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From selfevalua.on to metarepresenta.on: two representa.onal systems? Joëlle Proust Ins.tut JeanNicod, ENS, Paris hBp://dividnorm.ens.fr hBp://joelleproust.org The Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology 2016 Louisville, Kentucky

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From  self-­‐evalua.on  to  metarepresenta.on:    two  representa.onal  systems?    

 Joëlle  Proust  

       Ins.tut  Jean-­‐Nicod,  ENS,  Paris    

                                                             hBp://dividnorm.ens.fr                                                              hBp://joelleproust.org  

   

The  Southern  Society  for  Philosophy  and  Psychology  2016  

Louisville,  Kentucky  

   

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EPISTEMIC  SELF-­‐EVALUATION  

AKA  «  METACOGNITION  »:  =  the  ability  to  predict  success  in  a  cogni.ve    first-­‐order  task,  such  as:  

– Categorizing  perceived  paBerns  – Remembering  a  name  or  an  icon    – Learning  – Solving  a  problem  

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Why  would  a  philosopher  care?  3  reasons  (at  least)  

•  Discern  what  is  specific  to  human  ra.onality  and  what  is  shared  with  other  vertebrates.  

•  Update  our  no.on  of  a  representa.onal  mind  in  the  light  of  findings    in  cogni.ve  science.  

•  Refine  the  no.on  of  epistemic  evaluability  by  focussing  on  its  representa.onal  condi.ons.  

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Outline  

1.  Metacogni.on  in  young  children:  Developmental  dissocia.ons  

2.  Metacogni.on  in  monkeys:  evidence,  implica.ons  

3.  Evalua.ve  vs  proposi.onal  abtude  representa.ons  

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1.  Metacogni.on  in  young  children  

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Developmental  dissocia.ons  between  aBribu.on  and  self-­‐evalua.on  

•  Young  children  are  unreliable  in  repor.ng  their  underlying  knowledge  states  (Smar.es  task,  Gopnik  &  As.ngton  1988,  par.al  knowledge,  Rohwer  et  al.  2012,  lexical  knowledge:  Marazita  &  Merriman,  2004)  

•   However,  they  can  reliably  monitor  their  percep.on  &  memory  in  implicit  decisions,  e.g.  –   op.ng  out  from  a  task.  (Balcomb  &  Gerken,  2008)  Bernard  et  al.(  2014,  2015)  

–   Fixa.on  paBerns  on  a  confidence  scale  (Paulus,  Proust  &  Sodian,    2013).    

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Kim,  Paulus,  Sodian,  Proust  (subm.):  sensi.vity  to  own  ignorance  

This  study  examines  3  and  4  year-­‐olds‘  performances  •   in  an  explicit  mc  task  (do  you  know  or  not  where  the  object  is?)  replica.ng  Rohwer  et  al.  2012  

•  In  an  implicit  mc  task  (Do  you  want  or  not  to  inform  Max  about  where  the  object  is?)  

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•  in  each  task,  three  condi.ons:  – Full  knowledge:  children  saw  one  toy    and  watched  its  being  hidden  in  an  opaque  box  

– Par.al  knowledge  condi.on:    children  saw  two  toys  and  the  empty  box  &  were  told  that  one  of  them  would  be  hidden  in  the  box,  but  did  not  see  which  one.  

–  Ignorance  condi.on:  children  did  not  see  any  object,  and  were  merely  told  that  a  toy  would  be  hidden  in  the  box  behind  the  screen.  Then  the  screen  opened,  revealing  the  opaque  box.  

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Explicit  knowledge  report    Rohwer  et  al.(2012)  

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On  this  basis,  

•  One  might  hypothesize  that  children  correctly  aBribute  knowledge  to  themselves  only  when  they  have  acquired  a  full-­‐blown  concept-­‐based  theory  of  mind.  

•  However  ..  

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We  added  an  informing  task    

•  The  exact  same  procedure  as  in  the  explicit  task  except  that  children  were  asked  whether  or  not  they  would  choose  to  inform  another  person  whose  view  to  the  box  was  blocked  in  all  condi.ons  

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Informing/knowledge  self-­‐aBribu.on  in  4  yr-­‐olds:  accurate  responses  

0  

0,2  

0,4  

0,6  

0,8  

1  

1,2  

1,4  

1,6  

1,8  

2  

Full     Par.al   Ignorance  

Num

ber  o

f  tria

ls  

Informing  

Explicit  

*  p  <  .001  *    

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 Decisions  to  inform  in  3  and  4  yr-­‐olds  (correct  or  not)  

0  

0,1  

0,2  

0,3  

0,4  

0,5  

0,6  

0,7  

0,8  

0,9  

1  

Full  knowledge   Par.al  knowledge   Ignorance  

Prop

or9o

n  of  trials  

3-­‐year-­‐olds  

4-­‐year-­‐olds  

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Uncertainty  gestures  

•  In  addi.on,  we  recorded  the  gestures  produced  in  each  condi.on  of  the  repor.ng/informing  tasks.    

•  We  found  a  linear  increase  in  gesture  produc9on  from  full  to  par.al  and  to  ignorance  condi.ons,  with  a  steeper  slope  in  the  informing  than  in  the  repor.ng  task.  

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Uncertainty  gestures  in  3  and  4  Year  olds  

0  

0,1  

0,2  

0,3  

0,4  

0,5  

0,6  

0,7  

0,8  

0,9  

1  

Full  knowledge  

Par.al  knowledge  

Ignorance  

Prop

or9o

n  of  trials  

Informing  

Explicit  

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•  Children  over-­‐reported  their  knowledge  in  the  explicit  verbal  judgment  task  

•   When  asked  to  inform  another  person    – they  were  more  accurate  in  conveying  their  ignorance  by  declining  to  inform  

–   They  also  produced  gestures  of  uncertainty  as  a  func.on  of  the  informa.on  they  had.  

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         Evidence  compa.ble  with  a  dissocia.on  informing/repor.ng  

•  3  and  4  yr-­‐olds  are  able  to  "implicitly"  monitor  their  knowledge  and  control  their  epistemic  decision  when  informing  another  person.  

•  They  are,  however,  unable  to  reliably  report  whether  they  know  where  the  toy  is  before  6-­‐7  years  of  age  

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Two  types  of  explana.on    

1.  Addi.onal  execu.ve  demands  in  verbal  tasks?    

2.  Different  types  of  representa.onal  processes  involved?  

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The strategic importance of comparative studies

Allow fully dissociating Ø A metarepresentational capacity (assumed

not present in non-humans except apes) Ø A metacognitive capacity (arguably

present in several nonhuman species) Ø A motor control capacity (present in most

moving animals)

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2.  Non-­‐human  metacogni.on:  evidence,  implica.ons  

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Examples  of  Animal  metacogni.on  

•  Rhesus  monkeys  and  rats  can  evaluate  their  own  perceptual  access  to  s.muli.  

•   Rhesus  monkeys,  pigeons,  chimpanzees  and  orangutans  have  been  shown  to  flexibly  search  for  needed  informa.on  and  to  reliably  monitor  their  memory.  

•   Rhesus  monkeys  can  wager  on  their  cogni.ve  responses.    

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Main types of tasks eliciting Judgments of uncertainty

•  Seeking  for  informa.on  (SI)  tasks:            Will  an  animal  ask  for  informa.on  only  when  needed  ?  (Call  &  Carpenter,  2001)  

•  Buying  hints  when  learning  (Kornell,  Son,  &  Terrace,  2007)  .      

•  Choose-­‐or-­‐decline-­‐to-­‐respond  («  opt  out  »)  paradigm  (Smith  et  al.,  2006,  Beran  et  al.  2010)  

•  Wagering  tasks  (risk  icons  for  bebng  on  a  given  response  ater  it  has  been  made).  

•  Ac.on  control  based  on  internal  vs  external  confidence  feedback  (Beran  et  al.  2015)  

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Smith and/or coll. on metacognition in monkeys

•  Rhesus monkeys decline most the most difficult trials in visual discrimination tasks (Shield, Smith & Washburn, 1997) and in memory tasks (Hampton, 2001).

•  They generalize their U- responses to new tasks. (Washburn, Smith & Shields, 2006)

•  Macaques also use U-responses with blocked feedback (Beran, Smith, Redford & Washburn, 2006)

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24

Sparse Dense

Uncertain

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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100

1250 1650 2050 2450 2850 Box  Density  (pixels)

Macaque

Sparse Dense

Uncertain

0102030405060708090

100

1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100Pitch Height (Hz)

A. Dolphin

Low

High

Uncertain

Dolphin

25

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0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  

100  

1250   1650   2050   2450   2850  Box  Density  (normalized  pixels)  

Humans  Sparse  

Dense  

Uncertain  

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  

100  

1250   1650   2050   2450   2850  Box  Density  (pixels)  

Monkey  

Sparse  Dense  

Uncertain  

26

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Metacognition in Phylogeny: Yes No

•  Primates: –  chimps and orangutans

search for info (SI) –  Chimps have MC control –  Rhesus macaques (SI & U-

R)

•  Marine mammals: –  Bottle-nosed dolphins U-R

•  Pigeons, bantams (Fujita & al, 2011): retrospective U-R

•  Rats: Kepecs et al. 2008

•  Pigeons: no prospective U-R (Sutton & Shettleworth, 2008)

•  Capuchin monkeys: no SI, no U-R (Beran et al. 2006)

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What  are  the  processes  underlying  animal  metacogni.on?  

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1.  Metarepresenta.ons?  2.  Reinforcement  learning?  3.  Execu.ve,  goal-­‐directed  abili.es?  4.  Specialized  heuris.cs  for  predic.ng  cogni.ve  

outcome?  

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1  -­‐  Does  mc  require  represen.ng  one’s  own  mental  states?  

   It  is  some.mes  claimed    that  nonhuman  and  human  metacogni.on  both  require  thinking  about  one’  own  mental  contents  through  metarepresenta.ons.  (Smith  et  al.  2003)    The  seman.c  structure  of  metarepresenta.ons  is  proposi.onal  embedding.  

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Proposi.onal  structure  Based  on  the  contrast  between  an  object  being  subsumed  under  a  concept.  •  Cons.tuents  in  a  proposi.on  can  be  combined  at  will  

•  Conceptual  structure  enables  deduc.ve  inferences.  

•  This  structure  is  adequate  for  both  verbally  expressing  and  repor.ng  abtude  contents  

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Proposi.onal  abtude  ascrip.on  

•  Abtude  verbs,  rela.ve  clauses,  etc.  allow  embedding  proposi.ons  in  proposi.ons.  

•  Whether  self-­‐  or  other-­‐directed,  an  abtude  ascrip.on  has  the  form:  

•  S  believes  (desires,  hopes,  etc.)  that  [A  is  F]  

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Is  mc  based  on  proposi.onal  thinking?  

•  Nonhumans  can    –  iden.fy  others’  emo.ons  and  predict  their  reac.ons.  

– select  a  food  container  that  a  dominant  cannot  see  (Hare  et  al.  2001).  

•  They  might  form  beliefs  (Allen,  2012,  Proust,  1997).  

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•  But  they  are  unable  to  aBribute  false  beliefs  to  others  or  to  self.  

•  If  non-­‐mindreaders  such  as  rhesus  monkeys  can  evaluate  their  memory,  then  doing  so  does  not  require  possessing  a  concept  of  memory.  

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2  .  Is  metacogni.on  based  on  reinforcement  learning?  

•  First-­‐order  associa9onism:  The  informa.on  that  animals  use  when  performing  tasks  qualified  as  "metacogni.ve"  are  of  a  behavioral  nature  

•  Op.ng  out,  and  the  other  “mc”  tasks  reviewed  above,  can  be  solved  on  the  basis  of  operant  condi.oning:  they  are  merely  cogni.ve  (Le  Pelley  2014)  

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•  An  animal’s  willingness  to  opt  out  from  a  cogni.ve  task,  from  this  viewpoint,  depends  on  a  state  of  the  world  represented  as  worth  producing,  rather  than  on  an  internal  evalua.on  of  the  agent's  own  uncertainty.  

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4  difficul.es  

1.  Suppression  of  direct  reinforcement  does  not  influence  metacogni.on  (Smith  et  al.  2006)  

 2.  The  difference  observed  between  trials  with  

free  and  forced  cogni.ve  decisions  shows  that  animals  are  sensi.ve  to  endogenous  cues  rather  than  merely  to  states  of  the  world.  (Hampton,  2001,  Smith  et  al.  2014)  

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4  difficul.es  

3.  Computer  simula.ons  based  on  behavioral  cues  have  failed  to  track  MC  response  paBerns  (Smith  et  al.  2008,  2014).  

4.  Single  cell  recordings  in  rats  and  monkeys  show  that  the  cues  guiding  decision  are  neither  related  to  s.mulus  informa.on,  nor  to  behavior,  but  are  ac.vity-­‐dependent  neural  paBerns.  (Kiani  &  Shadlen  2009,  Kepecs  &  Mainen  (2012).  

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3.  Is  animal  MC  an  execu9ve  ability?  

Execu.ve   capaci.es   are   involved   in   selec.ng   a  behavior  as  a  func.on  of  one's  goal,  in  inhibi.ng  it,  shiting  it,  and  upda.ng  it.      On   this   view,   the   informa.on   that   animals   use  when   performing   tasks   wrongly   called  "metacogni.ve"   are   of   an   appe--ve   nature  (based  on  feelings  an.cipa.ng  reward  or  cost).  

Carruthers  &  Ritchie  (2012)    

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Is  MC  an  execu.ve,  goal-­‐driven  ability?  

•  Grain  of  truth:  mc  requires  control,  ie  ability  to  select  a  cogni5ve  ac.on  (media.ng  an  ac.on  on  the  world).  

•  Incen.ve  affects  the  amount  of  effort  expended,  hence  likely  success.  

-­‐-­‐>  But  metacogni.ve  control  is  not  merely  driven  by  the  distal  goal.  

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MC  is  also  data-­‐driven  

Subjec.ve  feedback  from  the  task  similarly  affects  decision  across  incen.ve  levels.  (Koriat  et  al.  2006,  2014)  

à  incen.ve-­‐based  control  and  cogni.ve  monitoring  (data-­‐driven  confidence)  have  each  their  separate  independent  effect  on  mc.  (Zakrzewski  et  al.  2014)  

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Fourth  op.on:  implicit  metacogni.on  taps  on  an  evalua.ve  

form  of  thinking  

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3    -­‐    Associa.ve  vs  proposi.onal  evalua.ve  abtudes  

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 This  op.on  is  an  elabora.on  of  Koriat’s  Dual  process  view  (Koriat  &  Levy-­‐Sadot,  1999)  

•   “experience-­‐based”    self-­‐evalua.on  depends  on  noe.c  feelings,  such  as  the  feeling  of  ease  of  processing,  or  the  feeling  of  knowing  à  Procedural,  or  implicit  metacogni.on  (system  1)  

•   “informa9on-­‐based”  self-­‐evalua9on  depends  on  various  kinds  of  beliefs  about  task,  competence,  etc.  

       à  Analy.c,  or  concept-­‐based  metacogni.on  (system  2)  See  also:  Jacoby  &  Brooks  (1984),  Schwarz  (2004)  

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What  is  an  ‘experience-­‐based’  evalua.on?  

Several  authors  (philosophers  and  psychologists)  have  independently  hypothesized  that  an  evalua.ve  nonconceptual,  affect-­‐based  mode  of  representa.on  is  shared  by  humans  and  nonhumans.  

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•  Bermudez's  frames  (2009),  •   Cussins'  NASAS,  (2012),  •   Dreyfus  &  Kelly's  affordance  sensings,  (2007),  •     Gawronski  &  Bodenhausen's  associa.ve  evalua.ons  (2006),  

•   Gendler's  aliefs,  (2008),    •  Griffiths  &  Scaran.no's  emo.onal  representa.ons  (2009),    

•  Millikan’s  pushmipullyu  representa.ons  (1995)  

•  Nanay's  pragma.c  representa.ons,  (2013).    •  Strawson’s  feature  placings  (1959)  

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Main  features  

•  These  representa.ons  are  based  on  predic.ve  cues  and  associated  feelings.  

•  Their  func.on  is  to  guide  ac.on.  •  They  have  an  associa.ve  rather  than  a  proposi.onal  structure.  

•  They  are  rela.onal  and  subjec.ve  rather  than  detached  and  objec.ve.  

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The  seman.c  structure  of  evalua.ve  abtudes  (affordance  sensings)  

•  Affordancea  [Place=here],[Time=  Now/soon],  •   [Valencea],    •   [Intensitya  (on  a  scale  0  to  1)],  •   [mo.va.on  of  degreed  to  act  according  to  ac.on  programa].  

à All  the  cons.tuents  are  associa.vely  related  to  perceptual  cues  in  the  affordance  sensing  

à  A  subset  may  ac.vate  the  full  representa.on  

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Contrast  of  evalua.ve  vs  proposi.onal  abtudes  

No  contrast  between  an  object  and  a  concept  No  combinatorial  ability    No  deduc.ve  power  No  embedding  possible  But  s9ll  structure:  •   Predic.ve  ability  connected  with  reac.ve  ac.on  schemas  

•  Graded  sensi.vity  to  affordances  •  Graded  «  control  precedence  »    

 

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Role  of  feelings  in  the  seman.c  structure  of  affordance  sensings.  

Affordance-­‐valence  -­‐  intensity  in  this  predic.ve/  evalua.ve  structure,  taken  together,  cons.tute  a  feeling    ,  whether    •   «  affec.ve  »  (social-­‐affec.ve)  •  Agen.ve  •  Propriocep.ve    

(Proust  2015)  

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Noe.c  feelings  represent  cogni.ve  affordances  

 Examples:  

•  Affordance  familiar/  rememberable,  clear,  [Time=  present  task],  

•   [Valencea],  posi.ve  •   [Intensitya  (on  a  scale  0  to  1)],  •   [mo.va.on  to  act  of  degreed  according  to  ac.on  programa].  Iden.fy!  Remember!  Accept!  

•  New  cues  can  be  added  over  .me  

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Informational  source  of  noetic  feelings?  

Not  thought  content,  but  the  dynamic  signature  of  the  neural  vehicle:  •   Processing  onset,  •   intensity  (  amplitude  of  ac.va.on)  •  coherence  of  cogni.ve  ac.vity  over  .me  •  Latency  to  reach  threshold  (fluency)    predict  together  likely  cogni.ve  success  of  a  given  decision.    

(Kiani  &  Shadlen,  2009,Kepecs  &  Mainen,    2012).    

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In  summary:  noe.c  feelings  •  Express  a  rela.on,  not  a  state  of  affairs    §  Indicate  a  subjec.vely  relevant  condi.on  and  mo.vate  an  ac.on  

§ Are  evalua.ve  and  graded    à   Nonproposi.onal  à   Do  not  conceptualize,  but  categorize  affordances  by  mere  associa.ve  paBern  matching  

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Why  should  two  representa.onal-­‐evalua.ve  systems  coexist  in  the  human  

mind?  

Because  of  the  differen.al  needs  of  human  agency  (in  both  its  motor  and  cogni.ve  kinds)  

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A  Dual-­‐store  view  of  MC  

•  One  system  has  the  func.on  of  expressing  (not  repor.ng)  evalua.ve  abtudes  (in  humans  and  nonhumans)  

•   Another  has  the  func.on  of  expressing  and  repor.ng  proposi.onal  abtudes,  ie  jus.fying  one’s  decisions.  (in  humans  only)  

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Type  of  representa.on  to  use  depends  on  the  constraints  applying  to  mental  ac.ons  

 

•  Reac.ve  (Impulsive  and  rou.ne)  metacogni.on  have  an  evalua.ve,  feeling-­‐based  representa.onal  structure.  

•  Strategic  metacogni.on  takes  advantage  of  transmiBed  concepts,  such  as  knowledge,  plausibility  (and  the  associated  deduc.ons).  

(Proust,  2015)  

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Wrapping  it  up  

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Heuris.cs  &  feelings  are  involved  in  the  implicit  metacogni.on  results    in  Kim  et  al,  subm.  

•  In  the  informing  task:  Children  express  their  uncertainty  about  object’s  iden.ty  &  loca.on  in  their  decision  to  opt  in  or  out    

•  They  might  opt  in  or    out  as  a  func.on  of  feeling  gradiency.  

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.  

•  These  implicit  metacogni.ve  decisions  do  not  guide  children’s  explicit  judgments  of  knowing.  WHY??  

•  Two  difficul.es  for  children  :  – dichotomize  in  a  conceptual  judgment  what  their  implicit  mc  treats  as  con.nuous.  

– Resist  the  socially  reinforced  phrase  “I  know”.  Same  dissocia.on  between  gesture  and  verbal  response  in  Goldin-­‐Meadow’s  Piage.an  task,  1988    

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Heuris.cs  &  feelings  might  be  involved  in  the  implicit  metacogni.on  results  

 in  Kim  et  al,  subm.  

•  TASK  IN  FOCUS  :  cues  are  associated  (the  toys,  the  box,  as    perceived)  cons.tu.ng  a  cogni.ve  affordance  in  this  task;i.e.  a  graded  “feeling  of  knowing”.  

•  SELF  IN  FOCUS    “I  know/  don’t  know  in  which  box  the  toy  is”:  the  affordance  is  related  to  the  social  self,  and  not  merely  task-­‐dependent.  

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•  «  Analy.c  »,  proposi.onal  metacogni.on  can  be  used  to  describe  procedural  metacogni.on  (through  the  concept  of  knowing).    

•   acquiring  the  proper  concept,  however,  requires  developmental  matura.on.  

E.g.  I  feel  quite  certain  that  P,  (..)  hence  I  may  report  that  I  know  that  P.  

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