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From words to features to trees: Computing a world tree of

languages from word lists

Gerhard Jäger

Tübingen University

Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies

October 16, 2017

Gerhard Jäger (Tübingen) Words to trees HITS 1 / 45

Introduction

Introduction


Introduction

Language change and evolution

�The formation of di�erent languages and of distinct species, and theproofs that both have been developed through a gradual process, arecuriously parallel. [...] We �nd in distinct languages striking homologiesdue to community of descent, and analogies due to a similar process offormation. The manner in which certain letters or sounds change whenothers change is very like correlated growth. [...] The frequent presenceof rudiments, both in languages and in species, is still more remarkable.[...]Languages, like organic beings, can be classed in groups under groups;and they can be classed either naturally according to descent, orarti�cially by other characters. Dominant languages and dialects spreadwidely, and lead to the gradual extinction of other tongues.�

(Darwin, The Descent of Man)


Introduction


Vater Unser im Himmel, geheiligt werde Dein

Name

Onze Vader in de Hemel, laat Uw Naam

geheiligd worden

Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name

Fader Vor, du som er i himlene! Helliget vorde

dit navn


Introduction



Introduction


Mittelhochdeutsch:Got vater unser, dâ du bist in dem himelrîche

gewaltic alles des dir ist, geheiliget sô werde dîn

nam

Althochdeutsch:Fater unser thû thâr bist in himile, si giheilagôt

thîn namo

Gotisch:Atta unsar þu in himinam, weihnai namo þein


Introduction

Convergent evolution

Old English docga >English dog

Proto-Paman *gudaga >Mbabaram dog (`dog')


Introduction

Language phylogeny

Comparative method

1 identifying cognates, i.e. obviously related

morphemes in di�erent languages, such as

new/nowy, two/dwa, or water/voda

2 reconstruction of common ancestor and sound lawsthat explain the change from reconstructed to

observed forms

3 applying this iteratively leads to phylogenetic

language trees


Introduction

Similarity between languages


Introduction



Introduction

Language phylogeny

Scope of the method

reconstructed vocabulary shrinks with growing time depth

maximal time horizon seems to be about 8,000 years

grammatical morphemes and categories arguably more stable and less apt to

borrowing

problem here: limited number of features, cross-linguistic variation constrained

by language universals, frequently convergent evolution

comparative method is hard to apply in regions with high linguistic diversity and

without written documents (Paleo-America, Papua)

tree structure might be inappropriate if there is a signi�cant e�ect of language

contact (cf. Australia)


Introduction

Computational Methods

both cognate detection and tree construction lend themselves to algorithmic

implementation

Advantages:

easy to scale upcomparability of resultsa�ords statistical evaluation

Disadvantages:

cognacy judgments require lots of linguistic insight and experiencetree construction should be subject to historical (including archeological) and geographicalplausibility


Introduction

From words to trees

word alignments

cognate classes

character matrix

phylogenetictree

soundsimilarities

Swadesh lists

trainingpair-Hidden Markov Model

applyingpair-Hidden Markov Model

classification/clustering

feature extraction

Bayesianphylogenetic

inference


Introduction

From words to trees

word alignments

cognate classes

character matrix

phylogenetictree

soundsimilarities

Swadesh lists

trainingpair-Hidden Markov Model

applyingpair-Hidden Markov Model

classification/clustering

feature extraction

Bayesianphylogenetic

inference

Khois

an

Niger-Congo

Nilo

-Sah

aran

Afro-A

siatic

Indo

-Eur

opea

n

Ura

licAltai

c

Ainu

Nak

h-D

aghe

stan

ian

Dra

vidia

n

Sin

o-T

ibeta

n

Hm

ong-M

ien Ta

i-Kadai

Austro

-Asia

tic

Austronesian

Sepik

Torricelli

Tim

or-

Alo

r-Pa

nta

r

Trans-NewGuinea

Australian

NaDeneAlgic

Uto-A

ztec

an

Salis

h

Penutian

Hok

an

Otom

anguean

May

an

Chibchan

Tucanoan

Panoan

Que

chua

n

Arawakan

Cariban

Tupian

Macro-Ge

Trans-NewGuinea

Trans-NewGuinea

Trans-NewGuinea

Otomanguean

Torricelli

SE Asia

America

Pap

ua

Austra

lia/P

apua

NW Eurasia

Subsahar

an

Africa


From word lists to distances




The Automated Similarity Judgment Program

Project at MPI EVA in Leipzig around Søren Wichmann

covers more than 6,000 languages and dialects

basic vocabulary of 40 words for each language, in uniform phonetic transcription

freely available

used concepts: I, you, we, one, two, person, �sh, dog, louse, tree, leaf, skin, blood, bone, horn, ear,

eye, nose, tooth, tongue, knee, hand, breast, liver, drink, see, hear, die, come, sun, star, water, stone,

�re, path, mountain, night, full, new, name



Automated Similarity Judgment Project

concept Latin English

I ego Ei

you tu yu

we nos wi

one unus w3n

two duo tu

person persona, homo pers3n

�sh piskis �S

dog kanis dag

louse pedikulus laus

tree arbor trileaf foly∼u* lif

skin kutis skin

blood saNgw∼is bl3d

bone os bon

horn kornu horn

ear auris ir

eye okulus Ei

concept Latin English

nose nasus nos

tooth dens tu8

tongue liNgw∼E t3N

knee genu ni

hand manus hEnd

breast pektus, mama brest

liver yekur liv3r

drink bibere drink

see widere si

hear audire hirdie mori dEi

come wenire k3m

sun sol s3n

star stela star

water akw∼a wat3r

stone lapis ston

�re iNnis fEirGerhard Jäger (Tübingen) Words to trees HITS 17 / 45


Word distances

based on string alignment

baseline: Levenshtein alignment ⇒ count matches and mis-matches

too crude as it totally ignores sound correspondences



How well does normalized Levenshtein distance predict

cognacy?

LDN

empi

rical

pro

babi

lity

of c

ogna

cy

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

no yescognate

LDN

cognate

no

yes



Problems

binary distinction: match vs. non-match

frequently genuin sound correspondences in cognates are missed:

c v a i n a z 3 - - - f i S

- - t u n - o s p i s k i s

corresponding sounds count as mismatches even if they are aligend correctly

h a n t h a n t

h E n d m a n o

substantial amount of chance similarities



Capturing sound correspondences

weighted alignment using Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI, a.k.a. log-odds):

s(a, b) = logp(a, b)

q(a)q(b)

p(a, b): probability of sound a being etymologically related to sound b in a pair of cognatesq(a): relative frequency of sound a

Needleman-Wunsch algorithm: given a matrix of pairwise PMI scores between

individual symbols and two strings, it returns the alignment that maximizes the aggregate

PMI score

but �rst we need to estimate p(a, b) and q(a), q(b) for all soundclasses a and b

q(a): relative frequency of occurence of segment a in all words in ASJP

p(a, b): that's a bit more complicated...



Substitution matrix for the ASJP data

1. identify large sample of pairs of closely related languages (using expert information or

heuristics based on aggregated Levenshtein distance)

An.NORTHERN_PHILIPPINES.CENTRAL_BONTOCAn.MESO-PHILIPPINE.NORTHERN_SORSOGON

WF.WESTERN_FLY.IAMEGAWF.WESTERN_FLY.GAMAEWE

Pan.PANOAN.KASHIBO_BAJO_AGUAYTIAPan.PANOAN.KASHIBO_SAN_ALEJANDRO

AA.EASTERN_CUSHITIC.KAMBAATA_2AA.EASTERN_CUSHITIC.HADIYYA_2

ST.BAI.QILIQIAO_BAI_2ST.BAI.YUNLONG_BAI

An.SULAWESI.MANDARAn.OCEANIC.RAGA

An.SULAWESI.TANETEAn.SAMA-BAJAW.BOEPINANG_BAJAU

An.SOUTHERN_PHILIPPINES.KAGAYANENAn.NORTHERN_PHILIPPINES.LIMOS_KALINGA

An.MESO-PHILIPPINE.CANIPAAN_PALAWANAn.NORTHWEST_MALAYO-POLYNESIAN.LAHANAN

NC.BANTOID.LIFONGANC.BANTOID.BOMBOMA_2

IE.INDIC.WAD_PAGGAIE.INDIC.TALAGANG_HINDKO

NC.BANTOID.LINGALANC.BANTOID.LIFONGA

An.CENTRAL_MALAYO-POLYNESIAN.BALILEDOAn.CENTRAL_MALAYO-POLYNESIAN.PALUE

AuA.MUNDA.HOAuA.MUNDA.KORKU



Substitution matrix for the ASJP data

2. pick a concept and a pair of related languages at random

languages: Pen.MAIDUAN.MAIDU_KONKAU, Pen.MAIDUAN.NE_MAIDUconcept: one

3. �nd corresponding words from the two languages:

nisam, niSem

4. do Levenshtein alignment

n i s a m

n i S e m

5. for each sound pair, count number of correspondences

nn: 1; ii: 1; sS; 1; ae: 1; mm: 1



Finding the best alignment

Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5

e −4.1

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13

e −4.1

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53

e −4.1

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03

e −4.1

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6 7.62

s −8.9




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6 7.62

s −8.9 −2.97




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6 7.62

s −8.9 −2.97 2.15




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6 7.62

s −8.9 −2.97 2.15 5.1




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6 7.62

s −8.9 −2.97 2.15 5.1 8.84




Dynamic Programming

− m E n S

− 0 −2.5 −4.1 −5.7 −7.3

m −2.5 4.13 1.53 0.03 −1.47

e −4.1 1.53 5.65 3.05 1.55

n −5.7 0.03 3.05 9.2 6.6

E −7.3 −1.47 4.75 6.6 7.62

s −8.9 −2.97 2.15 5.1 8.84

memorizing in each step which of the three cells to the left

and above gave rise to the current entry lets us recover

the corresponing optimal alignmentGerhard Jäger (Tübingen) Words to trees HITS 24 / 45


Evaluation



Evaluation

x

X

G q

g k

4 N

o u

a

E e 3 i

v w

m f

b p

T

!

C c

7 h s

8 z

n

5 y

l r

L

S Z

t

d j

−5

05

10

velar/uvular vowels labials dental



How well does PMI similarity predict cognacy?

expert cognacy judgments used as gold standard

LDN

empi

rical

pro

babi

lity

of c

ogna

cy

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

PMI

empi

rical

pro

babi

lity

of c

ogna

cy

−20 −10 0 10 20

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

no yescognate

LDN

cognate

no

yes

−20

−10

0

10

20

no yescognate

PM

I

cognate

no

yes



Calibrated PMI similarity

English / Swedish

Ei yu wi w3n tu fiS . . .

yog −7.77 0.75 −7.68 −7.90 −8.57 −10.50du −7.62 0.33 −5.71 −7.41 2.66 −8.57vi −2.72 −2.83 4.04 −1.34 −6.45 0.70et −5.47 −7.87 −5.47 −6.43 −1.83 −4.70tvo −7.91 −4.27 −3.64 −4.57 0.39 −6.98fisk −7.45 −11.2 −3.07 −9.97 −8.66 7.58...

values along diagonal give similarity between candidates for cognacy (possibility of

meaning change is disregarded)

values o� diagonal provide sample of similarity distribution between non-cognates



Calibrated PMI similarity

let s be the PMI-similarity between the English and

Swedish word for concept c

calibrated string similarity: − log(probability that

random word pairs are more similar than s)

language similarity: average word similarity for all

concepts

English vs. Swedish

PM

I sim

ilarit

y

−25

−20

−15

−10

−5

0

5

10

15

different meaning same meaning


Cognate clustering

Cognate clustering


Cognate clustering

Cognate clustering

clustering of ASJP strings into automatically inferred cognate classes (Jäger andSofroniev, 2016; Jäger et al., 2017) (take �cognate� with a grain of salt)

supervised learning, based on expert cognacy judgments as goldstandard

sources (only the 40 ASJP concepts were used)

Dataset Source Words Concepts Languages Families Cognate classes

ABVD Greenhill et al. (2008) 2,306 34 100 Austronesian 409

Afrasian Militarev (2000) 770 39 21 Afro-Asiatic 351

Chinese B¥ijng Dàxué (1964) 422 20 18 Sino-Tibetan 126

Huon McElhanon (1967) 441 32 14 Trans-New Guinea 183

IELex Dunn (2012) 2,089 40 52 Indo-European 318

Japanese Hattori (1973) 387 39 10 Japonic 74

Kadai Peiros (1998) 399 40 12 Tai-Kadai 102

Kamasau Sanders and Sanders (1980) 270 36 8 Torricelli 59

Mayan Brown et al. (2008) 1,113 40 30 Mayan 241

Miao-Yao Peiros (1998) 206 36 6 Hmong-Mien 69

Mixe-Zoque Cysouw et al. (2006) 355 39 10 Mixe-Zoque 79

Mon-Khmer Peiros (1998) 579 40 16 Austroasiatic 232

ObUgrian Zhivlov (2011) 769 39 21 Uralic 68

total 10,106 40 318 13 2,311


Cognate clustering

Cognate clustering

calibrated word similarity and language similarity were used as predictors to train a SupportVector Machine → probability of being cognate for each pair of synonymous ASJP entries

Label Propagation (Raghavan et al., 2007) for clustering

0.84 B-cubed F-score with cross-validation on goldstandard data


Cognate clustering

Clustering via Label Propagation


Cognate clustering

Cognate clustering

doculect word class label

ALBANIAN vet3 0

ALBANIAN_TOSK vEt3 0

ARAGONESE ombre 1

ITALIAN_GROSSETO_TUSCAN omo 2

ROMANIAN_MEGLENO wom 2

VLACH omu 2

ASTURIAN persona 3

BALEAR_CATALAN p3rson3 3

CATALAN p3rson3 3

FRIULIAN pErsoN 3

ITALIAN persona 3

SPANISH persona 3

VALENCIAN persone 3

CORSICAN nimu 4

DALMATIAN om 5

EMILIANO_CARPIGIANO om 5

ROMANIAN_2 om 5

TURIA_AROMANIAN om 5

EMILIANO_FERRARESE styan 6

LIGURIAN_STELLA kristyaN 6

NEAPOLITAN_CALABRESE kr3styan3 6

ROMAGNOL_RAVENNATE sCan 6

ROMANSH_GRISHUN k3rSTawn 6

ROMANSH_SURMIRAN k3rstaN 6

GALICIAN ome 7

GASCON omi 7

PIEMONTESE_VERCELLESE omaN 8

ROMANSH_VALLADER uman 8

ALBANIAN_GHEG 5eri 9

SARDINIAN_CAMPIDANESE omini 9

SARDINIAN_LOGUDARESE omine 9


Cognate clustering

Cognate clusteringconcept doculect glot_fam transcription

eye DORASQUE Chibchan oko

eye NORTHERN_LOW_SAXON Indo-European ok

eye NORTH_FRISIAN_AMRUM Indo-European uk

eye STELLINGWERFS Indo-European ok

eye ASSAMESE Indo-European soku

eye CHAKMA_UnnamedInSource Indo-European sog

eye DALMATIAN Indo-European vaklo

eye FRIULIAN Indo-European voli

eye ITALIAN Indo-European okkyo

eye ITALIAN_GROSSETO_TUSCAN Indo-European okyo

eye JUDEO_ESPAGNOL Indo-European oxo

eye LATIN Indo-European okulus

eye NEAPOLITAN_CALABRESE Indo-European woky3

eye ROMANIAN_2 Indo-European oky

eye ROMANIAN_MEGLENO Indo-European wokLu

eye SARDINIAN Indo-European ogu

eye SARDINIAN_CAMPIDANESE Indo-European oxu

eye SARDINIAN_LOGUDARESE Indo-European okru

eye SICILIAN_UnnamedInSource Indo-European okiu

eye SPANISH Indo-European oho

eye TURIA_AROMANIAN Indo-European okLu

eye VLACH Indo-European okklu

eye BELARUSIAN Indo-European voka

eye BOSNIAN Indo-European oko

eye BULGARIAN Indo-European oko

eye CROATIAN Indo-European oko

eye CZECH Indo-European oko

eye KASHUBIAN Indo-European wokwo

eye LOWER_SORBIAN Indo-European voko

eye LOWER_SORBIAN_2 Indo-European woko

eye MACEDONIAN Indo-European oko

eye OLD_CHURCH_SLAVONIC Indo-European oko

eye POLISH Indo-European oko

eye SERBOCROATIAN Indo-European oko

eye SLOVAK Indo-European oko

eye SLOVENIAN Indo-European oko

eye UKRAINIAN Indo-European oko

eye UPPER_SORBIAN Indo-European voCko

eye UPPER_SORBIAN Indo-European voko

eye BAINOUK_GUNYAAMOLO Atlantic-Congo g3li

eye USINO Nuclear_Trans_New_Guinea ogo


Phylogenetic inference




Modeling language change

Markov process




Markov process Phylogeny




Markov process Phylogeny

Branching process



Estimating rates of change

if phylogeny and states of extant languages are known...

... transition rates and ancestral states can be estimated based on Markov model



ASJP word lists → character matrix

1 Automatically inferred cognate classes

each cluster cc de�nes one characterdoculect l has value 1 if its word list contains an element of cc, unde�ned if the slot of thecorresponding concept is unde�ned, and 0 else

2 Soundclass-concept characters

each combination (c, s) of an ASJP concept c and an ASJP sound class s is a characterdoculect l has value 1 if one of its entries for c contains s, 0 if not, and unde�ned if there isno entry for c



Character matrix → trees

validation

correlation with geographic distancephylogenetic inference (MaximumLikelihood) + comparison to Glottologexpert tree on 100 random sample ofASJP doculects, containing between 20and 400 doculectsusing Stamatakis' RAxML (which isgreat)

partitioned character-based inference

seems to work best


The world tree

Sah

aran

.BE

RT

I

Afro

-Asi

atic

.MO

KILK

O

Aust

roas

iatic

.BU

GAN

2

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL JICOCINGO ZACATLAN

Tai-K

adai

.NIU

PO

GE

LAO

Huavean.HUAVE 2

Mayan.KICHEE CUBULCO

Austronesian.BRUNEI

Nuclear T

rans N

ew Guinea.E

NGA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

ON

GY

E

Lepki-Murkim

.MILK

I MU

RK

IM

Afro-A

siatic

.JIM

I CAM

EROON

Atlantic-C

ongo.NA

KI

Atlantic-C

ongo.LIFO

NG

A

Hruso-A

ka.BE

NG

RU

HR

US

O

Sino-T

ibetan.JING

PH

O

Tup

ian.

UR

UB

U K

AA

PO

R

Ara

wak

an.Y

AW

ALA

PIT

I

Ata

.PE

LE A

TA

Tup

ian.

YU

QU

I

Indo-European.PIEMONTESE VERCELLESE

Atlantic-C

ongo.KU

SU

MA

TAP

A

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.AR

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.ZH

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.KH

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Austronesia

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.MU

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RE

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Austronesia

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.SA

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.BA

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.ZULG

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A

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Nuclear T

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n.SERUI L

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.MIY

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.GHADAM

ES

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A

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n.M

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Que

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n.Q

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I BA

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n.SUDEST

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HU

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AU

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.MU

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.SH

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SE

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.MAL

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Atla

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ong-Mien.H

MU

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.DID

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IKA

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.WA

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.TA

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.BO

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O

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Austro

asia

tic.S

EMELA

I

Atlantic-Congo.HORO

M

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.TANGMA DANI

Atlantic-Congo.LONGTO

Sentanic.TA

BLA

Sino-T

ibetan.T

IBE

TAN

LHA

SA

Atlantic-Congo.IBU

OR

O

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.C

ON

I

Maku.M

AKU

Atlantic-C

ongo.DZ

ING

B

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.T

SW

AN

A

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.ISA

BI

Oto

man

guea

n.X

AN

AG

UIA

ZA

PO

TE

C

Indo-European.SORKHEI

Sino-T

ibetan.BA

HIN

G

Otom

angu

ean.

SUBTIABA

Pama-Nyungan.WAGAYA

Nuclear Torricelli.DIA

Austro

nesia

n.SEKAR

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.AMAIM

ON

Austronesian.SALAKO BADAMEA

Atlantic-C

ongo.SIM

AA

2

Sino-T

ibetan.GE

LAN

GH

E A

KH

A

Chumashan.CRUZENYO

Yokutsan.YOKUTS UNKNOWN

Sino-T

ibetan.JIND

ING

BA

I

Austronesian.ATAYAL

Indo-European.CHAPURSAN WAKHI

Atlantic-C

ongo.A60 M

MA

ALA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.G

WE

RE

2

Ara

wak

an.M

AS

HC

O P

IRO

Oto

man

guea

n.C

HO

AP

AN

ZA

PO

TE

C

Austronesian.MALAGASY SAKALAVA MORONDAVA

Burushaski.BURUSHASKI

Mayan.CHOLTI

Pama-Nyungan.DARRKINYUNG

Nuc

lear

Tra

ns N

ew G

uine

a.YA

LE K

OS

AR

EK

Atlantic-C

ongo.KU

SU

Austronesian.PERJAYA ULU KOMERING

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.Z

ULU

East S

trickland.SA

MO

Austro

asia

tic.J

EH 2

Que

chua

n.C

UZ

CO

GN

L

Austronesian.SOUTHERN SORSOGON

Kio

wa-

Tano

an.T

IWA

NO

RT

HE

RN

TA

OS

Atlantic-C

ongo.TE

KE

NT

YO

3

Atlantic-Congo.CEFO

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.KE

LIK

O

Austronesian.PAULOHI

Sepik.PAKA

Sino-T

ibetan.LAS

HI

Mayan.MAM SAN SEBASTIAN H

Oto

man

guea

n.C

HIN

AN

TE

C S

OC

HIA

PA

N

Atlantic-Congo.IBILO

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.R

UN

YO

RO

RU

TO

OR

O

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.IS

UK

HA

Que

chua

n.Q

UE

CH

UA

AN

CA

SH

HU

AYLA

S H

UA

RA

ZS

ino-Tibetan

.CH

OR

BA

T B

ALT

I

Que

chua

n.IN

GA

ME

DIO

PU

TU

MA

YO

Austronesian.FORDATA

Indo-European.CHAMAN PASHTO

Atlantic-Congo.IZI

Austronesian.TALUR

Indo-European.CENTRAL GOJAL WAKHI

Atlantic-C

ongo.KW

ES

E

Austronesia

n.LEWO M

APREMO

Indo-European.PESHAWAR CITY HINDKO

Totonacan.TOTONAC OLINTLA

Atlantic-C

ongo.LILIKO

Afro

-Asi

atic

.EA

STE

RN

OR

OM

O 2

Oto

man

guea

n.M

IXT

EC

NO

RT

HE

RN

TLA

XIA

CO

Atlantic-Congo.ZANDE

Atlantic-C

ongo.TIV 1

Atlantic-C

ongo.XE

PIN

ZIP

INZ

I

Tungusic.XIBE

Atlantic-Congo.ANII

Atlantic-C

ongo.LUV

ALE

Austronesian.SAABAN

Dravidian.ADILABAD GONDI

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.JIC

AR

ILLATa

i-Kad

ai.P

UB

IAO

Austronesian.AMBLONG

Atlantic-C

ongo.AW

ING

Turkic.T

URKISH 2

Indo-European.SINTI ROMANI

Atlantic-C

ongo.KW

AN

GE

Chukotko-Kamchatkan.ALUTOR

Austronesia

n.MAE

Turkic.R

UH ABAD KHORASANI

Austronesia

n.KATBOL

Aust

roas

iatic

.KH

MU

Uralic.LULE SAAMI

Chukotko-Kamchatkan.S ITELMEN

Umbugarla.UMBUGARLA

Austronesian.KANDAS

Hm

ong-Mien.Y

OU

NU

O B

UN

U

Austro

asia

tic.C

HRAU 2

Atlantic-C

ongo.ISO

NG

O

Lakes Plain.R

AS

AW

A

Nakh-D

aghestanian.H

INUKH

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

HE

RB

RO

Austronesian.TELA MASBUAR

Fasu.NA

MU

MI

Nakh-D

aghestanian.N

ORTHERN AKHVAKH

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.K

ULA

Wagiman.WAGIMAN

Atlantic-Congo.BILE

Hm

ong-Mien.W

ES

TE

RN

XIA

NG

XI H

MO

NG

Sino-T

ibetan.XIA

ND

AO

Atlantic-Congo.BOFI

Austro

asia

tic.K

UAN

Fur

an.F

UR

Eskimo-Aleut.INUKTITUT EASTERN CANADIAN

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.WAFFA

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.M

AK

AS

AE

Atlantic-Congo.KARANG

Algic.UNAMI UnnamedInSource

Atlantic-Congo.EBU

GH

U

Nakh-D

aghestanian.LAK

Hei

bani

c.W

AR

NA

NG

Nuclear Torricelli.SELEPUT

Chukotko-Kamchatkan.N ITELMEN

Indo-European.GUJARATI

Uto-Aztecan.CENTRAL TARAHUMARA

Austro

asia

tic.N

YEU

Atlantic-Congo.SENUFO SICITE

Austronesia

n.LABOAustr

onesian.M

OTA

Austronesian.MUTU

Austronesian.CHAM EASTERN

Atlantic-Congo.SAFEN

Atlantic-C

ongo.ND

UU

MO

Ara

wak

an.A

JYIN

INK

A A

PU

RU

CA

YA

LI

Ijoid

.KU

NB

O

Austronesian.LUANGIUA

Kam

ula.

KA

MU

LA

Ras

had.

TAG

OI

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.YOPNO

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL RAFAEL DELGADO

Sino-T

ibetan.S

HIG

AR

BA

LTI

Indo-European.HUNZA SHINA

Austro

asia

tic.T

ODRAH U

nnam

edIn

Sourc

e

Atlantic-C

ongo.IBE

E

Daj

uic.

NY

ALA

Baining.URA PNG

Sino-Tibetan.Z

HO

UC

HE

NG

BA

I 2

Indo-European.BALOCHI EASTERN

Mande.GURO

Austronesia

n.REPANBITIP

Tup

ian.

PA

RA

NA

WA

T

Indo-European.SARIKOLI

Hm

ong-Mien.H

AIN

INH

MIE

N

Alsea.ALSEA

Austronesian.TAGBANWA KALAMIAN

Austronesia

n.PONAM

Austronesian.BELAIT

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.FU

RU

Austronesian.SODANGAN

Khoe-Kwadi.NARO

Atlantic-Congo.NGO

UMI

Austronesia

n.SOUTHW

EST TANNA IK

ITI

Indo-European.MACEDONIAN

Austronesian.MINANGKABAU

Nakh-D

aghestanian.B

EZHTA 2

Salishan.THOMPSON

Austronesian.BUBWAF

Afro

-Asi

atic

.TIG

RIN

YA

Unc

lass

ifia

ble.

KA

RIR

I

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.PILA

Ijoid

.GB

AR

AN

MA

TU

Maiduan.MAIDU NORTHWEST NAKUM

Nar

row

Tal

odi.N

DIN

G

Laal.LAAL

Chibchan.PECH

Austronesian.SEPANG

Austronesian.ARAKI

Austronesian.BONGGI

Ara

wak

an.P

IAP

OC

O 2

Atlantic-C

ongo.KO

TA M

EK

AM

BO

Austronesia

n.AXAMB M

AXBAXO

Nakh-D

aghestanian.A

GUL

Suki-G

ogodala.SU

KI

Austronesia

n.NORTH TA

NNA

Pama-Nyungan.MAYI YAPI

Hui

toto

an.N

ON

UY

A

Atlantic-C

ongo.EG

BU

TA

Atlantic-Congo.DAMA

Sepik.POUYE

Afro

-Asi

atic

.ALA

GW

A

Austronesian.HITU

Nilo

tic.E

ND

O

Tucanoan.WA

NA

NO

Atlantic-C

ongo.C84 LE

LE LU

HILE

EL 2

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL SAN FRANCISCO TLALNEPANTLA

Tuu.NU EN

Afro-A

siatic

.TESHENAW

A

Austronesian.NGGERI GHARI

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.WA

DI

Atlantic-Congo.CE

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL AYOTOXCO

Pama-Nyungan.PITTA PITTA

Aust

roas

iatic

.MAT

IND

OR

MAH

ALI

Marrku-Wurrugu.MARGU

Chibchan.D

OR

AS

QU

E

Indo-European.GARAM CHISHMA KHOWAR

Afro

-Asi

atic

.MES

MES

2

Tucanoan.BA

RA

Oto

man

guea

n.C

HO

RO

TE

GA

Indo-European.ICELANDIC

Chimakuan.QUILEUTE

Atlantic-C

ongo.KO

NG

O S

AN

SA

LVA

DO

R

Oto

man

guea

n.O

TOM

I DE

SAN

AN

DR

ES C

UEX

CO

NTI

TLAN

Atlantic-Congo.IBIBIO

2

Turkic.H

OKM ABAD KHORASANI

Mixe-Zoque.SOUTH HIGHLAND MIXE

Atlantic-Congo.BAKWE

Atlantic-Congo.IYINNO

Afro

-Asi

atic

.RO

N D

AFFO

BU

TUR

A

Atlantic-Congo.PAASAAL

Oto

man

guea

n.O

TOM

I AC

AMBA

Y

Indo-European.ROMUNGRO ROMANI

Sino-T

ibetan.KA

RE

N G

EB

A

Austronesian.BEKATI

Aust

roas

iatic

.SO

RA

2Austr

onesian.SA

Austronesia

n.LOU

Austronesian.GHAYAVI 1

Eastern Trans-Fly.MER

IAM

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.KA

TO

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.DUMPU

Austronesian.TIKOPIA

Sino-T

ibetan.KH

EZ

HA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.GID

OLE

2

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.DIG

UL M

UY

U

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.UM

BU

UN

GU

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.CITAK

Kayagaric.KAJGIRAus

troas

iatic

.AW

ALAI W

A

Austronesian.BILAAN SARANGANI

Nakh-D

aghestanian.K

ARATA

Austronesian.ADUMANIS ULU KOMERING

Katukinan.K

AN

AM

AR

I

Austronesian.M

OSINA VETUMBOSO

Indo-European.GUPIS SHINA

Atlantic-Congo.AKASELEM

Atlantic-Congo.BAI

Atlantic-Congo.C

ICIPU

East S

trickland.OD

OO

DE

E

Austronesian.BUGINESE

Algic.BLACKFOOT

Atlantic-Congo.SAM

BA DAG

A

Atlantic-C

ongo.MO

KE

NG

UI B

OM

ITAB

A

Mande.KOROKAKAN

Mande.MANINKAKAN EASTERN

Eastern Trans-Fly.WIPI G

UIAM

Uto-Aztecan.CAHUILLA

Atlantic-C

ongo.KW

ES

O N

GU

LO

Sepik.BAHINEMO

Dravidian.PENGO

Austronesian.TUNOE BABATANA

Car

iban

.MA

KU

SH

I

Oto

man

guea

n.Z

AP

OT

EC

MIT

LA

Atlantic-C

ongo.BIR

A M

IALA

BU

NIA

Atlantic-C

ongo.NS

EM

OH

BI

Tucanoan.TU

CA

NO

2

Cahuapanan.CHAYAHUITA

Pama-Nyungan.COLAC

Pama-Nyungan.WULIWULI

Sino-T

ibetan.LISU

2

Aust

roas

iatic

.DAN

AW

Afro

-Asi

atic

.BU

RJI

Austro

nesia

n.PA

PORA 2

Atlantic-Congo.LIKPE

Austronesian.SAPARUA IHAMAHU

Tuu.NG KE

Austronesia

n.SOUTHW

EST TANNA IM

REANG

Austronesian.CENTRAL MASELA

Atlantic-C

ongo.ND

AN

DA S

UD

Oto

man

guea

n.Y

OS

ON

DU

A M

IXT

EC

Austronesian.MINAVEHA

Austronesian.DARO MATU

Indo-European.WESTERN ARMENIAN

Atlantic-C

ongo.KA

KO

2

Algic.KICKAPOO

Otom

angu

ean.

MEPHAA A

CATEPEC

Atlantic-C

ongo.BIR

A

Nuclear T

rans N

ew Guinea.A

NGAL

Tup

ian.

NH

EN

GA

TU

Austronesian.KELA

Dravidian.SAURIA PAHARIA

Nuclear Torricelli.U

RIM

O

Dravidian.NORTHWESTERN KOLAMI

Chimariko.CHIMARIKO

Elem

an.OR

OK

OLO

2

Mayan.MAM TACANA 2

Sino-T

ibetan.NA

GA

TH

AN

GA

L

Austronesian.PINGELAPESE

Nilo

tic.R

EK

Nilo

tic.A

DH

OLA

Tup

ian.

GU

AR

AN

I KA

IWA

Indo-European.NORWEGIAN RIKSMAL

Indo-European.KAGHAN GUJARI

Tai-K

adai

.JIN

XIU

LA

KK

IA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.M

PO

ND

O

Atlantic-C

ongo.YA

KA

SU

D

Salishan.SAMISH

Sino-T

ibetan.IDU

MIS

HM

I

Aust

roas

iatic

.PAH

ARPU

R S

ANTA

LI

Sape.SAPE

Austronesian.BOLA

Indo-European.BROKSKAT

Atlantic-C

ongo.KPA

N

Mangarrayi-Maran.WANDARANG

Austronesian.ITBAYATEN BATANES ISLANDS

Yeniseian.PUMPOKOL

Austronesian.FATAAN AMIS

Hei

bani

c.E

BA

NG

Iroquoian.ONEIDA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

GH

WE

LE 2

Austronesian.YAROS

Atlantic-C

ongo.YA

KA

Angan.KAPAU

Tai-K

adai

.LA

CH

I

Nilo

tic.O

MO

TIK

Austronesian.KARO BATAK

Uru-Chipaya.CHIPAYA 3

Atlantic-Congo.PAJADE

Atlantic-C

ongo.LOK

ELE

YALE

MB

A

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL ATLACHOLOAYA XOCHITEPEC

Nuclear Torricelli.M

AND

I PAPUAN

G

Austronesian.CENTRAL BICOLANO

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.WANUM

A

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.L

AN

DO

MA

Turkic.K

AZAKH

Afro

-Asi

atic

.TU

NN

I

Gua

to.G

UA

TO

Atlantic-C

ongo.MIE

NG

E

Ijoid

.KO

LOK

UM

A

Uralic.INARI S

AAMI

Nakh-D

aghestanian.N

ORTHERN TABASSARAN

Atlantic-C

ongo.IWU

M W

UU

MB

U 2

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.B

LAG

AR

BA

KA

LAN

G

Austro

nesia

n.URUANGNIR

IN

Indo-European.MENDHAR GUJARI

Atlantic-C

ongo.NU

BA

CA

Cochimi-Yuman.WALAPAI

Atlantic-Congo.GEME

Indo-European.SERBOCROATIAN

Austronesian.HANUNOO

Atlantic-Congo.MAM

BAI

Sino-T

ibetan.KH

WO

PA

NE

WA

R

Atlantic-C

ongo.ISA

NG

U

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.NIN

GG

IRU

M K

AW

OM

A

Ta-N

e-O

mot

ic.K

EFA

Salishan.COMOX

Austronesian.MBAENGGUU

Austronesian.TEUN

Nilo

tic.P

AR

I

Atlantic-Congo.BETE DALOA

Nakh-D

aghestanian.A

RCHI

Austronesian.PULO ANNA

Sino-T

ibetan.WA

NC

HO

Indo-European.GURANI

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

WA

HIL

I CH

IRA

ZI

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.HU

PA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.ERIMA

Andoque.A

ND

OQ

UE

Atlantic-C

ongo.NS

ELE

MB

ILI

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.A

DA

NG

PIT

UN

G

Austronesian.SILISILI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.BE

JA 2

Atlantic-Congo.TAROK

Austronesia

n.LELE

Austronesian.KUNI

Atlantic-C

ongo.EK

PAR

AB

ON

G

Ara

wak

an.B

AU

RE

Tai-K

adai

.BA

HA

BU

YAN

G

Great A

ndamanese.A

KA KOL

Atlantic-C

ongo.NS

ON

TE

NY

Atlantic-C

ongo.LUY

AN

A 2

Atlantic-C

ongo.BU

Songh

ay.K

ORO

BORO

SENNI

Mailuan.MAILU

Indo-European.ASTOR SHINA

Atlantic-C

ongo.BU

BE

Totonacan.TEPEHUA PISA FLORES

Mayan.KICHEE SANTA CRUZ DE EL QUICHE

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.KA

RA

Cochimi-Yuman.COCOPA

Austronesian.LEMOLANG

Indo-European.DARAI 2

Que

chua

n.Q

UIC

HU

A C

HIM

BO

RA

ZO

TR

OJE

Japonic.TAKETOMI YAEYAMA

Atlantic-Congo.BIJOGO

Austronesian.MINANGALI LOWER TANUDAN KALINGA

Austronesian.SEWA BAY

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.MA

MB

AR

E R

IVE

R

Hei

bani

c.A

BU

L

Atlantic-Congo.ECHIE

Sino-T

ibetan.D

ZO

NG

KH

A

Salinan.S

ALIN

AN

Tup

ian.

SU

RU

I DO

PA

RA

Pama-Nyungan.DHURGA

Atlantic-C

ongo.NK

OY

A 2

Pama-Nyungan.WANGAAYBUWAN NGIYAMBAA

Atlantic-Congo.D

EGEM

A 2

Atlantic-Congo.NDUNGA

Hib

ito-C

holo

n.C

HO

LON

Atlantic-C

ongo.BA

MB

OM

BA

EP

EN

A

Austro

asia

tic.P

ACOH

Tai-K

adai

.TA

I LE

I PIN

G

Tup

ian.

AS

UR

INI

Austronesian.BARIO KELABIT

Mixe-Zoque.NORTH HIGHLAND MIXE

Que

chua

n.Q

UE

CH

UA

YA

UY

OS

LIN

CH

A

Austro

asia

tic.O

LD M

ON

Atlantic-C

ongo.YA

KA

2

Turkic.KARAIM

Atlantic-C

ongo.LIBIE

Lakes Plain.W

AR

ITAI

Matacoan.NIVACLE

Austronesian.SINDUE TAWAILI

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.MA

NTA

STA

AH

TE

NA

Austronesian.TAHANE

Austronesian.MAUTUTU

Sino-T

ibetan.NA

GA

TAN

GK

HU

L

Tai-K

adai

.MA

GU

AN

TA

I

Austronesian.DAGIN

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.MAW

AK

Austronesian.KRUI LAMPUNG API

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.BURUM

Pama-Nyungan.ADNYAMATHANHA

Beothuk.BEOTH

UK

Pama-Nyungan.ANMATYERRE

Atlantic-Congo.GODIE

Daj

uic.

LOG

OR

IK

Atlantic-Congo.AYER

E

Mande.VAI

Nilo

tic.B

AR

I SU

DA

N

Nuclear Torricelli.YAMBES

Hm

ong-Mien.Y

AN

GH

AO

HM

ON

G

Atlantic-C

ongo.MB

ED

E

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.H

UN

DE

2

Bilu

a.B

ILU

A

Ara

wak

an.A

SH

AN

INK

A

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.GU

LA Z

UR

A

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.PANIM

Atlantic-C

ongo.TE

TE

LA

Indo-European.ROMANIAN MEGLENO

Tup

ian.

XE

TA

Afro-A

siatic

.MUSG

U R

Atlantic-C

ongo.NS

EJIM

E

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.M

WA

NI M

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

Mixe-Zoque.TAPACHULTEC

Atlantic-Congo.GBAYA MBODOMO

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.NGGEM

Tai-K

adai

.GE

LAO

WA

NZ

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.GH

OM

ALA 1

Algic.MICMAC

Austronesian.MAILOA

Tucanoan.TU

YU

CA

2

Austronesian.MALEU 2

Austro

asia

tic.M

ASAN WA

Cochimi-Yuman.MOJAVE

East K

utubu.FOE

Indo-European.ZEEUWS

Austronesia

n.NORTH E

FATE NGUNA

Austronesian.KOTA AGUNG LAMPUNG API

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

WA

HIL

I MA

KU

ND

UC

HI

Atlantic-Congo.U

VBIE

Atlantic-C

ongo.MU

ND

AB

LI

Aust

roas

iatic

.NAN

CAW

RI

Austronesian.KAWE

Austronesia

n.SOUTH E

FATE ERATAP

Atlantic-Congo.SAMBA LEKO

Atlantic-C

ongo.NS

EK

SH

AA

Man

ubar

an.D

OROMU L

OFAIK

A

Chibchan.C

AB

EC

AR

CH

IRIP

O

Khoe-Kwadi.NARON

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.MALAS

Atlantic-C

ongo.K15 M

BU

ND

A 2

Atlantic-C

ongo.HA

NG

ALA

Austro

asia

tic.R

ENGAO

Cochimi-Yuman.DIEGUENO

Guaicuruan.MOCOVI

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.D

IGO

1

Atlantic-C

ongo.MB

AN

ZA

BO

MITA

BA

Pama-Nyungan.MURUWARI

Indo-European.NAGAR SHINA

Turkic.T

URKMEN

Khoe-Kwadi.NAMA 2

Austronesian.KAPINGAMARANGI

East Bird's Head.SO

UG

B

Austronesian.TUTONG 2

Austronesian.MARQUESAN NUKUHIVA

Mayan.SIPAKAPENSE

Austronesian.PILAM PUYUMA

Ara

wak

an.Y

UC

UN

A

Mayan.MAM SAN MIGUEL SIGUILA

Austronesian.PENDAU

Bosavi.K

AS

UA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

HO

NA

KA

RA

NG

A

Atlantic-Congo.AYU

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.J

62 R

UN

DI

Yana.YANA

Nihali.N

IHALI

2

Austronesian.LELEGHIA MARINGE CHEKE HOLO

Nuclear Torricelli.AMOL

Nub

ian.

UN

CU

NW

EE

Atlantic-C

ongo.NK

HU

MB

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.NT

OM

BA

NJA

LE

Nilo

tic.S

OG

OO

Austronesia

n.MARIN

O

Austro

asia

tic.Y

ANCHENG

WA

Oto

man

guea

n.Z

AP

OT

EC

LO

XIC

HA

Atlantic-C

ongo.BO

NE

K

Sino-T

ibetan.SA

NI Y

I

Cochimi-Yuman.KILIWA

Sino-T

ibetan.AS

HIN

G

Maiduan.NISENAN

Kw

alean.HU

ME

NE

Austronesian.SANGIL SARANGANI ISLANDS

Nakh-D

aghestanian.B

AGWALAL

Atlantic-C

ongo.LUN

DA

2

Baibai-Fas.B

AIB

AI

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL DEL NORTE DEL ESTADO DE PUEBLA

Tup

ian.

MB

YA

Indo-European.LOMBARD BERGAMO

Salishan.SONGISH

Dravidian.KORAGA KORRA

Atlantic-Congo.LER

E SI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.KA

MB

AAT

A

Austronesian.DUSUN MALANG

Austronesian.MALAGASY SOUTHERN BETSIMISARAKA ZAFISIRO FARAFANGANA

Sino-T

ibetan.WA

MB

ULE

Austro

nesia

n.POM

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.B

LAG

AR

RE

TTA

PU

RA

Ta-N

e-O

mot

ic.W

OLA

YTT

A

Pama-Nyungan.MAYAGUDUNA

Afro-A

siatic

.ZENAG

A 2

Sino-Tibetan.D

ON

GS

HA

N C

HIN

ES

E

Afro

-Asi

atic

.AR

BO

RE

Austro

asia

tic.M

ALIENG

Austronesia

n.LEWO N

UVIAustronesia

n.PINALUM

Atlantic-C

ongo.TIKA

R A

KU

EN

Austronesian.KARA PNG

Mayan.KICHEE CUNEN 1

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.DAO

Mailuan.MAILU 2

Ara

wak

an.W

AR

EK

EN

AA

raw

akan

.GA

RIF

UN

A

Austronesian.SAKETA

Austro

asia

tic.B

AHNAR

Austronesian.NGGAE GHARI

Kad

ugli-

Kro

ngo.

TU

LIS

HI

Austronesia

n.BURMBAR

Pama-Nyungan.KOKO YALANDJI

Indo-European.MORANG

Atlantic-C

ongo.NN

AM

Tai-K

adai

.SU

I JU

NG

CH

IAN

G

Sino-T

ibetan.W

UJIA

O B

AIM

A

Dravidian.PARJI

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

ZW

AN

I

Tucanoan.PIR

ATAP

UY

O

Kiwaian.M

OR

IGI

Austronesian.AMIS NATAORAN

Austronesian.PANGASINAN

Afro

-Asi

atic

.SA

UR

I

Indo-European.DAMELI 2

Atlantic-Congo.FIRAN

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.ILI

AM

NA

TA

NA

INA

Kio

wa-

Tano

an.T

IWA

SO

UT

HE

RN

Tup

ian.

GU

AR

AN

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.YE

MB

A 2

Sentanic.D

EM

TA A

MB

OR

A

Austronesian.BOANO

Austronesian.MALAGASY PLATEAU MERINA ANTANANARIVO

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

EN

A

Lule.LULE AND TONOCOTE

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pant

ar.L

AMM

A

Austronesian.MALAGASY TANDROY MAHAFALY AMBOVOMBE

Ijoid

.BIS

EN

I

Austronesian.LETINESE

Tai-K

adai

.MA

K

Songh

ay.K

OYRA

CHIINI

Tai-K

adai

.LIA

NS

HA

N C

EN

TRA

L H

ON

GS

HU

IHE

ZH

UA

NG

Austro

asia

tic.P

LAN

G

Tai-K

adai

.JIN

GH

ON

G T

AI L

UE

Atlantic-C

ongo.B414 V

AR

AM

A

Tup

ian.

PA

RIN

TIN

TIN

Turkic.J

OGHATAY KHORASANI

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.MAPE 2

Austro

asia

tic.S

TIENG

Kartvelia

n.MIN

GRELIAN

Afro-A

siatic

.MAKARY K

OTO

KO

Nad

ahup

.JU

PD

A

Austronesian.PALUE

Austronesian.DAMA DAMA

Austronesian.TORAU

Pama-Nyungan.NGAWUN

Austronesian.KALIANDA LAMPUNG API

Sino-T

ibetan.DA

RM

IYA

Atlantic-C

ongo.KW

AN

GA

3

North Halmahera.TALAPAO

Mayan.QUICHE

Mande.WOJENEKAKAN

Atlantic-C

ongo.A61 N

GO

RO

AS

OM

Tup

ian.

AW

ET

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.TUN

EN

Afro

-Asi

atic

.SO

QO

TRI

Austronesian.LAUJE

Austronesian.W

EDAU

Atlantic-C

ongo.DE

NYA B

ITIEK

U

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.FAITA

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.GA

HU

KU

Austronesian.LAMALERA

Afro-A

siatic

.LAM

ANG HIT

KALANCHI

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.AS

OA

Algic.ARAPAHO

Angan.MENYA 2

Goilalan.TA

UA

DE

Chibchan.B

OR

UC

A

Ta-N

e-O

mot

ic.D

AC

HE

Austronesian.ENDE

Mande.MENDE

Northern Daly.TYARAITY

Sino-T

ibetan.LOH

OR

UN

G

Austronesian.AZERA

Atlantic-C

ongo.NG

AN

GE

LA

Eastern Trans-Fly.WIPI KU

RU

Oto

man

guea

n.C

HIN

AN

TE

C P

ALA

NT

LA

Tai-K

adai

.TH

O

Atlantic-C

ongo.KO

M M

BIZIN

AK

U

Car

iban

.HIX

KA

RY

AN

A

Turkic.A

SADLI KHORASANI

Atlantic-C

ongo.BO

LIA

Atlantic-Congo.LABIR

Austronesian.MALAGASY ANATANKARANA AMBILOBE

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.K

AM

AN

G 2

Austro

nesia

n.TA

NEMA

Austronesian.INIBALOI

Austronesian.GEDAGED

Ara

wak

an.B

AH

UA

NA

Nilo

tic.A

LUR

Huavean.SAN FRANCISCO DEL MAR HUAVE

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL SAN MIGUEL AYOTLA

Austronesian.INABAKNON

Algic.FOX

Indo-European.FINNISH ROMANI

Yamana.YAMANA

Austronesian.ZENAG

Atlantic-C

ongo.WU

MB

VU

2

Austronesian.LOM

Atlantic-C

ongo.MA

HO

NG

WE

Uralic.KILDIN SAAMI

Kun

ama.

KU

NA

MA

Tungusic.UILTA

Elem

an.PE

TOE

UA

RIP

I

Austronesia

n.TAPE

Austronesian.TAHITIAN

Mayan.WESTERN KEKCHI SAN JUAN CHAMELCO

Austronesia

n.MPOTOVORO VOVO

Sino-T

ibetan.NA

GA

SO

UT

HE

RN

RE

NG

MA

Austronesian.KALAGAN KAAGAN

Atlantic-Congo.R

IJA

Afro-A

siatic

.MO

NTOL

Ijoid

.EK

PE

TIA

MA

Uto-Aztecan.EUDEVE

Hm

ong-Mien.D

ON

GS

HA

N B

IAO

MO

N

Tup

ian.

AN

AM

BE

Afro-A

siatic

.WAM

DIU

Tungusic.NEGIDAL VERCHOVSKI

Ara

wak

an.T

AR

IAN

A

Mayan.KICHEE CHICHICASTENANGO

Iroquoian.CAYUGA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.MOERE

Austronesian.SAPOLEWA SOOW KWELE ULUI SERAM

Que

chua

n.Q

UE

CH

UA

NO

RT

H J

UN

IN T

AR

MA

Austronesia

n.MALUA BAY

Afro-A

siatic

.KERA

Austronesia

n.PORT S

ANDWIC

H

Siouan.A

SS

INIB

OIN

E

Atlantic-C

ongo.C831 ILE

BO

Eskimo-Aleut.ALEUT

Uralic.MOKSCHA M

ORDWINISCH

Indo-European.ASHRET PHALURA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

YA

NJA

NY

AS

A

Nuclear-Macro-Je.XO

KLENG

Austronesian.PATEP

Austronesian.MINANGNGA

Muskogean.CREEK

Sino-Tibetan.X

IAN

GY

UN

BA

I

Yawa.M

ARIAD

EI

Miwok-Costanoan.S SIERRA MIWOK

Indo-European.SADRI

Nuclear Torricelli.SETA

Aikana.A

IKA

NA

Oto

man

guea

n.M

ATLA

TZIN

CA

SAN

FR

ANC

ISC

O O

XTO

TILP

AN 2

Austronesian.NUKUORO

Atlantic-Congo.IDU

Ara

wak

an.A

MU

ES

HA

1

Indo-European.MANDEALI

Austronesian.BALANGAW

Austronesian.AKEI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.IRAQ

MU

SLIM

BAG

HD

AD A

RAB

IC

Austro

asia

tic.G

ARAustronesian.W

OGEO

Austronesian.BATAK ANGKOLA

Que

chua

n.Q

UIC

HU

A A

ZU

AY

Indo-European.PARACHI

Mixe-Zoque.MIGUEL CHIMALAPA

Maybrat.M

AI BRAT

Afro

-Asi

atic

.HER

DE

Austronesian.HILIGAYNON

Indo-European.EASTERN FRISIAN

Austro

asia

tic.K

UI THAIL

AND

Ndu.KWUSAUN

Atlantic-C

ongo.MB

AM

BA

SIB

ITI

Angan.IVORI

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.ZIA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.YABONG

Indo-European.ENGLISH

Indo-European.KOSOVO ARLI ROMANI

Atlantic-C

ongo.DIN

G

Que

chua

n.Q

UE

CH

UA

HU

AN

UC

O P

AN

AO

Austronesian.M

EKEO

Austronesian.ERAI

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.WA

MB

ON

Austronesian.MOMA

Que

chua

n.Q

UIC

HU

A C

HIM

BO

RA

ZO

NIZ

AG

Atlantic-C

ongo.SA

KE

1

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.IL

WA

NA

Sino-T

ibetan.SU

NW

AR

2

Austronesian.WALLISIAN EAST UVEAN

Maningrida.NAKARA

Yanomamic.SANIMA

Austronesian.NANUMEA

Dravidian.HILL MARIA GONDI

Atlantic-C

ongo.BA

LON

DO

Atlantic-C

ongo.FAN

G M

EK

E

Gunwinyguan.GUNWINGGU MANYALLALUK MAYALI

Atlantic-Congo.KONNI

Afro-A

siatic

.BADE

Austronesian.TOMBULU

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.A

BU

I ATI

ME

LAN

G

Nivkh.GILYAK

Atlantic-C

ongo.ZO

OM

BO

1

Austronesian.OLD OR MIDDLE JAVANESE

Sino-T

ibetan.NA

XI

Nilo

tic.K

AK

WA

Atlantic-Congo.HONE

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.R

UN

YA

NK

OR

E R

UK

IGA

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL ACAXOCHITLAN

Afro-A

siatic

.TSUVAN

Atlantic-C

ongo.ZA

MB

A 2

Pama-Nyungan.NGANYAYWANA

Sino-T

ibetan.SA

MP

AN

G

Austronesian.KUMARU

Indo-European.SLOVENIAN

Austronesian.IRANUN

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.G

IRY

AM

A

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.SAM

OSA

Ara

wak

an.P

AR

AU

JAN

O

Turkic.T

EREKEME AZERI

Oto

man

guea

n.S

AN

PE

DR

O IX

CA

TLA

N

Gunwinyguan.GUNWINGGU KUNINJKU

Austronesian.MENTAWAI

Kuliak

.IK

Afro

-Asi

atic

.AM

HAR

IC 3

Austronesian.RANAU LAMPUNG API

Uto-Aztecan.CLASSICAL NAHUATL

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

AN

DE

Atlantic-C

ongo.H41 M

BA

LA 1

Kosare.KOSAR

E

Atlantic-C

ongo.MM

EN

Indo-European.AVESTAN 2

Afro

-Asi

atic

.AR

ABIC

QU

RAN

IC

Austronesia

n.RAGA

Tim

or-A

lor-P

anta

r.TEI

WA

2S

ino-Tibetan.LO

NG

ME

N B

AI

Austronesian.SEIMAT

Atlantic-C

ongo.MB

ALA

4

Atlantic-Congo.M

AMBILA ATTA

Austronesian.GEBE

Afro-A

siatic

.TANG

ALE

Indo-European.TIRAH AFRIDI PASHTO

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

HO

NA

MA

NY

IKA

Austronesian.MALAGASY SOUTHERN BETSIMISARAKA ANTAIMORO MANAKARA

Tara

scan

.PURHEPECHA 2

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL SAN PEDRO TLALCUAPAN SANTA ANA CHIAUTEMPAN

Nuclear-M

acro-Je.AP

INAY

E

Austro

asia

tic.K

HMER 2

Sino-T

ibetan.CH

IN S

IYIN

Atlantic-C

ongo.CE

NTR

AL K

EN

YAN

G

Maningrida.BURARRA

Austronesian.KONJO

Ain

u.A

INU

SA

MA

NI

Tai-K

adai

.TA

I PIN

G S

IAN

G

Atlantic-Congo.M

BEMBE

Pama-Nyungan.PINTUPI

Oto

man

guea

n.P

OP

OLO

CA

SA

N J

UA

N A

TZ

ING

O

Indo-European.SINGO DI GARHI HINDKO

Atlantic-Congo.NON

Tai-K

adai

.SA

EK

Atlantic-Congo.OGBA

Pama-Nyungan.GUMBAYNGGIR

Tai-K

adai

.PA

HA

Turkic.M

ARESHK KHORASANI

Ara

wak

an.W

AU

RA

Atlantic-C

ongo.LWE

L KILO

RI 3

Austronesian.TOMADINO

Kio

wa-

Tano

an.J

EM

EZ

Sou

th O

mot

ic.D

IME

Algic.KASKASKIA ILLINOIS

Austronesian.SEBUYAU

Pauwasi.YU

RI

Atlantic-Congo.NATENI

Atlantic-Congo.BAN

KALA

Oto

man

guea

n.Z

AP

OT

EC

SO

UT

HE

RN

RIN

CO

N

Sino-T

ibetan.G

UR

UN

G

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.SIA

NE

Pan

o-Ta

cana

n.S

HA

NE

NA

WA

Mande.GBELEBANKAKAN

Sino-T

ibetan.ZA

IWA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.W O

RO

MO

Tai-K

adai

.TA

I WU

MIN

G

Austro

nesia

n.ARGUNI

Austronesian.TANETE

Austro

nesia

n.W

AROPEN

Anim.JAKAJ

Austronesian.KAMBERA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.SID

AM

O

Indo-European.GURU KALASHA

Afro-A

siatic

.TERA

Indo-European.WELSH

Tai-K

adai

.TA

I PO

AI

Pomoan.POMO NORTHERN

Biksi.BIKSI

Sino-T

ibetan.ST

OD

SD

E

Pama-Nyungan.WOIWURRUNGAustronesian.MISIMA PANAEATI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.MO

RO

CC

AN A

RAB

IC

Austronesian.NAKANAI

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL HUEYATI YAHUALICA

Indo-European.ROMANSH SURMIRAN

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.KA

PAU

KU

Mayan.WESTERN CAKCHIQUEL PATZUN

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.Z

ULU

NK

AN

DLA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.INN

EMO

R

Yangmanic.YANGMAN

Kxa.HOAN

South Bougainville.NASIO

I

Pama-Nyungan.PALLANGANMIDDANG

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

YA

LA K

EN

YA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.OR

MA

Austronesian.TAAI SAISIYAT

Austronesian.AMBON MALEIS

Atlantic-C

ongo.XE

HIM

BA

Chumashan.CHUMASH BARBARENO

Afro

-Asi

atic

.HAU

SA

Pama-Nyungan.WIRANGU

Que

chua

n.H

UA

NU

CO

Atlantic-C

ongo.KE

NYA

NG

KITW

II

Afro

-Asi

atic

.HAR

ARI

Karuk.KAROK

Austronesian.TONGAN

Atlantic-C

ongo.SU

KU

Austronesian.MALAGASY BETSIMISARAKA

Chukotko-Kamchatkan.CHUKCHEE

Atlantic-C

ongo.LEN

GO

LA 2

Austro

asia

tic.S

EMNAM

Austronesian.NAKANAI 2

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.BO

NG

O

Atlantic-C

ongo.BO

DO

Turkic.P

IR KOMAJ K

HORASANI

Indo-European.ITALIAN GROSSETO TUSCAN

Atlantic-Congo.DAGAARE

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL MONTEGRANDE PLATON SANCHEZ

Mab

an.K

IBE

T

Austronesian.ONEIBIA AROSI

Austronesian.LUNGGA

Was

ho.W

AS

HO

Tim

or-A

lor-P

anta

r.TEW

A LE

BAN

G

Atlantic-Congo.M

ADA

Atlantic-C

ongo.K11 C

IOK

WE

Austronesian.MANTAURAN RUKAI

Austronesian.YAMDENA

Atlantic-Congo.SALKA

Nuclear Torricelli.YIR

Totonacan.TOTONAC OZELONACAXTLA

Austronesia

n.SIE

Atlantic-Congo.TEGBO

Mayan.MAYA YUCATAN

Austronesian.KERINCI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.GE

DE

O

Ijoid

.OG

ULA

GH

AK

aure

-Nar

au.K

AU

RE

Afro-A

siatic

.MIS

HIP

Indo-European.ORMURI

Mande.SHANGA

Oto

man

guea

n.PA

ME

MER

IDIO

NAL

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.D

OE

Austronesian.AULU SAA

Austronesia

n.LITZLITZ

Car

iban

.YA

BA

RA

NA

Indo-European.PLAUTDIETSCH

Atlantic-C

ongo.PO

VE

Atlantic-Congo.N

UN

KU

Sino-T

ibetan.DA

ZH

AI H

AN

I

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.K

OR

EK

OR

E

Hm

ong-Mien.LO

NG

HU

A B

UN

U 2

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.K

AM

I

Japonic.IZENA KUNIGAMI

Aust

roas

iatic

.KO

RKU

Indo-European.YIDDISH WESTERN

Zam

ucoan.A

YO

RE

O

Atlantic-Congo.WARA

Teberan.FOLO

PA

Que

chua

n.C

HE

TIL

LA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

DE

ND

EU

LE

Austronesia

n.BAETORA NASAWA

Atlantic-Congo.BEROM

R

Austronesian.YAMI 2

Mirndi.DJAMINDJUNG

Tup

ian.

KO

KA

MA

Mayan.KICHEE SAN MIGUEL CHICAJ

Austronesian.VERAA

Sino-T

ibetan.NA

GA

TAR

AO

Que

chua

n.IN

GA

Atlantic-Congo.LANGBASI

Austronesian.MBULA PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.P

AR

E S

UD

Austronesian.M

AFEA

Austronesian.NGAJU OLOH MANGTANGAI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.DAM

ASC

US

ARAB

IC

Nakh-D

aghestanian.B

ATS

Atlantic-C

ongo.NT

OM

BA

DE

BIK

OR

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.BA

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.TA

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.NKAFA

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A

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Nuclear Torricelli.NINGIL

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FAW

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-Asi

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.HE

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.MUSG

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.MUPUN

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T

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.SID

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.AW

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.GRAND C

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O

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.MA

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.FUTU

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.KH

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.MUNJU

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.WA

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.KIL

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.WARJI

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n.YARIK

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KO

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AO

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UA

NG

BA

I

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Austronesian.BANJARESE MALAY

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ON

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DO

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IA

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Austronesia

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EQ W

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.DO

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GA

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TO

NG

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Atlantic-Congo.BAD

A

Austronesian.TOLAKI KONAWE

Ndu.YELOGU

Austronesia

n.NEMI

Indo-European.LIGURIAN STELLA

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Atla

ntic

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GO

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iatic

.MAL

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Tara

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NG

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NY

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Salishan.SLIAMMON

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NG

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Bor

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E

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Austro

asia

tic.S

APUAN

Hadza.HADZA

Atlantic-C

ongo.NZ

AD

I 2

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Nuclear Trans N

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ND

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asia

tic.W

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ITE

LA

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atic

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O

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Tara

scan

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NZ

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BU

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ND

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LON

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2

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go.G

IRY

AM

A 3

Austronesian.MALAGASY MASIKORO MIARY

Austronesian.SERILI

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL COYOTEPEC

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.W

AMAS

Chibchan.N

GA

BE

RE

MO

VE

Austronesian.MOORIORI

Atlantic-C

ongo.LOB

ALA

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asia

tic.R

UC

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Indo-European.BUGURDZI ROMANI

Atlantic-C

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YA

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Atlantic-C

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ND

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GW

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TE

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C

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3

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an.TOA

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I 2

Austronesian.GALOLI

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Atlantic-Congo.DOOHWAAYAAYO

Nuclear-M

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AR

A

Afro

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atic

.UBI

Salishan.COEUR DALENE

Austronesia

n.NYIN

DROU

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.HINIHON

Tim

or-A

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Pan

tar.K

AM

AN

G L

AN

GK

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U

Turkic.C

RIMEAN TURKISH

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.MUNGKIP

Austronesian.KANKANAY NORTHERN

Afro

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atic

.DA

AS

AN

AC

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Atla

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BU

ND

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Austronesian.KEAPARA

Atlantic-C

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E

Austronesian.MALAGASY BARA

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Atlantic-Congo.ANYI

Pama-Nyungan.BADIMAYA

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Que

chua

n.Q

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CH

UA

AN

CA

SH

CH

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IAN

Atlantic-C

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OM

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2

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IMU

CA

RE

TUA

RA

Tai-K

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.FA

NG

CU

N M

AK

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Atlantic-Congo.GA

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NZ

1

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Atla

ntic

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64 T

ON

GA

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.TR

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Tem

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TE

ME

IN

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IRAT

A

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ongo.SO

NG

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DI

Totonacan.TOTONAC TEJERIA

Atlantic-C

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NG

ELE

MB

ELO

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Atla

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AG

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SO

Austronesian.KALAGAN

Ta-N

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OY

RA

Nuclear Trans N

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MYA

ND

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ET

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aghestanian.U

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iatic

.BIT

Atlantic-C

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KU

BO

NG

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A

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Austronesian.EAST MAKIAN

Atlantic-Congo.ELOYI

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GO

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I

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AILAPA

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ALU

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T KAMBAR

AMBA

Austronesia

n.LEIPON

Sko.LEITRE

Turkic.K

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NE

HA

S

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UW

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Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL CHINANCAHUATL ZACUALTIPAN

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.CH

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ON

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RAM

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Austronesia

n.APMA

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tic.G

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tic.T

ES

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.KIR

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Austronesian.CASIGURAN NEGRITO

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ongo.IBO

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BO

MB

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OM

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A

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Nuclear Trans N

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n.W

OI

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Lakes Plain.E

DO

PI

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Austronesia

n.LAMENU

Austronesia

n.KATBOL T

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GA

PO

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UN

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AI

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Nimboranic.M

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Afro

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atic

.PAL

ESTI

NIA

N A

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Atla

ntic

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OT

I

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Khoe-Kwadi.KHWE

Uto-Aztecan.OPATA

Uralic.ESTONIAN VORO

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NG

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TO

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man

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1776

Austronesian.TAHITIAN 18TH CENTURY

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CO

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OG

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UM

BA

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Austronesian.KAYELI

Austronesian.KADATUA

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ongo.NG

WI M

AT

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O K

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OLI

Indo-European.TOCHARIAN B

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GA

BO

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Oto

man

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AN

GU

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YA

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Hei

bani

c.R

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.TARIF

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ISH

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.TAM

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Indo-European.KARAK PASHTO

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RR

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Z

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Car

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.MA

PO

YO

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Atlantic-Congo.AHANTE

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AN

TO

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SE

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A

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AA

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MA

NO

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Austronesian.SASAK

Aust

roas

iatic

.RIA

NG

WH

ITE

STR

IPED

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NGUM

Austronesian.NUKURIA

Afro-A

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.SIR

I

Austronesian.NIAS SOUTHERN

Atlantic-C

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ON

GH

O

Austronesian.MANADONESE

Nuclear Trans N

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HU

SA

MA

NE

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UT

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O

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RO

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MI 2

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-Asi

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.WES

TER

N N

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Tai-K

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.TA

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NG

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tic.J

RU

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AIT

A

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AN

GW

E

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INA

PA

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GY

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NG

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.PA

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tic.C

HONG

H

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ngo.

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IGA

Austronesian.TERNATE PASAR

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PE

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Austronesian.MBAELELEA

Austronesian.KONDO

Atlantic-C

ongo.SO

ND

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YA

AN

ZA

Austronesian.GHARI

Nuclear Torricelli.SRENGE

Atlantic-C

ongo.NG

ELIM

A

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AS

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Austronesian.MALAGASY FIANARANTSOA

Oto

man

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AN

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AN

CH

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IHU

ITLA

N

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.DIMIR

Austronesian.BINA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.KOSORONGTa

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A M

IT L

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A

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AIW

A GA

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Tim

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RE

WE

NG

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SH

ON

G 1

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asia

tic.D

AZHAI W

A

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KO

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UR

I

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.JU

DU

GE

LAO

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SO

NG

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MO

1

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MA

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ON

GO

TA

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CO

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kan-

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k-T

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t.NA

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JO

Austro

nesia

n.M

UNGGUI

Atlantic-Congo.FULFULDE ADAMAWA

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Austro

nesia

n.AROP S

ISSANO

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Atlantic-C

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YIN

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n.PA

PORA

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NG

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ntic

-Con

go.K

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RE

WE

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IAN

O 2

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wa.KARANKAW

A

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ND

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JAW

DH

A

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Atla

ntic

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WA

HIL

I SU

D

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Anim.M

AKAYAM

Austro

nesia

n.BONGGO

Songh

ay.T

ASAWAQ

Atlantic-Congo.NATIORO

Sino-T

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GA

MI

Austronesian.BUTANGLU PAIWAN

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Pama-Nyungan.MANGGALILI

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wan

.BA

NA

WA

Aust

roas

iatic

.HO

2S

ino-Tibetan.PU

TIA

N C

HIN

ES

E

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n.BIA

K

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.GB

AR

AIN

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MA

2

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Indo-European.SLOVAK

Sino-T

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RO

Turkic.T

ATAR

Indo-European.MANX

North Halmahera.TOBELO 2

Afro-A

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.WUZLA

M

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Sino-T

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RO

IK

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.BACAM

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Austronesian.MISOOL MAYA

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OM

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A

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GI M

E

Nimboranic.NIM

BORAN 2

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UN

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Austro

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.DEHU

Yukaghir.Y

UKAGHIR TUNDRA

Nuclear T

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ic.S

HE

Atla

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WA

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I PE

MB

A

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.WU

DIN

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TO

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2

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n.NANGGU

Kad

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KA

DU

GLI

2

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Atlantic-Congo.GANANG

Elem

an.SE

PO

E

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Pano-Tacanan

.ES

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Nilo

tic.A

NY

UA

K

Afro

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atic

.GW

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A

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OT

O M

INIC

A

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.CA

VIN

EN

A 2

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Sud

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.GU

LA S

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Atla

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BA

KE

NY

A

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AGORI

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Sepik.HEWA

Nilo

tic.A

CH

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ian.

TE

MB

E

Austronesian.MENGGALA TULANG BAWANG LAMPUNG NYO

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TAK

ALE

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AK

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DE

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ENI

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KA

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Japonic.KUNINAKA MIYAKO

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NG

MA

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EQ

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BA

I

Ta-N

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RA

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ME

ZUN

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Hui

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.GO

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.CEMUHI

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USI MANA

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ALAR

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.KW

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n.W

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Austronesian.LAMPUNG NYO MELINTING

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Atlantic-C

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Mongolic.MOGHOL

Turkic.C

HARAM SARJAM KHORASANI

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Austronesia

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n.NESE

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Atlantic-C

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.EN

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.ZIL

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.MBURKU

Austronesia

n.LEWO N

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.GHO

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Austronesian.TSAT

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.NANKINA

Austronesian.MANGAP

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SH

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Nuclear Torricelli.HEYO

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tic.N

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Nuclear Trans New Guinea.MINDIK

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MA

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3

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.GU

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man

e.M

OS

ET

EN

Nar

row

Tal

odi.T

OC

HO

Tai-K

adai

.WU

MIN

G

Afro

-Asi

atic

.HAR

ARI 2

Wes

t Bom

bera

i.KA

RA

S

Aust

roas

iatic

.PAT

ICH

OR

A SA

NTA

LI

Indo-European.LITHUANIAN ROMANI

Sino-T

ibetan.LALO

Nuclear-M

acro-Je.APA

NIE

KR

A

Sino-T

ibetan.BU

GU

N

Left May.OWINIGA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.SINSAURU

Austronesian.POLONOMBAUK

Atlantic-Congo.IG

UTA

Pama-Nyungan.GURINDJI

Sino-T

ibetan.JINO

Nakh-D

aghestanian.A

RCHI 2

Chocoan.N

OR

THE

RN

EM

BE

RA

Austro

asia

tic.T

EMO

Q

Sino-T

ibetan.CA

IYU

AN

BIY

O

Atlantic-C

ongo.BATU

AN

WE

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.KO

YU

KO

N

Pauwasi.JAFI

Atlantic-C

ongo.B86 D

ZIN

G B

ISE

Y

Japonic.HATERUMA YAEYAMA

Que

chua

n.Q

UE

CH

UA

AYA

CU

CH

O

Nuc

lear

-Mac

ro-J

e.K

RE

NA

K

Nilo

tic.M

AB

AA

N

Austronesian.MARAU

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.L

OM

WE

Burushaski.CENTRAL YASIN BURUSHASKI

Atlantic-C

ongo.HA

UT K

EN

YAN

G

Haida.HAIDA

Indo-European.KUMAUNI

Atlantic-Congo.MBANZA

Afr

o-A

siat

ic.M

OG

OG

OD

O

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.LO

MB

I

Eastern Trans-Fly.WIPI ABAM

Austronesian.QUEZON PALAWAN

Afro-A

siatic

.YIW

OM

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.OSUM

Atlantic-Congo.IKO

Atlantic-C

ongo.LING

OM

BE

Atlantic-Congo.ZAAM

BO

Diz

oid.

SH

EK

O

Austro

asia

tic.W

A

Atlantic-Congo.BWAMU

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.K

ELO

N P

RO

BU

R

Austronesia

n.WEST AMBAE

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL CUAMELC0 TIANGUISTENGO

Austro

nesian

.FA TIE

TA

Afro-A

siatic

.DGHW

EDE

Austronesia

n.RANO

Austronesian.BOLONGAN

Tor-Orya.BERIK 2

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL REYES DE VALLARTA TUZAMAPAN

Indo-European.JAMRUD AFRIDI PASHTO

Sino-T

ibetan.LAK

HE

R M

AR

A

Atlantic-Congo.SISAALA TUMULUNG

Austronesian.SUNGKAI LAMPUNG API

Saharan.KANURI

Totonacan.XICOTEPEC TOTONAC

Atlantic-C

ongo.TIBE

A

Pano-Tacanan

.KA

SH

IBO

ALT

O A

GU

AY

TIA

Atlantic-C

ongo.PO

NG

U

Indo-European.URDU

Austronesian.MATBAT

Japonic.KAMIKATETSU KIKAI

Atlantic-C

ongo.MA

HO

NG

WE

SA

MA

Bus

a.B

US

AN

Sino-T

ibetan.KA

RE

N Y

INB

AW

Mande.BOZO HAINYAHO

Atlantic-C

ongo.MB

AM

BA

2

Atlantic-Congo.BIALI

Atlantic-Congo.FYEM

Nilo

tic.A

CH

OLI

2

Nuclear Torricelli.YIL

Austronesian.ITAWIT

Austronesian.LAMETIN

Austronesian.ANAKALANG

Sino-T

ibetan.KA

YA

H W

ES

TE

RN

Turkic.A

ZERBAIJANI S

OUTHERN

Austronesian.SIOTucanoan.O

RE

JON

2

Atlantic-C

ongo.BU

RU

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL AXOCHIAPAN

Car

iban

.WA

YA

NA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.GE

DE

O 2

Afro-A

siatic

.KABYLE

Austronesian.ISAMORONG IVATAN

Que

chua

n.Q

UE

CH

UA

YA

UY

OS

CA

CR

A

Burushaski.HAIDERABAD HUNZA BURUSHASKI

Austronesia

n.JAW

E

Austronesian.LOREDIAKARKAR

Pama-Nyungan.AWABAKAL

Austronesian.LAMASONG

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.A

BU

I MA

KA

DA

I

Sino-Tibetan.LU

OB

EN

ZH

UO

BA

I

Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL HUITZILTEPEC ZUMPANGO DEL RIO

Indo-European.ZUGUNUK KALASHA

Atlantic-C

ongo.YA

NZ

KIB

ON

GO

Sino-T

ibetan.DH

IMA

L

Afro-A

siatic

.BURA

Dogon.DOGON JAMSAY

Sur

mic

.ME

EN

Zam

ucoan.A

YO

RE

O 2

Dravidian.IRULA

Austronesian.DARAGA

Nakh-D

aghestanian.K

HINALUG

Dravidian.SOUTHERN GONDI

Austronesia

n.BIE

REBO TAVIO

Blu

e N

ile M

ao.G

AN

ZA

Atlantic-Congo.MOBA

Tai-K

adai

.LO

NG

AN

CE

NTR

AL

HO

NG

SH

UIH

E Z

HU

AN

G

Tai-K

adai

.SIA

ME

SE

Atlantic-Congo.BUEM LELEM

I

Indo-European.SPANISH

Austronesian.MALAGASY TANDROY MAHAFALY AMPANIHY

Afro-A

siatic

.GERA

Atlantic-Congo.YOM

Angan.LOHIKI

Candoshi-Shapra.CANDOSHI

Atlantic-C

ongo.BE

MB

E 2

Cad

doan

.WIC

HIT

A 2

Austro

asia

tic.N

YAKUR

2

Austro

nesia

n.KAULO

NG

Dogon.AMPARI PA

Japonic.KOMI YAEYAMA

Austronesian.TALUTI TAMILOUW

Aust

roas

iatic

.KSI

NM

UL

Tucanoan.SIO

NA

North Halmahera.TAFASOHO

Austronesian.DORIO

Turkic.K

ARACHAY BALKAR

Atlantic-Congo.BELANDA VIRI

Austronesian.WARAY WARAY

Kiwaian.G

IBAIO

Oto

man

guea

n.Z

AP

OT

EC

YA

TZ

AC

HI

Sino-T

ibetan.K

AIK

E

Atlantic-C

ongo.BA

BO

LE IM

PF

ON

DO

Austronesia

n.LELEPA

Car

iban

.YU

KP

A 2

Oto

man

guea

n.S

AN

PE

DR

O Q

UIA

TO

NI Z

AP

OT

EC

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

ILO

ZI

Atlantic-Congo.SELE

Austronesian.SOPPENG BUGINESE

Mande.KARANJANKAN

Uto-Aztecan.CUPENO

Ara

wak

an.C

UR

RIP

AC

O

Wakashan.DITIDAHT

Uto-Aztecan.KITANEMUK

Atlantic-Congo.C

ISHIN

GIN

I

Kakua-Nukak.NUKAK

Ain

u.A

INU

HO

RO

BE

TS

U

Afro

-Asi

atic

.BU

RJI

2

Elem

an.AH

EAV

E

Algic.DELAWARE MUNSEE

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.NUNGON

Indo-European.KESU KHOWAR

Atlantic-C

ongo.L221 LWA

LWA

2

Austronesian.TRUKESE

Atlantic-C

ongo.AM

AS

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.LOM

ON

GO

Iroquoian.MOHAWK

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.T

SO

NG

A

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.N

YA

KY

US

A 1

Sino-T

ibetan.K

HA

RM

AN

G B

ALT

I

Nivkh.GILYAK AMUR

Tiwi.TIWI

Indo-European.PUNIAL SHINA

Nuclear Torricelli.AGI AGEI

Nuclear T

rans N

ew Guinea.K

EWA

Mayan.SACAPULTECO SACAPULAS CENTRO

Atlantic-C

ongo.BU

M B

CA

ME

RO

ON

Atlantic-C

ongo.TE

KE

NT

YO

1T

upia

n.T

UP

INA

MB

A

Austronesian.LANGUE DE ISLES MARQUISES

Uralic.INGRIAN

Tai-K

adai

.MU

LAO

Muskogean.CHOCTAW

Nakh-D

aghestanian.TIN

DI

Ara

wak

an.T

AR

IAN

O

Austronesian.KERINCI 2

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.G

44a

NG

AZ

IDJA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.DEL

LYS

Atlantic-Congo.KEJA

Ndu.WOSERA

Austronesian.WESTERN PENAN

Austronesian.ROTUMAN

Atlantic-Congo.MANJACA COSTA DE BAIXO

Koi

aria

n.K

OIT

A

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.GWAHATIKE

Mande.SAGAKAKAN

Ta-N

e-O

mot

ic.M

OC

HA

2

Mongolic.KANGJIA

Austro

asia

tic.V

IETN

AMESE 3

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.K

IRU

ND

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.SH

AM

A

Nakh-D

aghestanian.S

OUTHERN AKHVAKH

Austro

nesian

.XARACUU

Elseng.SAWA

Greater Kwerba.KW

ERBA NAIDJBEDJ

Tai-K

adai

.WU

MIN

G Z

HU

AN

G

Atlantic-C

ongo.NG

OM

BA

LE

Afro

-Asi

atic

.KAN

O

Afro

-Asi

atic

.RO

N B

OKKO

S

Indo-European.CORNISH

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.R

AB

AI 2

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.CASUARINA

COAST ASM

AT

Car

iban

.TA

UR

EP

AN

G

Nuclear Torricelli.WALMAN CHINAPELI

Ain

u.A

INU

KU

SH

IRO

Zaparoan.ARABELA

Tim

or-A

lor-P

anta

r.NED

EBAN

G

Atlantic-Congo.LUA NIELLIM

Bogia.MO

NU

MBO

Aust

roas

iatic

.KH

ANG

Atlantic-Congo.IGEDE

Tai-K

adai

.YE

RO

NG

Austro

nesia

n.SENGSENG

Indo-European.BALEAR CATALAN

Timucua.TIMUCUA

Austronesian.KALLAHAN KELEYQIQ IFUGAO

Nuclear Torricelli.TORRICELLI

Afro

-Asi

atic

.GID

OLE

Austro

asia

tic.K

INTA

Q

Tuu.NU

Afro

-Asi

atic

.AW

NG

I

Nakh-D

aghestanian.H

UNZIB

Chibchan.B

UG

LER

E M

UR

IRE

Austronesian.MORTLOCKESE

Sino-T

ibetan.TAR

AO

N

Tucanoan.DE

SA

NO

2

Iroquoian.SENECA

Afro-A

siatic

.DASS D

WAT

Afro-A

siatic

.BANA

Indo-European.AFRIKAANS

Aust

roas

iatic

.DAN

AU

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.D

IGO

Atlantic-Congo.NAFAARA

Barbacoan.A

WA

PIT

Austronesian.PASARWAJO

Indo-European.KIRMANJKI

Indo-European.WAD PAGGA HINDKO

Afro-A

siatic

.WARG

LA

Ara

wak

an.S

AR

AV

EK

A

Mande.KOROKAN

Uto-Aztecan.TETELCINGO NAHUATL

Atlantic-Congo.MAMPRULI

Austronesian.MALAGASY SAKALAVA 1

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

WA

HIL

I PA

TE

Indo-European.CRIMEAN ROMANI

Ijoid

.IBA

NI

Tup

ian.

PA

RA

KA

NA

Austronesian.KORONI

Atlantic-C

ongo.XE

TS

OX

O

Eastern Trans-Fly.WIPI IAM

EGA

Austro

nesia

n.SOBEI

Atlantic-Congo.KO

NJA N

DU

NG

Sino-T

ibetan.QIA

NG

MIA

NC

HI

Nilo

tic.P

OK

OT

Tai-K

adai

.SH

AN

2

Kiwaian.W

ABUD

A

Afro-A

siat

ic.R

ON

MAN

GAR

Austronesian.OGAN

Mayan.CHORTI

Arauca

nian.M

APUDUNGUN

Atlantic-Congo.ED

O

Austronesia

n.URA

Afro

-Asi

atic

.AR

AMAI

C

Atlantic-C

ongo.CIN

DA 2

Salishan.NOOKSACK

Mayan.MAYA YUCATECA

Que

chua

n.Q

UIC

HU

A C

OTO

PAX

I TIG

UA

Nam

la-Tofanma.TO

FAMN

A

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.M

MA

NI

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.NEK

Austronesian.INDONESIAN JAKARTA

Indo-European.ALBANIAN GHEG

Indo-European.BALOCHI WESTERN

Ijoid

.OP

ER

EM

O

Cui

tlate

c.C

UIT

LAT

EC

Afro

-Asi

atic

.KE

MA

NT

2


ARUS

Afro-A

siatic

.TAM

AZIGHT

CENTRAL ATLA

S NTIF

A

Austronesia

n.LABO WIN

DUA

Indo-European.LATVIAN

Austronesian.LAU NORTH

Tai-K

adai

.LU

NG

MIN

G

Austronesian.SANTA ANA OWA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.NUKNA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.Z

IMB

AB

WE

ND

EB

ELE

Sino-T

ibetan.P

UR

IK

Indo-European.SANSKRIT

Western Daly.MARRIAMMU

Chibchan.C

HIM

ILA

Yuat.KYAIMBARANG

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.HITIGIMA DANI

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.DIG

OE

LEE

SC

H

Pama-Nyungan.MARARBA

Nuclear T

rans N

ew Guinea.IN

IAI

Austronesian.TONTEMBOAN

Atlantic-C

ongo.LAN

GA

MB

OLE

BA

MB

ULI

Turkic.U

YGHUR

Afro

-Asi

atic

.SAN

AN

DR

ES A

RAB

IC 3

Indo-European.TOCHARIAN A

Atlantic-C

ongo.EW

ON

DO

Peba-Yagua.YAGUA

Austro

nesia

n.KAM

BRAM

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.F

21 S

UK

UM

A

Atlantic-Congo.MAM

ARA SENOUFO

Austronesian.M

OSINA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.G

IKU

YU

2

Hui

toto

an.H

UIT

OT

O N

UP

OD

E

Kuliak.T

EPES

Kom

an.N

OR

THE

RN

KO

MA

Austro

asia

tic.S

AOCH

Indo-European.OLD IRISH

Aym

aran

.CE

NT

RA

L A

YM

AR

A 2

Mande.YAURE

Atlantic-C

ongo.OY

UO

MI M

BA

MA

Nakh-D

aghestanian.M

OKOK TSEZ

Uto-Aztecan.HIGHLAND PUEBLA NAHUATL

Austronesian.WAIAHAA AREARE Uto-Aztecan.NAHUATL CHICHIQUILA

Indo-European.RAJBANSHI

Gunwinyguan.INGURA

Atlantic-Congo.KULU

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.B

EN

DE

Afro

-Asi

atic

.CH

AHA

Great A

ndamanese.A

KA BO

Ath

apas

kan-

Eya

k-T

lingi

t.CH

IRIC

AH

UA

Sino-Tibetan.C

HA

OY

AN

G C

HIN

ES

E

Border.AMANAB

Austronesian.SAMOAN

Indo-European.SHINWARI PASHTO

Pama-Nyungan.GURENG GURENG

Afro-A

siatic

.NG

IZIM

Austronesia

n.LEWO N

IKAURA

Nihali.N

AHALI

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.B

UU

Austronesian.RANTEPALADO

Indo-European.PURIGAL PHALURA

Atlantic-C

ongo.IWU

M W

UU

MB

U 1

Austronesian.BOBOT

Pama-Nyungan.THURAWAL

Algic.CHIPPEWA

Atlantic-C

ongo.MB

AM

BA

LIWE

ME

Atlantic-C

ongo.LEFA

Austronesian.TANAN RUKAI

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.MIA

N

Miwok-Costanoan.MIWOK BODEGA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.J

15 G

AN

DA

Austronesian.SUKAU LAMPUNG API

Indo-European.FRENCH


ALE PAPUANG

Atlantic-Congo.KRACHI

Ijoid

.BU

MO

Austronesian.LAMPUNG

Indo-European.ROMANIAN 2

Atlantic-Congo.DONGO

Atlantic-Congo.DITAMMARI

Austro

nesia

n.ORM

U

Atlantic-Congo.SAMBE

Hei

bani

c.T

IRO

Austronesian.WAMPAR 2

Sino-T

ibetan.KA

BU

I RO

NG

ME

I

Austro

nesia

n.KOW

IAI

Indo-European.OLD NORSE

Mande.DUUNGOMA

Burushaski.NAZIMABAD HUNZA BURUSHASKI

Mayan.CHUJ

Austronesia

n.WHIT

ESANDS LONIEL

Ta-N

e-O

mot

ic.Z

ER

GU

LLA

Austronesian.IMROING

Eskimo-Aleut.KANGIRYUARMIUTUN

Atlantic-Congo.NZEMA

Indo-European.DALMATIAN

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.R

UT

OO

RO

Nuclear Trans N

ew G

uinea.TIFA

L

Atlantic-C

ongo.B44 LU

MB

U Y

I BA

ND

A

Austronesian.BWAIDOKA

Chocoan.E

MB

ER

ATA

DO

Tai-K

adai

.SH

AN

GS

I YO

NG

NA

N Z

HU

AN

G

Austronesian.BUOL

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.K

AB

OLA

Austro

nesia

n.KAYUPULA

U

Uralic.MANSI

Salishan.SAANICH

Indo-European.SARDINIAN LOGUDARESE

Afro

-Asi

atic

.MA

AY

Hm

ong-Mien.S

HU

AN

GLO

NG

MIE

N

Austronesia

n.SIV

ISA T

ITAN

Austronesian.FATALEKA

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.ISEBE

Sino-T

ibetan.WA

NA

NG

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.L

AM

BA

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.J

52 H

AV

U 2

Daj

uic.

SH

AT

T

Hm

ong-Mien.JIW

EI H

MO

NG

Austronesian.NORTHERN CATANDUANES

Cochimi-Yuman.HAVASUPAI

Atlantic-Congo.NEYO

Atlantic-Congo.PAM

Austronesian.PUBIAN LAMPUNG API

Indo-European.PIEMONTESE LANZO TORINESE

Lakes Plain.S

AP

ON

I

Nuclear Torricelli.KAM

ASAU

Austronesian.KWAIO

Totonacan.TOTONAC COYUTLA

Mayan.KICHEE SANTA MARIA CHIQUIMULA 2

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.B

WIL

E

Austronesian.STIMUL PAIWAN

Austro

nesia

n.NEA N

OOLI

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.B

ON

DE

I

Atlantic-C

ongo.LUY

AN

A 1

Austronesia

n.PAAMA LIRONESA

Tup

ian.

AR

AW

ET

E

Mande.LIBERIAN KPELLE

Austronesian.TOPOIYO

Austronesian.NGAIBOR

Austro

asia

tic.Z

HONG

KE WA

Indo-European.OLD LOW FRANCONIAN

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.SUROI

Austronesian.SONSOROLESE

Austronesian.EMBALOH

Atlantic-Congo.BEGBERE EJAR

Atlantic-C

ongo.NG

ON

GO

1

Indo-European.CIMBRIAN

Atlantic-Congo.YO

RU

BA

Atlantic-C

ongo.NS

AR

I

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.YU

LU

Ara

wan

.KU

LIN

A A

RA

UA

Atlantic-C

ongo.A62 K

ALO

NG

E

Atlantic-C

ongo.ND

WA

MA

Nilo

tic.T

UR

KA

NA

Austronesian.KMAGHA MARINGE CHEKE HOLO

Uto-Aztecan.UTE 1

Atlantic-C

ongo.LAA

LI TE

KE

2

Austronesian.PATPATAR

Tai-K

adai

.LA

MPA

NG

TH

AI

Pano-Tacanan

.CA

PA

NA

HU

A

Austro

asia

tic.S

URIN

Afro

-Asi

atic

.KA

MB

AAT

A 2

Austronesian.BROOKES POINT PALAWAN

Austronesian.NANWANG PUYUMA

Nucle

ar-M

acro

-Je.

MAXAKALI

Great A

ndamanese.O

KO JUW

OI

Atla

ntic

-Con

go.S

EG

EJU

Ara

wak

an.C

AM

PA

DE

PE

RE

NE

Austronesia

n.HIW

Afro-A

siatic

.HIL

DI

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.DUDUELA

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.MA

AD

I

Nuclear Trans New Guinea.ONO

Tungusic.OROQEN

Nakh-D

aghestanian.AVAR ANTSUKH

Tim

or-A

lor-

Pan

tar.S

AWIL

A 2

Atlantic-C

ongo.BA

LEP

Austronesian.DANGAL

Atlantic-C

ongo.PU

NU

2

Afro

-Asi

atic

.GAF

AT

Ara

wak

an.Y

UC

UN

A 2

Dravidian.TULU

Sur

mic

.ME

SE

NG

O

Sino-T

ibetan.NA

CH

ER

ING

Cen

tral

Sud

anic

.LE

ND

U D

JAD

HA

Tai-K

adai

.TE

N 2

Atlantic-C

ongo.B70 T

EK

E O

MV

ULA

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.PU

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.AG

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.BATA

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.PN

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.GUDE

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.SH

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.KAR

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Nuclear Torricelli.OLO YEBIL

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-Asi

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.GE

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.NU

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Nuclear Trans N

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.WA

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.JIN

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Austronesian

Austroasiatic

Sino-Tibetan

Quechuan

Macro-Area

Africa

Papunesia

Eurasia

South America

North America

Australia

Applications

Applications


Applications

Estimating Markov processes


Applications

Equilibrium probabilities

Empirical vs. estimated percentages Posterior distribution

Stochastically stable


Applications

Correlation between linguistic and phenotypic distances

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lingu

istic

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tanc

e


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