoriginal](McGee,1980,p.9).Thecompetition for a reinterpretation of <confidentiality> evinces the horizontal,synchronicstructureofideographs.Thevertical,diachronicstructureof<ruleoflaw> took precedence and won out over Nixon’s attempt to reinterpret<confidentiality>.Thus,<ruleoflaw>actssimilarlytoanall-encompassing“godterm”or“ultimateterm,”yetnotall ideographsaresubordinated inthesamemanner. McGee(1980)providesaparalleltoWeaver’s(1953)“devilterm,”notingthat‘“confidentiality’ of certain conversations is a control on the behavior ofgovernment, a control that functions tomaintain a ‘rule of law’ and prevents‘tyranny’”(p.12).McGee(2001)doesnotmakeanexplicitmentionofthedevilterm-likequalitiesof “tyranny”orother specific ideographs, opting instead todescribethemintermsofa“winningside”and“losers” (p.378).Whereasthemoralistic sense of “devil term” does not accurately reflect a competitionbetweendifferingideologies,itissimilartoideographsthat“lose”thebattleforhegemonicinterpretation.Weaver(1953)explicitlynotessome“devilterms,”or“termsof repulsion” (p.222),whichexemplifywhatMcGeemightdescribeasideographsthat“lost”inrelationshiptoideographslike<ruleoflaw>,<equality>,or<property>.Weaver(1953)explains,“wehaveallseen‘Nazi’and‘Fascist’usedwithout rational perception,” and during his time ofwriting, “in even greaterdegree...‘Communist’”(p.223).Thecurrentuseof“anarchy”incertainsocialcirclesmaystillbeonparwithotherpoliticalphilosophies,yetseemsmoreakintoa“devilterm.”Onceusedmorewidelyasapoliticalorientation,“anarchy”hasbecomeabstractedanddisjointedfromitsphilosophicalreferents,usedinsteadto describe an ominous notion of “chaos,” or disorder. This reflects McGee’s(2001)notionthat“onthehighestlevelofabstraction,ideographsarecompletelyemptiedandleftto‘floatup’inpoliticaldiscourseuntiltheyareneededagaintojustify in-the-streetsAction” (McGee, 2001, p. 379). BillO’Reilly’s and SenatorWarren’susagesof “anarchy” showhow it isbeingpulleddown the ladderofabstractionintheserviceofdifferingideologicalcommitments,inacompetitionto define conceptions of unacceptable behavior. As a negative ideograph,“anarchy” is unique in that its “idea-content” appears toelude subjugation to“God”or“devil”terms. There is exemplary literature on ideographs such as “equality” (Condit &Lucaites,1993), “clashof civilizations” (Cloud,2004), and thatof “thepeople”(Enck-Wanzer,2012).Yetthecorpusofliteratureonnegativeideographsissmallandlargelyrestrictedto“terrorism”(Parry-Giles,1995;Winkler,2006;Jackson,

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2011).Thoughinsightful,contemporaryliteratureonideographsmainlyfocusesontheirpositiveassociationswithareigninghegemon,withthepreviouslynotedexceptionof“terrorism.”Even“clashofcivilizations”signifiesabattlebetweentwodifferentformsofcivilization,withcivilizationtacitlyunderstoodasa“good”thing.On theotherhand, “anarchy” conjuresaworldwithout rulers—aworldalientoWesterncivilization—accordingtoitsGreekroot,anarkhia.Inthisway,the “clash of civilizations” still carries a positive connotation for a hegemonicideologywhereas“anarchy”conjuresnotionsof“chaos”andacompletelackofcivilization.Thisconceptualbinarybetween“civilization”and“anarchy”promptsdeepenedtheoreticalresearchonideographs. While <terrorism> is a negative ideograph that functions similarly to<anarchy>, the difference between them reflects what Winkler (2006) hasreferredtoastheir“flexibility”inpoliticaldiscourse.Inthisstudy,suchflexibilityis considered to be contingent onwhatMcGee (1980) described as not beingsignificant—anideograph’s“allegedidea-content”(p.10).The“idea-content”of“anarchy”givesitauniqueflexibilitybecauseofitsnegationofitselfratherthanonlybeing,asWinkler (2006)notes, “antithetical” to “a culture’s foundationalvalues” (p. 12). The idea-content of “anarchy” has a kind of “etymological”development,withitscurrentusagescontingentonhowitcametobedefinitiveofspecificpoliticalsituations. InMcGee’s(1980)words,“eachideographhasahistory,anetymology,suchthatcurrentmeaningsofthetermarelinkedtopastusages of it diachronically” (McGee, 1980, p. 16). Exploring past usages of“anarchy”pointstoitscurrentusageassetinoppositiontoanidealofcivilorderunderagovernment.Itisthelackofideologicalcommitmentin“anarchy’s”idea-contentthatprovidesitsrhetoricalforceasanegativeideograph.Inthisstudy,Cloud’s(2004)workon<clashofcivilizations>andEdwards’andWinkler’s(1997)pioneeringstudyonvisualideographshaveinspiredtheinclusionofFoss’s(2005)perspective approach to visual rhetoric. According to Foss, a perspectiveapproachconsistsofpaying“attentiontooneormoreofthreeaspectsofvisualimages”: (a) the nature of the image, or “distinguishing features of the visualimage”;(b)theimage’sfunctionfortheaudience;and(c)evaluating“whetheritaccomplishesthefunctionssuggestedbytheimageitself”(pp.145-147).Aspectsofthisapproachareappliedinconsideringvisualmetaphorsasbuttressingtherhetoricalforceof<anarchy>. In the following section, a brief history of “anarchy’s” “idea-content” isprovidedtohighlighttheconceptualbinaryoppositionbetween“civilization”and“anarchy.”Thisbinaryoppositionisexplainedasanassociativeone,unlikemoreconcreteoppositionssuchas“up”versus“down.”Thisargumentissetforthby

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lookingathowtheassociativerelationshipsbetween“chaos”and“anarchy”aremarredwiththeprofanenotionofaworldwithouttheJudeo-Christiancreatorandlaw-giver.Theassociativerelationshipsarethenshowntohavemanifestedin<anarchy>as itwasemployed inpoliticaldiscourseduringtheheightof theanarchistmovementintheUnitedStates,inthelatenineteenthcentury.<Anarchy>:AssociatingwithSerpentsUncoveringideologicalcommitmentsbehind“anarchy”warrantsexaminingtheterm’s “formal, categorical meaning” as well as its “alleged idea-content”(McGee,1980,p.10).Inthissection,ananalysisofapoliticalcartoonisprecededbyexaminingthecategoricalmeaningthat“anarchy”holdsinWesternthought,specifically in relationship to “chaos.” Parallels are drawn between creationnarratives thatshowassociative linkagesof theSerpentof the Judeo-Christianaccountwith“chaos”and“disorder.”Thislinkageisshowntobeincludedinthediachronic structure of <anarchy>. The idea-content of <anarchy> is thencomparedtotextssurroundingtheHaymarketbombingof1886.Asanegativeideograph, <anarchy> came to include connotations of evil and a corruptednature, associated with the antagonist of the Judeo-Christian scriptures—theserpent of theGenesis narrative. The evil signified in the serpent came to beassociated with connotations of “anarchy” as being opposed to monopolisticcapitalism,and“anarchy”becameanegativeideograph. TheDiachronicStructureof<Anarchy>AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary,anarchyisdefinedinfourways:“[a]nabsenceofgovernment;astateoflawlessnessduetotheabsenceorinefficiencyof the supreme power; political disorder;” and “[a] theoretical social state inwhichthereisnogoverningpersonorbodyofpersons,buteachindividualhasabsolute liberty (without implication of disorder)” (Anarchy, n.d.). It is alsodescribedwithreferencetoitsetymologicalroot,asa“state...withoutachiefor head” (Anarchy, n.d.). These definitions appear to agreewith how ThomasHobbes and John Locke conceived of “anarchy” (Johnson, 2014, pp. 22-23).Hobbes (2001) asserts that “the condition of mere nature, that is to say, ofabsolute liberty, such as is theirs that neither are sovereigns nor subjects, isanarchyandtheconditionofwar:thattheprecepts,bywhichmenareguidedtoavoidthatcondition,arethe lawsofnature” (p.164). JohnLocke, following inHobbes’sfootsteps,uses“stateofnature”and“anarchy”synonymously,evidentintheextract,“thestateofnature,orpureanarchy”(Locke,1821).

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Theconnotationof“anarchy”as“chaos” ispervasive inpopulardiscourse,andplacesithighonthe“abstractionladder,”aswellasclosertonature.InbothHobbes’s and Locke’s understandingof “anarchy” there is an assumption thathuman beings are distinct from nature. Contrary to Hobbes’s conception of“anarchy,”Gibson (2013) states that rather thanconceivedofby“thepopularimagination...[as]typicallyassociatedwithchaos,”anarchism“isasophisticatedideologypremisedonoppositiontoexternallyimposedhierarchy”(p.339).Thefirst definition for chaos given by the Oxford English Dictionary includes avariation of its Greekmeaning: “‘the nether abyss, infinite darkness’” (Chaos,n.d.).Includedinitsdefinitionarealsopolarizedmeaningsfortheterm.Ononehand,itis“completedisorderandconfusion”(Chaos,n.d.).Ontheother,itdoesnot imply disorder; rather, it is based on Hesiod’s Greek epic, Theogony.Bussanich (1983)describes that inTheogony,“thenameChaossymbolizes theinitialstageofpre-cosmicreality—ayawningchasmorabyss.Sinceitstandsatthe beginning of things, it cannot be envisioned according to the laws ofperspective or dimension” (p. 214). Bussanich (1983) goes on to state hisconviction“thatinChaosHesiodattemptedtosymbolizeanunderlying,passiveprincipleinwhichcosmic-divinemanifestationoccurs,withGaiaacreativematrixwhichparticipatesingeneration”(p.218).Ratherthandisorder,Hesiod’sChaosisessentially thearcheofcreation—thepoint fromwhichallelse follows.Thisextreme abstraction signified in “chaos” provides “anarchy” with a peculiarversatilityinpoliticalrhetoric.

TheDivinityof<Anarchy>inChaosTheassociationoftheserpenticonwith“chaos”becamesignifiedin<anarchy>attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,and“anarchy”cametoreferencetheJudeo-Christian“devil.”Thisassociativerelationship ispertinent to thisstudygivenafewfinepointsofhowMcGee(1980)conceivesof ideographs.Heassertsthattheyare“terms[that]aredefinitiveofthesocietywehaveinherited,”andclaimsthat“theyareconditionsofthesociety intowhicheachofus isborn,materialideaswhichwemustacceptto‘belong’”(p.9).McGee(1980)astutelypointsoutthat“nopresentideologycanbedivorcedfrompastcommitmentsifonlybecausethe very words used to express present dislocations have a history thatestablishesthecategoryoftheirmeaning”(p.14).SocietyintheUnitedStatesdidnotappearoutofthinair,nordiditsdominantlanguage.McGee(1980)contendsthat “in any specific culture,” there exists “a historically defined diachronicstructureofideograph-meaningsexpandingandcontractingfromthebirthofthesocietytoits‘present.’”(p.14).Accordingly,precedentusesof“anarchy”inform

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itspresentconstitution,whichincludes“chaos”asareferent,inoneofthemostpowerfulWesternsocieties—theUnitedStates. TheFertileCrescent,oftendescribedasthecradleofcivilization,providedalushenvironmentfor“chaos”togrow,aswellas its laterassociationswiththeserpentmotif.Sinceat leastMesopotamia, serpent iconographyhas remainedfeminizedandclosertonaturethan“civilization.”AnearlyexampleincludestheBabylonian“GodmotherMummu-Tiamat(adragon-waterdeity)”(Harris,2007,p.20).CitingMatthews(1997),Harris(2007)notes,“parallelsbetweenthebirthofMesopotamia’sdivinegodhead,fromthechaosofwater,”withelementsofthecreationnarrativefoundinGenesis(p.20).Also,Keller(2012)observesthat“the watery deep, the tehom, of Genesis” is the “semitic relative of the . . .Sumerian Tiamat which also means salt water, deep, chaos. Both aregrammaticallyfeminine”[emphasisinoriginal](pp.16-17).Thefeminineaspectof a “dragon-water-deity” provides for associative links to the serpentineconstruction of the Judeo-Christian “devil.” First, in the Genesis narrative ofcreation, awoman is temptedby a serpent. Secondly, in theNewTestament,prophecies of things that “must shortly take place” include “an angel comingdownfromheaven,”who“laidholdofthedragon,thatserpentofold,whoistheDevilandSatan[emphasisinoriginal]”(Rev.20:2,NewKingJamesVersion).Theserpenticoncontinuestobearassociativelinkagestotheideaofaworldwithoutdivinerulership—avisionofdisorder,of“chaos.” SynchronicManifestationsof<Anarchy>astheEpitomeofEvil,UncivilizedTheserpenticonhasbeenlinkedto<anarchy>intheU.S.mythosandhasborneaconcretelinktothe“divine,”generativequalitiesofChaossincethebeginningoftheUnitedStates.Olson(1984)arguesthattheserpenticonwasamongthe“earliestpictorialsignsofacollectiveidentityamongthecolonies”(p.viii).Olson(1984)highlightsthat“thereligiousresonancesoftheserpentandeagleiconareintriguinginrelationtoAmericanpoliticallife.WhereastheserpentrepresentedSataninBiblicaltexts,theeaglerepresentedGodinDeuteronomy32:11”(pp.65-67).AsOlson(1984)continuestoexplain,“oncetheserpenticonbecamewholeitnolongerwouldhavespecifiedaparticularfolkbelief.Instead,itmoreeasilycould become associated with serpents that in the Judeo-Christian traditionrepresentedevil”(p.37).Yet,whentherepresentationoftheintactserpentwasgivenarattleitlostmuchofitsconnotativelyreligiouspotency(Olson,1984,pp.50-67).Nevertheless,Olson(1984)illustratestheredidexistassociativelinkagesoftheserpenticontothedevilaswellasothersortsofsocialtaboos.Considering

Framing<Anarchy>inCivicDiscourse13

theassociativerelationshipoftheserpent iconto“chaos,”Green(2006)notesthatduringtheGildedage,

tomostAmericans,anarchysimplymeantchaos,violence,anddisorder.Thewordhadbeenused,forexample,todescribeParisinthelasthorribledaysoftheParisCommuneandPittsburghin1877….AnarchywaseventhoughttohaveappearedintheArizonaTerritory,where,asonenewspaperhadit,the “savage” Apaches, “the Reds of America,” fought to preserve their“communalsystemofgovernment.”(p.131,p.336)

Here,“anarchy”isassociativelylinkedto“savages,”andinturnlinkedtocolonialnotionsofbeingless“civilized,”whereastheserpenticoncarriedconnotationsofevil.Referentstobeingbothlesscivilizedandtheserpentine“devil”cametobeincludedintheconstitutionof<anarchy>duringthelatenineteenthcentury. Alongwithreferencesto“savagery,”serpenticonographybecameacentralfeature in a political battle for power to subordinate the Chicago anarchist’s“freedom of speech” to the “rule of law,” prior to and after the Haymarketbombing.OnApril13,1887,thecoverofPuckmagazinefeaturedanillustrationinwhichthecityofChicagoispersonifiedasawomanwho“StranglestheVipersSheHasNourishedTooLong”(seeFigure).InFoss’s(2005)terms,thepresentedelements here include the “vipers” of “Carter Harrisonism” on the left and“anarchism” on the right, both anthropomorphized as serpents depicted ashavinghumanheads.Thesuggestedelements includeCarterHarrison’srole intheHaymarket fiasco.Hewas theactingmayorofChicagowhen thebombingoccurred, which was quickly attributed to anarchists. Just one day after theincident, the Chicago Tribune described Chicago’s anarchists in unflatteringterms.Green(2006)illustratesthis,citingtheMay5,1886,issue:

“After warming these frozen vipers on its breast and permitting them tobecome citizens,” America had been bitten by these “serpents” who hadbeen“warmedinthesunshineoftoleration.”(pp.201-202)

14J.D.Herman

“Order Reigns in Chicago!” Chaos is defeated by Chicago and <anarchy> isprofanedinthecoveroftheApril13,1887,issueofPuckmagazine.AcquiredfromJGAutographs,SKU#1179654-1.

AsGreen(2006)continues,“inthemiddleofthisreactionarystormwasMayorCarter Harrison, whom the press and the business community held partiallyresponsible for the attack on the police because he allowed the anarchists to

Framing<Anarchy>inCivicDiscourse15

speakandassemblefreely”(p.202).Harrisonwaseven“drivenfromofficeforallowingfreespeechtoanarchists”(Green,2006,p.289).Given theblameplacedonHarrison, another suggestedelement in the imageaboveisthepolitical“streetfight”thatexistedbetween<anarchy>and<freedomof speech>. This is presented in how “Chicago” is strangling the serpents,inhibitingtheircapacitytospeak. Theideaoftakingtoomuchlibertywithspeechisyetanotherassociativelinkbetween “anarchy” and the serpent in the Genesis narrative. (The serpent’sspeechinGenesisledtotheconceptoforiginalsin.)ConjuringtheantagonistoftheJudeo-Christianscriptures,variousnewspapersatthetimeresurrectedtheserpentmotifassynecdochicof<anarchy>.Burke(2004)looksathow“politicalcartoonistsdidtheworkofdehumanizinganarchistsbyfillinglocalnewspapersandnationalweeklieswithpicturesdepictinganarchistsliterallyasbeasts(usuallyasnake)”(p.239).AnotherexampleisgiveninaNovember16,1887issueofTheDeseret News, in an official statement offered by then-Governor, RichardOglesby.HedrawsontheserpentmotiftocharacterizetheChicagoanarchists.Healso implicatesMayorHarrisonasbeing“indifferent”towardstheirspeech,lamentingthat

cityauthoritiesaffectedforsomereasontoignoreallebullitionsofthemob.AsaresultofthisOFFICIALINDIFFERENCE,whenitcameatlastfortheeight-hourlabordisturbancesandthesimultaneousinaugurationofthesecretly-cherished“revolution,”theanarchistswereapowerindeed,andthepolicewere ignorant of the danger [emphasis in original]. (“Telegraphic News,”1887,p.693)

Whendiscussingtheburialprocessionforfiveofthecondemnedanarchists,Oglesby stated, “the route taken resembled nothing so much as a MONSTERBLACKSNAKE[emphasisinoriginal]”(“TelegraphicNews,”1887,p.701).Oglesbystressedthat,

insteadofagreatsashofred,therewasasimplestripofsilkribbon…fromtheheadofthecoffin[ofAlbertParsons]toalmostthecentreandwasthenstrungalongthefloorofthehearse….“ItissuggestiveOFASERPENT,”wastheremarkofanonlooker[emphasisinoriginal].(“TelegraphicNews,”1887,p.701)

The way that Mayor Carter Harrison was depicted in Puck, along with otherserpentinedepictionsofanarchists, showsa clearassociative linkagebetweentheserpentanduncleanliness.IntheJuly28,1894issueofJudgemagazine,this

16J.D.Herman

associativerelationshipisalsopresentinacaricatureofGovernorAltgeld,who,after pardoning the surviving anarchist convicts,was depicted as an anarchistengulfed inaplumeofsmokeordust (RosemontandRoediger,2012,p.169).Bothinstancesecho“SamuelEhrhat’scartoon,‘DustisDisease,’publishedinPuckat the turnof thecentury . . . [which]suggestedtheeasewithwhichmiasmicimagerywasused tocommunicatenewtheoriesaboutatmospheric infection”(Burke,2004,p.14).Eventhoughdustmaynothaveexplicitlyreferenceddiseaseatthetimetheseimageswereincirculation,bothinstantiationsof<anarchy>stillconjure the serpentof theGenesisnarrative, cursedbyGod toeatdust (Gen.3:14). The depictions of anarchists as serpents, alongwith the language used todescribe them, lends to the efficacy of visual metaphors to support theideographic function of <anarchy> manifesting as representations for theepitome of evil—the devil. This is bolstered by a statement Green (2006)provides,givenby“an influentialProtestantpreacher,ProfessorDavidSwing,”whocalledfor“‘acarefuldefinitionofwhatfreedomis’”(p.200).Thepreacherwentontostatethat‘“if[freedom]meansthelicensetoproclaimthegospelofdisorder,topreachdestruction,andscattertheseedsofanarchy...thesoonerweexchangetheRepublicforaniron-handedmonarchythebetteritwillbeforallofus”’(p.200).Followingthisthread,Green(2006)states,

ifallChristianChicagoansbelievedsocialordertobeordainedbyGod,thendisorderhadtobetheworkofthedevilandhisagents,wholivedonthedarksideoflifeinthiscityofsmoke.[…]Theanarchistsoftenmetatnight,plottingconspiraciesinsalooncellarsanddrillingtheirmilitiainbasementrooms.(p.201)

<Anarchy>inReviewIn this section, the “formal, categorical meaning” (McGee, 1980, p. 10) of<anarchy>isexplicatedtoshowhowitcametobeassociatedwiththeextremelyabstractnotionof“chaos,”andinturnassociatedwiththeserpentmotiffoundincreationnarrativeswhichgrewoutoftheFertileCrescent.Inturn,<anarchy>bearsanassociativelinktothePrinceofDarknessthroughitsassociativelinktoa divine Chaos. These associative links clearly manifested in Puck’santhropomorphizedserpents,aswellasthespeechofpoliticalactors. Thedefinitionof “anarchy”givenbyHobbes (2001)andLocke (1821)asastate of nature lacking government (which is distinct from the original Greekmeaning) adds to the conceptual binary opposition between civilization andnature.With“anarchy”beingastateofpurenaturewithoutaruler,theJudeo-

Framing<Anarchy>inCivicDiscourse17

ChristianserpentsynecdochicallyrepresentsacorruptnaturethataroseafterEvewas tempted in theGenesis creation narrative.Olson’s (1984) examination ofserpent iconology during the birth of the United States shows that theseassociativerelationshipshavecarriedon,atleast,intotheGildedAge. Theserpentinedepictionsof“anarchism”and“CarterHarrisonism”shortlyafter the Haymarket bombing highlight the political struggle for hegemoniccontrolover<anarchy>inrelationshipto<freedomofspeech>,andinturn<therule of law>. Behind this hegemonic battle were ideological notions of“civilization”versus“savagery.”Anarchywasconflatedwith ideasofbeingless“civilized.” The visual metaphor of serpents as anarchists evince how suchillustrations, and rhetoric that conjured similar referents, helped to establishconcreteinstantiationsof<anarchy>asavisionof“chaos.”ConclusionThisworkbeganbyframingthestudyaroundcurrentpoliticaldiscourseinwhicharelativeof“socialism”—“anarchy”—hasbeendeployedinpopularmedia.Thisis done to highlight how “anarchy,” in comparison to “socialism,” has fallendeeperintoobscuritysincethetimeitcametoprominenceinpoliticaldiscourse,giventhattheriseofnineteenthcenturyanarchismcameintandemwithsocialistmovements.O’Reilly’sreferenceto“anarchy”inlabelingtheBlackLivesMatterMovementan“anarchisticgroup,”alongwithWarren’susageof<anarchy> todescribe a government shutdown, show how the term has been pulled downfromthe ladderofabstraction. Inboth instances,aswellas inexamplesof itsusages during the nineteenth century, the formal meaning is employed tocharacterizenotatheoreticalbelief,butinstancesinterpretedbyinterlocutorstoexhibitsomethingmoreakinto“completedisorderandconfusion”(Chaos,n.d.). Thekeytoviewing<anarchy>asdistinctfromothernegativeideographsisthat it is notmerely subjugated to other ideographs. The “formal, categoricalmeaning”(McGee,1980,p.10)of<anarchy> includesacompleteantithesistoany<theruleof law>,andtheantithesisofa“godterm”ora“devil-term.” Itsdiachronicstructureisinoppositiontotheverynotionofbeingsubjectedtorule,hence lacking ideology. Its diachronic structure relies precisely on its “idea-content,”whichcanbedescribedashaving the ideological commitmentofnoideology. It is inthiswaythat<anarchy> isuniquelyflexible; it isan ideographthatisopposedtoparadigmaticmodesofconceptualizing“civilization.”Thiscasestudy shows how themeaning of <anarchy> relies on its “concrete history asusages,”yetcallsattentiontotheimportanceofthe“allegedidea-content,”orthe “precedent touchstones” of an ideograph’s usages that inform their

18J.D.Herman

subsequentusages(McGee,1980,p.10).Thediachronicstructureof<anarchy>points toward its function in U.S. political discourse as a negative ideograph,deployed by and in support of monopolistic capitalism. On the political left,<anarchy>isshowntobeusedclosertoitsdictionarysenseoflackingaruler—orlacking government. On the other end of the spectrum, the term has beenemployed similarly to how it was used during the nineteenth century—todemonizeworkingclasspeoplestrugglingagainstmonopolisticcapitalism. Amore recentexampleshows the importanceof including<anarchy> intorhetoricalstudies’vocabularyofideographs,andtheexigenceforscholarshiponitsusage,especiallywhenemployedtodemonizepeopleratherthanreferenceaphilosophicalidea.Duringthe2016RepublicanNationalConvention,DavidClarkeJr., aMilwaukee Sheriff, beganhis speechwith a jab at Black LivesMatter byreferencing a popular phrase used to counter themovement’s slogan, stating“bluelivesmatterinAmerica”(ABC15Arizona,2016).Heproceededtostatethat“whatwewitnessedinFerguson,andBaltimore,andBatonRougewasacollapseofthesocialorder.SomanyoftheactionsoftheOccupyMovementandBlackLivesMattertranscendpeacefulprotestandviolatesthecodeofconductwerelyon. I call it anarchy” (ABC15, 2016). This final example shows that there is ajustification to further look into how <anarchy> is functioning in politicaldiscourse,specifically inrelationshiptotheBlackLivesMatterMovement,andtherisingpopulistsentimentagainsteconomicandpoliceinjustice.References

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