from adaptation to standardization: the positive cycle of

Southern Business Review Southern Business Review

Volume 38 Issue 2 Article 3

June 2013

From Adaptation to Standardization: The Positive Cycle of Cross-From Adaptation to Standardization: The Positive Cycle of Cross-

Culturally Customized Communication Culturally Customized Communication

Mauro Csvallone University of Bergamo

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Mauro Cavallone is anassociate professor ofeconomics and businessmanagement, University ofBergamo, Bergamo, Italy.

From Adaptation to Standardization:The Positive Cycle of Cross-Culturally

Customized Communication

Mauro Cavallone

This work is based uponthe findings of de Mooij(2005), Okazaki (2007),Cavallone (2007; 2012),Michiels (2010), and Reinoza(2011) related to the conceptsof adaptation versusstandardization and culturallyand cross-culturallycustomized communication. Itconsiders the theoreticalconstructs associated withthese ideas, specificallyfocusing on thecommunication of Italiancompanies in foreign markets.

This research takes a stepforward with empiricalassessment of the perceptionsand experiences of potentialAmerican consumers of Italianproducts in contrast to acorresponding target market ofItalian nationals in Italy. Theobjective is to identify culturalconvergences and divergences

emerging from the analysis ofcommercial advertising in theAmerican media by testingtheir efficacy and comparingthe acceptances among similartargets residing in differentcountries.

The article falls within theadaptation versus standardiza-tion debate and emphasizesthe importance of the former,both from the point of view ofsatisfying technical needs andfrom the cultural and cross-cultural standpoint. Theresearch hypotheses are linkedto the desire to discover howan advertising message createdfor a certain country isperceived by different ethnicgroups and how culturalaspects influence thisperception. Those elements inthe different communicationsthat are not culturallyacceptable and those thatencourage acceptance havebeen pinpointed.

Beginning with a reviewand update of the recentliterature on the subject, thearticle continues with adescription of the

method proposed and adoptedfor the empirical analysis anda presentation of the resultsthat emerged and led to theconfirmation of the majority oftheoretical assumptionsinitially made.

From an operative point ofview, focus groups wereconducted with Americans andItalians who were showncommercials that had beenbroadcast in the U.S. byItalian companies. The results,of efforts to pinpoint andisolate the factors that weremodified compared with the“in country” communicationthat made the commercialseither culturally customized(acceptable to the Americans)or cross-culturally customized(acceptable at the same time toboth the ethnic groups),formed the subject of theanalysis.

Finally, the articleconcludes with theimplications for managementand with the proposed steps tobe taken for furtherdevelopment of the research.

Southern Business Review Summer 2013 1

Review of RecentLiterature

For some time,international literature hasdealt with the afore-mentioneddiatribe. Elinder (1961) wasthe first to enquire intoadapting the lever ofcommunication, a subject thatwas then investigated byElinder (1961,1965), Roostal(1963), Fatt (1964), andBuzell (1968). Globalizationhas continued to add freshfuel to the debate and ledseveral authors to highlightthe benefits of standardization(Agrawal, 1995; Belch, 1998;Chan, Li, Diehl,& Terlutter,2007; Hite & Frazer, 1988;Levitt, 1983). On one hand,Chan et al. (2007) point out,

[m]any marketers allover the world believethat consumers aroundthe world have similarneeds and desires andthat the global marketis becoming homo-geneous.

On the other, scholars such asUsunier (1990) and Vardar(1992) have highlighted thelow level efficacy of thisoption, especially when it iscompared with the culturalfactor (Walliser & Usunier,1998). As Vrontis (1999)states, the latter variablerepresents a significantrestraint and is the mostdifficult to control. Thisposition is confirmed by Jain(1996) and Chan et al. (2007)who underline in particularthe need to personalize

advertising messages, bearingin mind the culture of thepublic to whom they aredirected. What emerges fromthe literature is the convictionthat “[b]oth processes,internationalization andglobalization, coexist”(Dicken, 1998: 5) and thecertainty that, of the variousfactors that can orientmanagement toward theadaptation of the marketingmix and, in particular, ofcommunication, culture playsa leading role (Solberg, 2002).To this must be added the factthat advertising, in general,international communication,and the relationship betweenthem and culture, have beenthe object of studies anddebates in the literature1 forsome time and represent thesecond theoretical assumptionof this research. From theanalysis of these works, twovectors emerge in particular:the first is the focus, asreported by Okazaki (2007),on the concept of “culturalvalues.” As far as the conceptof values is concerned, themain references that haveinspired the majority ofliterature on cross-culturalcommunication lead back toRokeach (1968; 1973), Kahleand Timmer (1983), andMcCarty (1994). In recentyears, increased attention hasbeen given to the culturalvariable in academic spheres(De Mooij & Hofstede, 2011;Donoho, Hersche, & Swenson,2003; Kropp et al., 2000)although it was contemplatedfor a long time.

In 1968, Rokeach definesthe values as lastingconvictions as a way toconduct our existence; theyare elements that bring forth,in their turn, opinions anddesires. The same author in1973 distinguishes betweentwo levels of values: terminaland instrumental. The first aredesirable “final states,” forexample, a comfortable life-style, a sense of fulfillment,peace in the world, equality,and security. The second aredesirable “instruments ofconduct,” such as ambition,open-mindedness, ability, thatenable the previouslyconsidered final states to beattained. Subsequently, Kahleand Timmer (1983) putforward a different concept ofvalues, the so-called list ofvalues (LOV), consisting ofnine components. Given thateach individual has a uniqueset of values, some representthe foundations of a culture,which tend to permeate thesame (McCarty, 1994) and,therefore, they set themselvesapart from personal values.Such cultural values aretransmitted by a variety ofsources (family, media, school,church, and state) and tend tobe general, long-lasting, andrelatively stable. (Samovar,Porter, & Stefani, 1998).Research on the subject ofcultural values has also beenextended to include the impactof the same on consumerbehavior (Dawar & Parker,1994; Kahle, 2000;Steenkamp & Baumgartner,1998). Starting from this

2 Summer 2013 Southern Business Review

course of enquiries, Limon,Kahale, & Orth (2009)propose a differentclassification, dividing theminto internal, external, and funand enjoyment values.2 Onthis subject, McCracken(1986) investigates therelationship between valuesand brand, and Kim (2006)underlines the importance ofthe first as drivers to stimulatebrand attachment if the brandreflects the consumers’ values.According to Okazaki (2007),it is also possible to classifythe cross cultural marketingstudies dealing with thecultural dimension into threecategories on the basis of thereference approach: Hofstede’scultural dimensions,Schwartz’s cultural values,and the GLOBE study.Hofstede refers to fourmanifestations that identifyculture: values, heroes,symbols, and rituals (whichwere used as the basis for thecomparison of the commercialscarried out by the focusgroups) and four dimensionsused to classify the countries:distance from power,collectivism vs. individualism,masculinity vs. femininity,aversion to uncertainty. Tothese dimensions, the currentstudy follows Bond (1988)and adds a fifth: orientationtoward the long-term or theshort-term in the choices oflife. Schwartz (1992; 1994)provided a second type ofcultural value. The currentstudy distinguishes threecategories of basic socialproblems: the relationshipbetween individual and group,

ensuring a socially responsiblebehavior, and the role of mancompared with nature andwith society. Culturaladaptation to solve each ofthese problems leads toSchwartz’s seven dimensionsof culture. Finally, mentionmust be made of the work ofHouse and Hanges (2004),defined as the Globe Project,which pinpoints ninedimensions of culture and putsforward the distinctionbetween cultural values andpractices. In other words, theystigmatize the differencebetween what “should be,” inother words cultural values (orartificial values) and thatwhich “is,” in other wordscultural practices (or exposedvalues). Zou (2005) alsocarried out a census of cross-cultural marketing studies,classifying them according todifferent criteria including: the“standardization–localization”debate, consumers’ reactionsto advertising, the contents ofadvertising, social andnormative elements, culturalvalues, topics relative tointegrated marketingcommunication, internationaladvertising agencies, and themanagement of advertisingcampaigns. The previouslyinvestigated topic ofadaptation vs. standardizationplays a central role in cross-cultural marketing studies, asReinoza (2011) also pointsout. According to Michiels(2010), the ideal approach isto adapt the communication ina way that is coherent withlocal culture, an option that isconfirmed and supported by

the majority of researchers(Britt, 1974; Kanso, 1992;Rutigliano, 1986). Research Hypotheses An empirical assessment wasconsidered useful using themodel developed by Cavallone(2007; 2012) showing thepaths of marketing commun-ication development that canbecome culturally or cross-culturally customized. Thiscommunicative personalizationmay occur when the variouscultures are studied in-depth,the differences are exploitedand the threats aretransformed intoopportunities. The desire tomove from a “culture free”type of communication(Cuomo, 2006) to a “culturebound” one (Herbig, 2003)has encouraged the author toassume a more personalizedadvertising method based notonly upon the technical needs,but also on the cultural needsof consumers belonging todifferent ethnic groups. Thistheory originates fromHofstede’s classification of theconstituting elements to reachthe identification of two typesof communication, i.e.,“culturally” and crossculturally “customized,” thatdiffer from “translation only”and from adaptation in thestrictest sense (1991).Hofstede distinguishes fourmanifestations of culture:symbols, heroes, rituals, andvalues.

Symbols are “the words,gestures and images to which


a specific meaning isattributed that is only clear tothose who share the sameculture,” (Hofstede, 1991) asif they were codes (forexample, the words of alanguage or of a particularjargon, clothes, hairstyles,status symbols, or individualproducts like Coca-Cola orNike runners). These symbolsare also easily identifiable bythose who do not have thesame cultural background.

Heroes are represented bypeople (sometimes onlyimaginary) who are noticeableand recognisable (e.g., afootball player, a singer, anactor) for a specific society,and who, therefore, becomemodels of behavior for itsmembers.

Rituals are defined as“collective activitiesconsidered socially essential ina culture; examples includethe manner in which onegreets others (timeliness,warmth, distance), considera-tion for one’s fellow-men, orthe various behaviors linked tosocial moments or religiouspractices,” (Hofstede, 1991).

Values are set at thecenter of culture and aredefined by Rokeach (1973) as“permanent convictions which[sic] lead a person to choosebetween one way of behavingand another.”

These markers become thestructure used to analyze theacceptability of the commer-cials analyzed by the differenttargets taken into considera-tion. All the variables ofmarketing mix undergochanges and adaptations and

are rethought or reconsideredfrom the point of view of acultural “fit.” In particular,the marketing approaches ofdifferent companies wereanalyzed in order to verify ifthe messages were simplytranslated (into foreignlanguages) or were customizedor culturally adapted. As far asstandardization is concerned,“translation only” campaignscan be considered part of thefirst cluster. The advertise-ment has a standard structurebased upon the presentation ofa single message translatedinto different languages.

The advantage of thisapproach is that it isinexpensive to create andneeds only to be translatedinto another language(preferably by native speakersliving in the target countries toavoid using obsolete orconfusing language). As foradaptation, the path ofculturally customizedcommunication leads to aspecific personalization of themessage on the basis of thecultures present in the market.Such a personalization iscultural and not cross-culturaland targets a given niche butdoes not exploit commonelements of other culturespresent except by default(Table 1).

The various targets areconsidered in this way andsubdivided into those referringto the residents of the foreigncountry and those for theresidents of the country oforigin. The process isdescribed as follows.Supposing the culture of the

target resident in the foreigncountry is characterized bydisplays “a,” “b,” “c,” and“d” and that of the residentsof the target country of originby the expressions “a,” “z,”“v,” and “d.” It is alreadyclear that “a” and “d” arecommon to the two culturalgroups. A first hypothesis ofcommunication(s) turns to thetwo targets and is linked tothe idea of an undifferentiatedA message is put into effectwithout borrowing anythingparticular from culturalspheres. Such options, whichcan be linked back to massmarketing, try for the mostpart to “push for a ‘media’communication—which,therefore, somewhat pleasesand displeases everybody—defining a wider coveringspecter of consumer demandsand preferences” (Mattiacci,2000). With this kind ofmessage, the company cancommunicate to its target thebenefits of the offer, high-lighting the characteristics ofthe merchandise rather thanthe economic advantages.

Alternatively, a culturalcustomization of communica-tions can be implemented,declining it in the two versionsA1 and A2, that are broughtabout on the basis of themanifestations of culturecharacterizing anddistinguishing the two publicobjectives. This is equal tosaying that expressions “b”and “c” concern residents inthe foreign country and “z”and “v” residents in thecountry of origin. This


Table 1The Matrix of Culturally Customized Communications (Adapted by Cavallone, 2007)

Undifferentiated Message Culturally Customized Message

Residents in the foreign country(Cultural manifestations:“a,” “b,” “c,” “d”)

A A1 = f (“b,” “c”)

Residents in the country of origin(Cultural manifestations:“a,” “z,” “v,” “d”)

A A2 = f (“z,” “v”)

method, which may seemlimited and obsolete if aheterogeneous andmulticultural audience isconsidered, represents thepractice adopted until recentlyfor the creation of advertisingcampaigns. Such a methodrefers back to classic “incountry” communication inwhich cultural personalizationis linked to values present inthe residents of the foreigncountry, or the samecommunication is personalizedin a “foreign” version,introducing changes linked tothe nation in question. It isclear to see that it is moredifficult for an undifferenti-ated message to be perceivedcorrectly by those belonging toa different culture comparedwith those belonging to theculture that created it; theculturally customized messageaims to identify somedistinctive elements of thedifferent cultures upstreamand insert them in the specificmessage for that target.

The last communicativemethod is more complex toimplement, but is more strictlyreferred to as cross-cultural

philosophy. In cross-culturalcommunication, a singlemessage is created that iscapable of crossing variouscultures and stresses theircommon elements in order toencompass all cultural targets.Table 1 explains thisstatement. Rather thanculturally customizedcommunication, the companycan opt for a cross-culturalpersonalization, producing justone message “B,” which isbased upon the culturalmanifestations shared by thetwo target audiences, in otherwords expressions “a” and “d”(Table 2).

An example of cross-cultural communication isrepresented by Coca Cola’s“Applause” advertisement inArgentina and Italy, which isbroadcast in the two countrieswith the only modificationbeing the translation of thetext from Spanish into Italian.The obvious difficulty lies inthe study of different culturespresent in a single country andin identifying commonelements to be transferred todifferent targets using thesame message. Consequently,

it is not merely creativedifficulty nature but relates tothe availability of researcherswho are able to understandand recognize the differentcultures. Moreover, theapproach adopted by manycompanies often results in akind of ethnocentricity. Theresearch on a given culture isplanned and led by peoplebelonging to the same culture,who are often unaware of ormisunderstand other cultures,and interpret the results onlyon the basis of their ownnorms and values.3

The ResearchMethodology Adopted

For the empirical analysisa qualitative approach waschosen. This methodology isuseful when the purpose of theresearch is to explainconsumers’ attitudes andbehavior, taking intoconsideration the underlyingcognitive and emotionalstructures. To perform theresearch described in thisarticle, three focus groupswere conducted with groups ofpeople of two different


Table 2The Matrix of Cross-culturally Customized Communications (Adapted by Cavallone, 2007)

Undifferentiated Message Culturally Customized Message

Residents in the foreign country(Cultural manifestations:“a,” “b,” “c,” “d”) A1 = f (“b,” “c”) B = f (“a,” “d”)

Residents in the country of origin(Cultural manifestations:“a,” “z,” “v,” “d”)

A2 = f (“z,” “v”) B = f (“a,” “d”)

nationalities: American andItalian. Each work groupconsisted of 8 subjects agedbetween 19 and 22 who wereheterogeneous from the pointof view of gender but uniformfrom the socio-cultural pointof view. The discussiongroups, each lasting about 90minutes, were conducted andmoderated both in an “open”and a “semi-structured” way,according to the objectivesthat the research aimed tocover (Hutchby & Wooffit,1998). In particular, theoutline of the discussion wasbased upon a demonstration ofHofstede’s theory whichprovides for fourmanifestations of culture:values, symbols, heroes andrituals (Trentini, 1995). Thestimuli used during thediscussion groups wereselected televisioncommercials.

After the presentation ofthe commercials, the followinginformation was collected:

• assessment of theperceptions;

• list of the converging/diverging elements;

• opinions about how tomodify the commercials tomake them culturallyacceptable (only for theItalians); and

• hypotheses concerning themodifications to make thecommercial cross-cultural(only for the Italians).

The groups’ conversation wasrecorded, transcribed andanalyzed. The analysis of theresulting material includedboth verbal and non-verbalaspects and was backed by aconversational analysis(Hutchby & Wooffit, 1998).

The Main EvidenceRaised

For each commercialshown, a description of thetelevision commercial, a tablecomparing the perception ofeach ethnic group divided intothe four descriptive variablesof culture according toHofstede (heroes, symbols,rituals and values), a briefcomment on the convergenceof the four drivers as well asthe elements stated in theprevious paragraph linked to

the acceptance, refusal, and/orfine tuning of the commercialis reported.

The commercials examinedwere

• Fiat 500 “Immigrants”;

• Fiat 500 “Abarth”;

• Barilla “Plus”; and

• Barilla “Perfect night,”

which concern, amongstothers, some of the mainsectors of Italian exports.

Fiat 500 “Immigrants”Commercial

The commercial4 is setagainst a characteristiclandscape of Southern Italyand shows some colorful Fiat500 cars speeding alongnarrow coastal roads. Oncethey reach the sea, they diveinto the water accompanied bya traditional Neapolitan songin the background. The Fiat500s re-emerge in New Yorkand arrive in Manhattanwhere, on the notes of arhythmic hip-hop song, theyare admired by passers-by for


their unique style. The“values” that stood out for theAmericans were family,adventure, fun, immigration,and happiness. Italianromanticism, which differsfrom those picked out by theItalians, were energy,versatility, Italian character,practicality, and light-heartedness. The Americanspicked out various “heroes”:the fisherman, the cyclist, the

migrant, the bride and groom;the only “hero” that emergesfor the Italian group is the Fiat500 car. On the contrary, asfar as the “rituals” areconcerned, the Americansmentioned fishing, going tothe beach, going for a boatride, and immigrating; theItalians identified driving,getting married, going onholiday, and emigrating.

Finally, the “symbols” pickedout by the Americans were theStatue of Liberty, Brooklynbridge, the Fiat logo, the luxury car, New York and thebright colors of the Italianlandscape; the Italiansmention the soundtrack, thesea and the sun, the bride andgroom, Brooklyn bridge, thecolors, and the typicallandscapes of Southern Italy.

Table 3Cross-cultural Analysis of the Fiat 500 “Immigrants” Commercial

(The bold elements represent the main convergences.)

Americans Italians

Values EnergyFamilyAdventureFunImmigrationOld world/New worldHappinessItalian prideItalian romanticismTenacityMarriageYouthFriendshipBeautyFreedomLuxuryDiversityAudacityExploringCultureResistance, sturdinessHumorRecklessness

EnergyVersatilityItalian character (always with you)SimplicityAdaptabilityPracticalityLight-heartednessCheerfulnessFriendlinessUniquenessMediterranean lifestyle


Americans Italians

Heroes The carFishermanCyclistImmigrantThe priestThe bride and groomA romantic Italian town by the seaEuropean waiter

Fiat 500

Rituals ImmigrationMarriage Driving in the Italian countrysideGoing to the beachCulture of coffee FishingCyclingGoing for a boat rideEating togetherGoing shopping

ImmigrationMarriageDrivingHolidaysAttracting attentionGoing ashore

Symbols Brooklyn bridgeWinding roadsBright colorsItalian flagAmerican cityStatue of LibertyEuropean settingEuropean waiterCastleFiat carLuxury carItalian villa BeachBoats

Brooklyn bridgeItalian countrysideColorsItalian flagAmerican cityEmigrationLocationSouth ItalyBride and groomSunSeaSong (Italian and American)Cyclist on the side of the road

Fiat 500 “Abarth”Commercial

In the Fiat 500 Abarth5

commercial, destined for theNorth American market andset in a city street on apavement lined with a row oflarge cars, is an attractive girlwho is adjusting her sandal ina provocative pose and ayoung office worker during hisbreak who cannot take his

eyes off her. The girl turns tothe boy and reproaches him inItalian for looking at her. Theboy is totally captivated by thegirl’s beauty, and, when shefinally seems to show somesigns of interest in him, hecomes back to reality: insteadof the girl, he finds himself infront of a Fiat 500 Abarth inblack and red, the same colorsas the girl’s dress. The

commercial ends with somedriving sequences and an off-screen voice which says, “TheFiat 500 Abarth—You’ll neverforget the first time you seeone.” Comparing the resultsthat emerged from the focusgroups with Hofstede’s theoryof cultural manifestations, itcan be affirmed that both theAmerican and the Italianinterviewees pinpoint as


“values” appearance, beauty,and sensuality. The Americansalso perceive those of styleand luxury, while the Italiansidentify passion, both for awoman and for a car, powerand energy, temptation andtransgression. There is aconvergence regarding theidentification of the “heroes”;both groups identify theordinary young man, who isnice but not particularly good-looking, in other words an“average man,” and thefascinating seductress. Underthe heading “rituals,” both theAmerican and the Italianinterviewees identify drinkingcoffee, which has been definedand interpreted both as havinga break and having breakfast.The second ritual pinpointedby both groups is that ofseduction: the girl’s behaviorhas been interpreted as anattempt to seduce the maleprotagonist. The “symbols”mentioned are the scorpiontattooed on the girl’s neck andthe Abarth logo together withthe colors of the girl’s dressand the car (red and black),interpreted by both groups asa metaphor of passion,elegance, and mystery.

Barilla “Plus” CommercialThe commercial6 begins

with the image of a countryhouse in the middle of theItalian hills. The familywelcomes the aunt who hasarrived from America and she,in turn, shows an interest inthe presence of a good-lookingneighbor. After hugging eachother, the two sisters go into

the kitchen where the aunt iscomplimentary about thechoice of pasta and underlinesthat Barilla plus isrecommended for preparing ahealthy dish of pasta for allthe family. The commercialends with the family aroundthe table and the good-lookingneighbor who says, “Perfetto,”after tasting the pasta, allagainst a background songsung by Andrea Bocelli. Theopinions of the two groupsinterviewed about thiscommercial are similar. Underthe heading “values,” bothtargets mentioned family, love,serenity, wholesomeness; asfar as the “heroes” areconcerned, the groups pickedout the good-looking neighbor,the aunt, the family, themother. The “rituals”identified are lunchingtogether, cooking, hugging,eating healthily; the“symbols” recognized by theItalians and the Americans arethe Barilla logo, the Italiancountryside, and the family.

Barilla “Perfect Night”Commercial

This commercial7 beginswith the meeting between thetwo leading characters, a manand a woman, during anelegant party by the light ofthe moon. The candles, themoon reflecting in the waterand the landscape make thesetting very romantic. A thirdprotagonist of the commercialis a plate of pasta that theyoung couple decide to share.The couple find themselveseating the same piece of

spaghetti which breaks,shattering the magic moment.The off-screen voice says:“Don’t ruin the moment. PastaBarilla—always al dente forthe perfect night.” The settingchanges. The couple is now inthe kitchen cooking a dish ofBarilla spaghetti with cherrytomatoes and basil. Thecommercial ends with the twosweethearts sharing a piece ofspaghetti, but this timedrawing together in a kiss.“Volare” by Modugno isplayed as the backgroundsong. The “values” highlightedby the American group arerelationships, attraction,romance, love, arousal, andjoy; those of the Italian groupare love, intimacy, complicity,elegance, quality, andromance. Several similaritiesbetween the two groups as faras the “heroes” are concernedare Lady and the Tramp (WaltDisney), the perfect couple,and pasta. The “rituals”identified by the Americansare the romantic dinner,cooking, watching TV,socialising, and seducing; forthe Italians, they are theromantic dinner, the first date,the kiss, eating together, andthe amorous evening. Underthe heading “symbols,” for theAmerican focus group thewords moon, Barilla spaghetti,the kiss with the spaghetti,candles, and elegant partywere mentioned; while, for theItalians, reference was madeto Modugno’s song, spaghetti,pasta al dente, basil, the kisswith the same piece ofspaghetti.


Table 4Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Fiat 500 “Abarth” Commercial


Americans ItaliansValues Appearance

SensualityStyleLuxury

Beauty SensualityPassion for a woman and for a carPower, Performance, EnergyTransgression, Temptation, Melodrama

Heroes “Average man” protagonist Fascinating woman

Ordinary man protagonist, a good boyProvocative woman, temptress,unattainable

Rituals Coffee

Seduction Average man who flirts with a fascinatingwoman

Cappuccino, Coffee break, BreakfastSeduction

Symbols ScorpionColors of the dress (mystery, elegance,passion)Coffee

ScorpionColors (elegance and passion)

CappuccinoFascinating and provocative womanAutomatic gearItalian language

Table 5Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Barilla “Plus” Commercial


Americans ItaliansValues Family

LoveJoy HealthRelationsHappinessTraditionsCookingMaternityEleganceSerenityUnityHome

FamilyLoveCheerfulnessCompanyLove at first sightFriendshipComplicityGetting on well together, sharingConvivialityWholesomenessItalian characterUnionUniquenessHappiness


Americans ItaliansHeroes The neighbor

Good-looking Italian boyThe sister The strangerThe motherFriends

The good-looking neighbor

The aunt from AmericaFamilySpaghetti

Rituals Dinner with the familyCooking together

HuggingPreparing a healthy mealHoliday with the familyComplimenting each otherVisits from relations

Having lunch togetherCooking togetherEating togetherHuggingEating healthilyCooking the pasta

Symbols Italian villaTuscan countryside

FamilyBarilla logoField of wheatThe kitchenThe car

FarmhouseHills, CountrysideTypical Italian landscapeFamily with Anglo-Saxon featuresBocelli’s songBeing happy to be with the family The good-looking neighborSpaghetti

Table 6Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Barilla “Perfect Night” Commercial


Americans ItaliansValues Elegance

RomanticismLoveRelationshipsAttraction SpontaneityFunJoySexMysteryArousalSocialization

EleganceRomanticismLoveIntimacyComplicitySensualityGenuineness of real thingsPasta al denteShared passionQualityItalian characterSharing

Heroes The loversThe romantic coupleLady and the Tramp (Walt Disney)

Good-looking man Entrepreneurs

The perfect couple

Lady and the Tramp (Walt Disney)Pasta


Americans ItaliansRituals Romantic dinner

KissingCookingEating togetherDate Watching TVSeducingSocializingKiss with piece of spaghetti

Romantic dinner for two people inloveFinal kissCookingEating together First dateDining at tablePasta, cherry tomatoes and basilMeeting at a partyAn amorous evening

Symbols Barilla spaghettiKiss with a piece of spaghettiBasilThe moonBarilla Marinara sauceCandlesBody languageCookingOff-screen voice with Italian accentForksBlack clothesElegant party

Spaghetti Kiss with a piece of spaghettiBasilModugno’s song Male character with typicallyMediterranean featuresLady and the Tramp (Walt Disney)Pasta al denteColours of the Italian flag

To sum up, it is possibleto construct a hierarchy of thestimuli compared with thelevel of understanding andacceptability on the part of thevarious ethnic groups involvedin the study. From thecommercial with the highestlevel of cross-culturalunderstanding to the onewhich appears to be morespecific for the Americancontext, they can be placed inthe following order:

• Fiat 500 “Abarth”

• Barilla “Plus”

• Fiat 500 “Immigrants”

• Barilla “Perfect night”

As Table 7 shows, for theFiat 500 Abarth commercial,the analysis underlines manyconvergences: the symbols,rituals, heroes, and valuespinpointed in most casesoverlap and are, in general,acceptable. The element thatled to some debate in theItalian group was the culturalacceptability of the seductivegestures made by the leadingfemale character, which wereconsidered normal for anadvertisement and not at alloffensive by the Americancounterpart.

With regard to the BarillaPlus commercial, when theItalian group was asked aboutthe possibility of showing thecommercial in Italy, it

emerged that it could workinsofar as it recalls traditionalItalian values of the familyand eating a plate of pastatogether at table (see Table 8).The only doubt concerned theAnglo-Saxon traits of theleading characters. To beeffective in Italy, thecommercial would have to useactors with moreMediterranean features.

For the “Immigrants”advertisement, from the focusgroups it emerges that theAmericans are fascinated bythe first part and see Italy as afaraway place where theycould spend their holidays.The Italians were struck by theadvertisement, but do not


Table 7Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Fiat 500 “Abarth” Commercial

(Main Convergences)

Americans ItaliansValues Appearance

SensualityBeautySensuality

Heroes “Average man” protagonistFascinating woman

Ordinary man protagonist, a good boyProvocative woman, temptress,unattainable

Rituals CoffeeSeduction

Cappuccino, Coffee break, BreakfastSeduction

Symbols ScorpionColours of the dress (mystery, elegance,passion)Coffee

ScorpionColours (elegance and passion) Cappuccino

Table 8Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Barilla “Plus” commercial

(Main Convergences)

Americans ItaliansValue Family

LoveJoy

FamilyLoveCheerfulness

Heroes The neighborGood-looking Italian boyThe sister

The good-looking neighbor The aunt from America

Rituals Dinner with the familyCooking together

Having lunch togetherCooking togetherEating togetherHuggingEating healthily

Symbols

Italian villaTuscan countryside Family

FarmhouseHills, CountrysideTypical Italian landscapeFamily with Anglo-Saxon features

think that it would work inItaly because the last partreminds viewers of a sort ofescape from the “Bel Paese.”Despite the convergences ofthe “Perfect Night”commercial by Barilla, for theItalian public the situation is

rather improbable, as they areused to eating spaghetti morewith the family and friendsrather than on formal orromantic occasions.

Table 9 just shows all theconvergences that emergedfrom the comparisons with the

two targets. Apart from theobservations made in thecomments concerning theTables 7 and 8, this summarytable highlights the fact thatthe “values” box of the Fiat500 “Immigrants” commercialhas been left empty for both


targets confirming that it isnot completely transferable.As far as the Barilla “perfectnight” commercial isconcerned, although conver-gences were noted in all fourelements, the extensiveinterviews with the Italiantarget highlighted that, for theItalian public, the situationportrayed in the commercial israther improbable.

The issues examined untilnow have led to a newconclusion that at first mayappear incompatible with thestatements made on theprevious pages. In fact, theauthor considered standardiza-tion and adaptation asdichotomous and chose thelatter to communicateeffectively in the foreigncountry following theapproach presented in thepaper. What sometimes happens is that, a path ofcross-cultural communicationis followed, the possibility of a“return” standardizationpresents itself, which is linkedto the fact that the efforts forcultural and cross-culturaladaptation made upstreammay be accepted by a differenttarget from the one for whichthey were actually created,leading to an economic benefitfor the company. This is thecase of the Fiat 500 Abarthcommercial. Devising aspecific communication for theAmerican market enabled it tobe effective for that country;the subsequent cultural andcross-cultural assessmentmade by the focus group inItaly confirmed theconvergence of some elements

shown in the advertisementmaking the commercialsuitable for use in anothercountry with an evidentbenefit linked to the fact that the commercial has alreadybeen produced and thechanges needed may belimited just to a modification/translation of the commentary.In fact, this has occurred inItaly where the sameadvertisement has been shownto advertise the Fiat 500S.This leads to the concept ofthe positive cycle of culturallycustomized communication or“return” standardizationshown in Figure 1.

The diagram begins with thechoice of adapting the messageaccording to the specificrequirements of the foreignmarket taken into considera-tion (1. Adaptation) which,apart from the aspects linkedto the language, also takes intoconsideration elements such asthe culture of the country (2.Cultural adaptation). From anassessment of theconvergences and divergencesbetween the different cultures(3. Fit between differentcultures), cross-culturaladaptation is reached (4),which, with fine tuning linkedto the language of the country,leads to return standardization(5).

Implications forManagement

The results of the researchhighlight some implications formanagement. Since 1991,Hofstede has been tracing asort of pathway for managers

and affirms that “theacquisition of interculturalcommunication skills occurs inthree phases: awareness,knowledge and ability,”(Hofstede, 1991). Accordingto the author, the threeelements constituting suchexpected behaviors refer firstlyto the recognition of theexistence of different cultures,followed by the phase ofacceptance of the diversities,and concludes with the desireto modify communications andbehaviors. In other words,when referring to the heading“modify,” the opportunity ofbeing able to create messagesthat are culturally acceptableimmediately to various ethnicgroups present in the countryat the same time comes tomind. Visconti and Napolitano(2008) identify intransculturalism and in inter-cultural marketing theapproach that marketing musttake in order to pinpointstrategies “suitable forworking on elements sharedby several ethnic-nationalgroups.” Managers must,therefore, recognize“upstream” if they can use astandardized type ofadvertising in severalcountries or if they need tomodify it in order to reflectthe local languages andcultures, bearing in mind thatthe appeal can be interpreteddifferently by people with adifferent cultural background. If carefully assessed culturaland cross-cultural adaptationis chosen, it seems clear thateconomic savings can be made


Table 9Cross Culturally Shared Elements

Fiat 500 Abarth Barilla Plus Fiat 500 Immigrants Barilla Perfect nightS Americans Italians Americans Italians Americans Italians Americans ItaliansH V

AL

AppearanceSensuality

Beauty Sensuality

FamilyLoveJoy

FamilyLoveCheerfulness

Energy EnergyVersatility

Elegance RomanticismLove

EleganceRomanticismLove

A HEROES

“Averageman”protagonist Fascinatingwoman

Ordinarymanprotagonist,a good boyProvocativewoman,temptress,unattainable

TheneighborGood-lookingItalian boyThe sister

The good-lookingneighbor

The auntfrom America

The loversThe romanticcoupleLady and theTramp (WaltDisney)

The perfectcouple

Lady and theTramp (WaltDisney)

R RITUALS

Coffee

Seduction

Cappuccino,Coffeebreak,BreakfastSeduction

Dinner with thefamilyCookingtogether

HuggingPreparing a healthymeal

HavinglunchtogetherCookingtogetherEatingtogetherHuggingEatinghealthily

ImmigrationMarriage Driving inthe ItaliancountrysideGoing to thebeach

ImmigrationMarriageDrivingHolidays

Romanticdinner

KissingCookingEatingtogetherDate

Romanticdinner fortwo people inloveFinal kissCookingEatingtogether First date

E

D

SYMBOLS

ScorpionColours ofthe dress(mystery,elegance,passion)Coffee

ScorpionColours(eleganceand passion)

Cappuccino

Italian villaTuscancountryside

Family

FarmhouseHills,CountrysideTypicalItalianlandscapeFamily withAnglo-Saxonfeatures

BrooklynbridgeWindingroadsBrightcoloursItalian flagAmericancity

BrooklynbridgeItaliancountrysideColoursItalian flagAmericancity

BarillaspaghettiKiss with a piece ofspaghettiBasil

Spaghetti Kiss with apiece ofspaghettiBasil


Figure 1The Positive Cycle of Culturally Customized Communication

deriving from the possibility ofspreading the advertisingmessage from one country toanother just with a simpletranslation. In fact theassessment of the cultural fitallows companies to benefitfrom cost advantages derivingfrom the use of the same

commercial with a simpletranslation which herebecomes the point of arrivaland not the point of departurein communication strategy.

This is also confirmed bythe literature (Cavusgil, Zou, &Naidu, 1993; Samiee & Roth,1992; Szymanski, Bharadwaj,

& Varadarajan, 1993), whichhighlights “links between afirm’s adaptation strategy inits international marketingprogram and the firm’sperformance” (Albaum & Tse,2001: 59).


Conclusions andLimitations of theResearch

In the author’s opinion, thefirst step toward addressingthe technical andcommunications needs ofthose dealing with foreignmarkets is to start from theadaptation of communication.Cultural adaptation representsthe extra step that enables thecreated product to be re-usedonce it has been provenacceptable to other ethnicgroups/countries. At least twoeconomic benefits are linkedwith this type of attitude:firstly, the costs incurred toadapt a commercial are lowerthan those in the case of anincomplete acceptance of thestandard message, to whichthe figurative costs must beadded linked with the damageto the company’s image aswell as those for making a newadvertising message. Thesecond benefit arises as aresult of the positive cycle ofcross-culturally customizedcommunication, in otherwords, what has been definedas return standardization,which enables a messagecreated for a specific countryto be used in another countryas well. In this case, the finetuning may be limited just tothe translation of the text,which radically changes theconcept of standardizationthat becomes a point of arrivaland not a point of departure ofcommunication strategy.

The limitations of this workderive from the fact that thefocus groups were only

conducted in two countries,the United States and Italyand only two sectors, food andcars, were considered. Boththe variables will be subject tofurther research in the futureto assess the extendibility ofthe concepts mentioned brieflyin Figure 1. A furtherlimitation is linked to whetherthe messages identified asbeing cross-culturallyacceptable (e.g., Fiat 500Abarth and at least partiallyBarilla Plus) are actuallybroadcast in another country:this represents the realactualization of the processthat the author undertakes toaccomplish by contacting thetwo companies considered inthe research. In fact, this hasalready happened with theFiat 500 Abarth commercial,which has also been shown inItaly. When these latterelements have been confirmed,the standardization–adaptationdilemma will no longer be adichotomous doubt becausefrom adaptation, it will bepossible to achieve “return”standardization.

Endnotes1. Between 1995 and 2006,106 articles were publishedon this subject in the mostimportant internationalmarketing magazines.

2. According to Limon,Kahale, and Orth,

[i]nternal values implythat the person believesthat he or she can controlvalue fulfilment; internal

value facets include self-fulfilment, self-respect,and accomplishment.Internally oriented peoplestrive for control of theirlife outcomes and believethat their success is dueonly to their own effortsand achievements. Incontrast, external valuesemphasize fulfilmentbeyond the control of theindividual person and arecharacterized byattributes such as beingwell respected, security, asense of belonging, andwarm relationships withothers. Externallyoriented people do notclosely link their actionsto outcomes because theytend to believe thatevents are influencedthrough external sources,specifically other people.The last dimension, funand enjoyment values,includes the facets ofexcitement, fun, andenjoyment. People whogreatly value fun andenjoyment hold elementsof both external andinternal values becausethey can experience funeither through interactionwith other people or bythemselves (2009: 33).

3. Costa’s view:

today, the great part ofpublications on cross-cultural marketing andthe behavior of theconsumer is ethnocentricand methodologicallyweak. Ethnocentric


studies are research on aculture shaped andconducted by peoplebelonging to this culture.If they know little ofother cultures theyassume the existence ofsimilarities betweenindustrialized countriesand consider culture aconstant; the results areinterpreted and discussedwith regard to the norms,values and dominantprocesses of theresearchers and areconsidered universal. Toget beyond these limitsresearchers are beginningto elaborate theoriesrelevant to their culturein other cultures with theaim of expanding thepower of the theory,individuating similaritiesand differences betweencultural conditions,extend the range ofindependent variablesand their effects on thedependent variablesinvolved (1995).

4. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKUrYf1z9Bg

5. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fMjavRu4v5c

6. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZgO_YhAPYdE

7. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajO-uacZ1Ro

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