fungi. fleshy fungi yeasts molds –hyphae (long filaments of joined cells) –mycelium (intertwined...
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Fungi
• Fleshy fungi
• Yeasts
• Molds– Hyphae (long filaments of joined cells)– Mycelium (intertwined mass of
hyphae)
Fungi– Are diverse and widespread
» Are essential for the well-being of most terrestrial ecosystems because they break down organic material and recycle vital nutrients
Mushrooms
Nutrition and Fungal Lifestyles
• Fungi are heterotrophs– But do not ingest their food
• Fungi secrete into their surroundings exoenzymes that break down complex molecules– And then absorb the remaining
smaller compounds
A General Look at Fungi - Flash Animation
Note to self: may need to right chick to get to play or rewind. May need to advance slide using arrows at bottom left.
Body Structure• The morphology of multicellular fungi
– Enhances their ability to absorb nutrients from their surroundings
Hyphae. The mushroom and its
subterranean mycelium are a
network of hyphae.
Reproductive structure.
The mushroom produces
tiny cells called spores.
Spore-producing
structures
20 m
Mycelium
Structure
• Fungi consist of– Mycelia, networks of branched
hyphae adapted for absorption
• Most fungi– Have cell walls made of chitin
Structure
• Some fungi– Have hyphae divided into cells by
septa, with pores allowing cell-to-cell movement of materials
• Coenocytic fungi– Lack septa
Nuclei
Cell wall
Septum
Pore
(a) Septate hypha (b) Coenocytic hypha
Cell wall
Nuclei
Septate Coenocytic
Structure• Some unique fungi
– Have specialized hyphae that allow them to penetrate the tissues of their hostNematode Hyphae 25 m
(a) Hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey
(b) Haustoria – specialized hyphae that can penetrate the cell walls of plants
Fungal hypha Plant cell wall
Haustorium
Plant cell plasma membrane
Plant cell
Mycorrhizae
– Are mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots• Ectomycorrhizal fungi (surface)• Endomycorrhizal fungi (penetrate plant cell
wall)
Reproduction/propagation Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles (Some fungi do both, some are either sexual or asexual)• The generalized life cycle of fungiKey
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic(unfused nuclei fromdifferent parents)
Diploid (2n)
PLASMOGAMY(fusion of cytoplasm)
Heterokaryoticstage
KARYOGAMY(fusion of nuclei)
SEXUALREPRODUCTION
Spore-producingstructures
SporesASEXUALREPRODUCTION
Zygote
Mycelium
GERMINATION GERMINATION
MEIOSIS
Spore-producingstructures
Spores
Sexual Reproduction• The sexual life cycle involves
– Cell fusion, plasmogamy– Nuclear fusion, karyogamy
• An intervening heterokaryotic stage– Occurs between plasmogamy and
karyogamy in which cells have haploid nuclei from two parents
• The diploid phase following karyogamy– Is short-lived and undergoes meiosis,
producing haploid spores
Asexual Reproduction• Many fungi can reproduce
asexually• Many fungi that can reproduce
asexually– Grow as mold, sometimes on fruit,
bread, and other foods
2.5 m
Penicillium (common saprobe on food)
Conidia (asexual)
Asexual Reproduction• Other asexual fungi are yeasts
– That inhabit moist environments– Which produce by simple cell
division 10 m
Parent cell
Bud
Asexual Reproduction
• Many molds and yeasts have no known sexual stage– Mycologists have traditionally
called these deuteromycetes, or imperfect fungi
Evolution/Origin of Fungi
• Fungi descended from an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist
• Systematists now recognize Fungi and Animalia as sister kingdoms– Because fungi and animals are more
closely related to each other than they are to plants or other eukaryotes
• Molecular evidence– Supports the hypothesis that fungi and
animals diverged from a common ancestor that was unicellular and bore flagella
• Fungi probably evolved– Before the colonization of land by
multicellular organisms
Origin of Fungi
50 m
• The oldest undisputed fossils of fungi are only about 460 million years old
• Fungi were among the earliest colonizers of land.
-Probably as symbionts with early land plants
Fossil hyphae and spores
Phylogeny/Classification• Fungi have
radiated into a diverse set of lineages
• The phylogeny of fungi– Is currently the
subject of much research
– Molecular analysis has helped clarify the evolutionary relationships between fungal groups, although there are still areas of uncertainty
ChytridsZygote
fungiArbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi
Sac fungi
Club fungi
Ch
ytrid
iom
yco
ta
Zyg
om
yco
ta
Glo
me
rom
yco
ta
Asc
om
yco
ta
Ba
sid
iom
yco
ta
Chytrids
• Fungi classified in the phylum Chytridiomycota, or chytrids– Are found in freshwater and
terrestrial habitats– Can be saprobic or parasitic
Chytrids• Chytrids are unique among fungi
– In having flagellated spores, called zoospores
25 m
4 m
Hyphae
Flagellum
Chytrids• Until recently, systematists thought
that– Fungi lost flagella only once in
their history
• Molecular data– Indicate that some “chytrids” are
closely related to another fungal group, the zygomycetes
Some
chytrids
Zygomycetes and other chytrids
Glomeromycetes,
ascomycetes, and
basidiomycetes
Common ancestor
Key
Loss of
flagella
Zygomycetes• Fungi in the phylum Zygomycota,
the zygomycetes– Exhibit a considerable diversity of
life histories– Include fast-growing molds,
parasites, and commensal symbionts– Are named for their sexually
produced zygosporangia
Rhizopus
growing
on bread
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Mycelium
Dispersal and
germination
MEIOSIS
KARYOGAMY
PLASMOGAMY
Key
Haploid (n)
Heterokaryotic (n + n)
Diploid
Sporangium
Diploid
nuclei
Zygosporangium
(heterokaryotic)
100 m
Young
zygosporangium
(heterokaryotic)SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Dispersal and
germination
Mating
type (+)Mating
type ()
Gametangia with
haploid nuclei
50 m
Sporangia
Zygomycetes - Life Cycle
• The life cycle of Rhizopus stolonifer (fairly typical of zygomycetes)
Mycelia have
various mating types
(here designated +,
with red nuclei, and ,
with blue nuclei).
1
Neighboring mycelia of different
mating types form hyphal extensions
called gametangia, each walled off
around several haploid nuclei by a septum.
2
A heterokaryotic
zygosporangium
forms, containing
multiple haploid
nuclei from the two
parents.
3
The sporangium
disperses genetically
diverse, haploid spores.
7
4
This cell develops a
rough, thick-walled
coating that can resist
dry environments and
other harsh conditions
for months. 5
When conditions are favourable,
karyogamy occurs, followed by
meiosis.6
The zygosporangium
then breaks dormancy,
germinating into a
short sporangium.
The spores
germinate and
grow into new
mycelia.
8
9 Mycelia can also reproduce
asexually by forming sporangia
that produce genetically identical haploid spores.
Zygomycetes• Some zygomycetes, such as
Pilobolus– Can actually “aim” their sporangia
toward conditions associated with good food sources
0.5 mm
This decomposer of animal dung bends toward bright light and shoots its sporangia up to 2 meters
Zygomycetes
• Zygosporangia, which are resistant to freezing and drying– Are capable of persisting through
unfavorable conditions– Can undergo meiosis when
conditions improve
Microsporidia
• Microsporidia– Are unicellular parasites of animals and protists– A taxonomic mystery…Are now classified as
zygomycetes (But that could change at any time!)
10
m
Host cell nucleus
Developing microsporidian
Spore
This cell is infected with the parasitic fungus
Encephalitozoon intestinalis
Glomeromycetes
• Fungi assigned to the phylum Glomeromycota– Were once considered zygomycetes– Are now classified in a separate
clade
Glomeromycetes
• All glomeromycetes– Form a distinct type of
endomycorrhizae called arbuscular mycorrhizae2.5 m
Picture shows cytoplasm removed to show the arbuscule (branched structure) inside plant cell.
Ascomycetes
• Fungi in the phylum Ascomycota– Are found in a variety of marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial habitats– Are defined by the production of
sexual spores in saclike asci, which are usually contained in fruiting bodies called ascocarps
– Have asexual reproduction by producing enormous numbers of asexual spores called conidia
Ascomycetes• Ascomycetes
– Vary in size and complexity from unicellular yeasts to elaborate cup fungi and morels
(a) The cup-shaped ascocarps (fruiting bodies) of Aleuria aurantia give this species its common name: orange peel fungus.
(b) The edible ascocarp of Morchella esculenta, the succulent morel, is often found under trees in orchards.
(c) Tuber melanosporum is a truffle, an ascocarp that grows underground and emits strong odors. These ascocarps have been dug up and the middle one sliced open.
(d) Neurospora crassa feeds asa mold on bread and other food (SEM).
10 m
Ascomycetes – Life Cycle• The life cycle of Neurospora crassa
Dispersal
ASEXUALREPRODUCTION
Germination
Mycelium
Conidiophore
Germination
Dispersal
Mycelia
AsciEightascospores
Ascocarp
Fourhaploidnuclei
MEIOSIS
KARYOGAMY
PLASMOGAMY
SEXUALREPRODUCTION
Diploid nucleus(zygote)
Ascogonium Ascus(dikaryotic)
Dikaryotichyphae
Matingtype ()
Conidia;mating type ()
Key
Haploid (n)
Dikaryotic (n n)
Diploid (2n)
Ascomycete mycelia can also reproduce asexually by producing haploid conidia.
7
Neurospora can reproduce sexually by producing specialized hyphae. Conidia of the opposite mating type fuse to these hyphae.
1
A dikaryotic ascus develops.
2
Karyogamy occurs within theascus, producing adiploid nucleus.
3
The diploid nucleusdivides by meiosis, yieldingfour haploid nuclei.
4
The developing asci are contained in an
ascocarp. The ascospores
are discharged forciblyfrom the asci through anopening in the ascocarp. Germinating ascosporesgive rise to new mycelia.
6
5 Each haploid nucleus dividesonce by mitosis, yielding eightnuclei. Cell walls develop aroundthe nuclei, forming ascospores (LM).
Basidiomycetes
• Fungi in the phylum Basidiomycota– Include mushrooms and shelf
fungi– Are defined by a clublike structure
called a basidium, a transient diploid stage in the life cycle
Basidiomycetes
(a) Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), acommon species in conifer forests in the northern hemisphere
(b) Maiden veil fungus (Dictyphora), a fungus with an odor like rotting meat
(c) Shelf fungi, important decomposers of wood
(d) Puffballs emitting spores
Basidiomycetes• The life cycle of a
basidiomycete– Usually includes a long-lived
dikaryotic mycelium, which can erect its fruiting structure, a mushroom, in just a few hours
Fairy rings can appear overnight. A very large mycelium is growing underneath this ring of fruiting structures
PLASMOGAMY Dikaryoticmycelium
Basidiocarp(dikaryotic)
KARYOGAMY
Key
MEIOSIS
Gills linedwith basidiaSEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Matingtype ()
Matingtype ()
Haploidmycelia
Dispersalandgermination
Basidiospores
Basidium withfour appendages
Basidium containingfour haploid nuclei
Basidia(dikaryotic)
Diploidnuclei
Basidiospore1 m
Basidium
Haploid (n)
Dikaryotic (n n)
Diploid (2n)
Basidiomycetes• The life cycle of a mushroom-
forming basidiomycete
Each diploid nucleus yields four haploid nuclei. Each basidiumgrows four appendages, and one haploid nucleusenters each appendage and develops into a basidiospore (SEM).
6
Two haploid mycelia of different mating typesundergo plasmogamy.
1
A dikaryotic mycelium forms, growing faster then, and ultimately crowding out, the haploid parental mycelia.
2
3 Environmental cues such as rain ortemperature changes induce the dikaryoticmycelium to formcompact masses thatdevelop intobasidiocarps(mushrooms, in thiscase).
The basidiocarpgills are lined withterminal dikaryoticcells called basidia.
4
Karyogamy in the basidia produces diploidnuclei, which thenundergo meiosis.
5
When mature,the basidiospores
are ejected, fallfrom the cap, andare dispersed by
the wind.
7
In a suitableenvironment, the
basidiospores germinate and
grow intoshort-lived
haploid mycelia.
8
Decomposers
• Fungi are well adapted as decomposers of organic material– Performing essential recycling of
chemical elements between the living and nonliving world
Mycorrhizae• Mycorrhizae
– Are enormously important in natural ecosystems and agriculture
– Increase plant productivity
RESULTS
Researchers grew soybean plants in soil treated with fungicide (poison that kills fungi) to prevent the formation of mycorrhizae in the experimental group. A control group was exposed to fungi that formed mycorrhizae in the soybean plants’ roots.
EXPERIMENT
The soybean plant on the left is typical of the experimental group. Its stunted growth is probably due to a phosphorus deficiency. The taller, healthier plant on the right is typical of the control group and has mycorrhizae.
CONCLUSION These results indicate that the presence of mycorrhizae benefits a soybean plant and support the hypothesis that mycorrhizae enhance the plant’s ability to take up phosphate and other needed minerals.
RESULTS
Fungus-Animal Symbiosis• Some fungi share their
digestive services with animals– Helping break down plant
material in the guts of cows and other grazing mammals
Many species of ants and termites– Take advantage of the digestive
power of fungi by raising them in “farms”
Lichens• Lichens
– Are a symbiotic association of millions of photosynthetic microorganisms held in a mass of fungal hyphae
(a) A fruticose (shrub-like) lichen
(b) A foliose (leaf-like) lichen (c) Crustose (crust-like) lichens
Lichen• The fungal component of a lichen
– Is most often an ascomycete
• Algae or cyanobacteria– Occupy an inner layer below the
lichen surfaceAscocarp of fungus
Fungalhyphae
Algallayer
Soredia
Algal cell
Fungal hyphae
10
m
Pathogens• About 30% of known fungal species
– Are parasites, mostly on or in plants.• Some of the fungi that attack food crops
– Are toxic to humans
(a) Corn smut on corn (b) Tar spot fungus on maple leaves (c) Ergots on rye
Practical Uses of Fungi• Humans eat many fungi
– And use others to make cheeses, alcoholic beverages, and bread
• Genetic research on fungi– Is leading to applications in biotechnology
• Antibiotics produced by fungi-treat bacterial infections
Staphylococcus
Penicillium
Zone of inhibited growth