f.vodopivecetal.:in[titutzakovinskematerialeintehnologije,ljubljana...

F. VODOPIVEC ET AL.: IN[TITUT ZA KOVINSKE MATERIALE IN TEHNOLOGIJE, LJUBLJANA ...

IN[TITUT ZA KOVINSKE MATERIALE INTEHNOLOGIJE, LJUBLJANA –

50 LET RAZVOJA IN RAZISKOVANJA

INSTITUTE OF METALS AND TECHNOLOGY, LJUBLJANA –50 YEARS OF DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH

Franc Vodopivec, Bojan Breskvar, Monika JenkoIn{titut za kovinske materiale in tehnologije, Lepi pot 11, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija

[email protected]

Prejem rokopisa – received: 2003-04-25; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2003-11-10

Opisane so bistvene odlo~itve v zvezi z ustanovitvijo, organiziranostjo in delom In{tituta v obdobju 1950-2000. Povzeta jedinamika razvoja kadrov in pridobivanja raziskovalne opreme, na~in selekcije raziskovalno-razvojnih projektov in nalog,vsebina in cilji raziskovalno-razvojnega dela ter njihove spremembe, skladno z razvojem mati~nega industrijskega okolja inraziskovalne politike. Predstavljeni so nekateri primeri, ko je bilo delo na in{titutu zelo pomembno za nekatera podjetja in zarazvoj metalur{ke vede in stroke. Navedene so zlitine, razvite na In{titutu, in tiste, ki so se pilotno proizvajale na obstoje~iraziskovalni opremi, in vrste ter obseg ekspertnih storitev. Prikazan je {tevil~ni pregled o poro~ilih, raziskovalnih nalogah inprojektih ter objavah v dràvi in tujini po desetletjih ter seznam najbolj pogostih naro~nikov raziskovalno-razvojnih projektov.Klju~ne besede: In{titut za kovinske materiale in tehnologije, Ljubljana, Slovenija, organiziranost in{tituta, delo in kadri,vsebina in cilji raziskovalno-razvojnega dela, raziskovalna oprema, selekcija raziskovalnih nalog in projektov, raziskovalni inrazvojni dose`ki, poro~ila in objave, naro~niki raziskovalno-razvojnih projektov

Important decisions relating to the founding, the organisation and the research work in the institute in the period 1950 to 2000are presented. Research & development (R&D) policy, the acquisition of research equipment, the selection of R&D projects,the content and goals of the R&D projects and their change with regard to the needs of industry and public reseach policy aresummarised. Some significant R&D contributions to the metallurgical industry are presented. Different alloys developed forindustrial production and pilot manufacturing on research equipment as well as expertise and industrial services are alsosummarised. This is also a survey of R&D reports and publications in Slovenia and abroad, as well as industrial companies,financers and users of R&D.Key words: Institute of Metals and Technology, Ljubljana, Slovenija, organisation of the institute, evolution of cadres, topicsand aims of research and development, acquisition of R&D equipment, significant results of R&D work, industrial companiesfinancers of R&D projects

1 USTANOVITEV, POMEMBNI MEJNIKI INKADRI

In{titut za kovinske materiale in tehnologije,Ljubljana (IMT), prej Metalur{ki in{titut (MI) je bilustanovljen pri Tehni{ki visoki {oli leta 1948 z dekretomSveta za prosveto in kulturo Ljudske republike Slovenije(LRS). Pobudnik ustanovitve, nestor slovenske metalur-gije in dolgoletni direktor prof. Ciril Rekar je v poro~iluob 15-letnici dela zapisal, da je bil MI dejansko usta-novljen 1. maja 1950 s slovesno otvoritvijo eksperimen-talnega plavà. Ta je bil zgrajen v okviru raziskovalnegaprojekta, katerega cilj je bil razviti postopek za izdelavosurovega èleza z gorivi, ki so bila na voljo v tedanjemjugoslovanskem prostoru. V projekt je bila vklju~enatudi skupina kemikov, ki jo je vodil akademik MaksSamec, katere naloga je bila, da iz doma~ih goriv izdelaza uporabo v plavù primeren koks.

Ustanovitelj In{tituta Izvr{ni svet Ljudske skup{~ineLRS (Uradni list {t. 30-120/1954) je na osnovi soglasjaSveta za znanost LRS o prenosu upravne pravice na MIin v soglasju z Univerzo z Uredbo {t. 01-2276/1-58 dne14. 8. 1958 (Uradni list {t. 28/1958) odlo~il, da je MIznanstveni zavod in samostojna pravna oseba.

MATERIALI IN TEHNOLOGIJE 37 (2003) 6 285

UDK 669.1:061.6(091) ISSN 1580-2949Pregledni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 37(6)285(2003)

1 FOUNDING, SIGNIFICANT TURNING POINTSAND STAFF

The Institute of Metals and Technology (IMT),Ljubljana, former The Institute of Metallurgy, Ljubljana(MI), was established at the Technical High School in1948, with a decree from the ''Svet za prosveto inkulturo, Ljudske republike Slovenije''. The "nestor" ofmodern metallurgy in Slovenia, and the first director,wrote in a report prepared for the 15th anniversary thatthe institute was actually founded on 1st May 1950, withthe introduction of an experimental blast furnace. Thisfurnace was constructed as part of a project aimed toinvestigate the production of pig iron using reductantsfrom coals mined in the former Yugoslavia. The projectinvolved a group chemists, with ac. Maks Samec as thehead, who were given the task of developing a reductantfrom domestic coals for use in the blast furnace.

The official founder of the institute, the ExecutiveCouncil of the People’s Assembly of Slovenia (Off.Gazette No. 30-120/1954) established, in agreement withthe Science Council of Slovenia and the University ofLjubljana, with the decree No 01-2276/1-58 from 14August 1958 (Off. Gazette No 28/1958), the institute as

Del zgradbe, v kateri in{titut deluje, so za~eli graditiè leta 1947 ob Marmontovi cesti, sedanji Jamovi,poslopje pa je bilo dokon~no zgrajeno 1. maja 1950.Gradnja drugega trakta ob Lepem potu je bila kon~analeta 1958. Privredni Savjet FNRJ je svojo raziskovalnoenoto v Polju (oplemenitenje rud, hidrometalurgija,goriva) 1. aprila 1952 predal MI-u in je imela nazivMI-Laboratorij Polje. Kasneje sta bila zgrajena {tudijskakoksarna za lignite v [o{tanju z nazivom MI-LaboratorijVelenje in Laboratorij za morsko korozijo v Mo{~eni{kiDragi, ki je bil nato prenesen na Bernardin-Portoro`. Tuje bil leta 1959 z zveznimi sredstvi postavljen son~nireaktor za taljenje ~istih oksidov z visokim tali{~em znazivom MI-Laboratorij Piran.

Od ustanovitve je bilo raziskovalno delo usmerjeno viskanje in izkori{~anje doma~ih surovin za izdelavogrodlja in jekla, neèleznih kovin in zlitin ter goriv zacelotno jugoslovansko metalur{ko industrijo. Zato je leta1958 Izvr{ni svet LRS za 10 let z Uredbo in pogoji (Ur.l. {t. 28/58) prenesel ustanoviteljske pravice na Udru-ènje jugoslovenskih èljezara (UJ@) iz Beograda, kjer jein{titut pridobil mesto osrednje raziskovalne organizacijemetalur{ke industrije. Z odmiranjem zvezne uprave innara{~anjem republi{kih pristojnosti se je teì{~e delapreusmerilo na hitro razvijajo~o se slovensko metalur{koindustrijo, in leta 1971 je bil MI imenovan za osrednjoraziskovalno ustanovo za metalur{ke raziskave. S pod-pisom samoupravnega sporazuma o pridruìtvi MI vSOZD Slovenske èlezarne (S@, 27. 11. 1973) je in{titutpostal samostojna raziskovalna organizacija (S@ MI) vSOZDU S@ vse do leta 1991, ko je zaradi ekonomskihrazmer izstopil iz SOZDA S@ in se zaradi spremenjenevsebine dela preimenoval v In{titut za kovinskemateriale in tehnologije (IMT).

Leti 1994 in 1997 sta posebej pomembni zato, ker jebil leta 1994 in{titut podràvljen s sprejemom zakona ozavodih, leta 1997 pa je z uredbo vlade dobil statusjavnega raziskovalnega zavoda.

Pomemben mejnik v razvoju in{tituta je {e leto 1992,ko je prevzel izdajanje revije @elezarski zbornik in kot


286 MATERIALI IN TEHNOLOGIJE 37 (2003) 6

a scientific institution and an independent corporatebody.

The construction of the institute began in 1947 on thecorner of the crossroads between Marmont (now Jamo-va) and Groharjeva streets. The building was completedon 1st May 1950. The construction of the second phase,along Lepi pot street, was finished in 1958. The Councilfor Economics of the former Yugoslavia transferred itsresearch facility in Polje (ores beneficiation, hydro-metallurgy, metallurgical fuels) to the institute on 1st

April 1952. The name of this separate facility wasMI-Laboratorij Polje. Later, the test coking plant forlignite at [o{tanj, called MI-Laboratorij Velenje, and thelaboratory for corrosion testing in marine environmentsin Mo{~eni~ka draga were established. This laboratorywas later transferred to Portoro`-Bernardin, and knownas MI-laboratorij Piran. A reactor heated with sun energywas built in 1959 in this laboratory, and investigationsinvolving the melting of high-temperature oxides weresuccessfully carried out.

In the early years, activities focused on the researchand exploitation of domestic raw materials for the deve-lopment of pig iron and steel, non-ferrous metals andalloys, and solid fuels for the Yugoslavian metallurgicalindustry. For this reason, the Executive Council ofSlovenia, with the decree published in the Off. GazetteNo 28/58, transferred the founder rights to the UdruènjeJugoslovenskih @eljezara (The Association of Yugo-slavian Ironworks) in Belgrade. As part of thisassociation, the institute achieved the position of acentral research institution for the metallurgical industryin Yugoslavia. With the diminishing power of the centraladministration and the increasing influence of therepublics, the activities turned gradually towards therapidly growing Slovenian industry, and in 1971, theinstitute was designated as a central institution formetallurgical research in Slovenia. With the signing ofthe self-management agreement with the Association ofSlovenian Steelworks (SOZD) on 11th November 1973,the institute was established as an independent researchinstitution with this industrial group. The institutewithdrew from this group in 1991 because of thedeterioration in the economic situation, and its name waschanged to the In{titut za kovinske materiale in tehno-logije (Institute for Metallic Materials and Technology) –IMT.

The years 1994 and 1997 are of particular importancein the history of the IMT. In 1994, the institute wasnationalised with the adoption of the law on institutions,and in 1997 it was granted, with a decree from theGovernment of Slovenia, the status of a public researchinstitution.

The year 1992 was also significant: the instituteassumed responsibility for publication of the periodical@elezarski Zbornik, and associated as co-editors severalindustrial companies and research institutions. With theaim of providing a forum for authors from non-metal

Zgradba Metalur{kega in{tituta leta 1957. Pogled s kriì{~a Jamoveceste in Lepega pota.Building of the Institute of Metallurgy in 1957

soizdajatelje vklju~il ve~ industrijskih podjetij inraziskovalnih ustanov. Da bi pridobila avtorje z drugihpodro~ij, se je revija preimenovala v Kovine ZlitineTehnologije, s pove~anjem {tevila objav iz nemeta-lur{kih podro~ij pa v Materiali in Tehnologije.

Leta 1950 je imel In{titut 22 redno in tri honorarnozaposlene, med njimi 10 z visoko{olsko izobrazbo. Doleta 1960 je zaradi pove~anja obsega dela {tevilo rednozaposlenih zraslo na 100, med njimi 45 z univerzitetnodiplomo, {tevilo honorarno zaposlenih pa na 27. Zaradiprogramske preusmeritve in postopnega izbolj{anjaopremljenosti pa {tevilo zaposlenih po letu 1970 (104zaposleni, 6 dr. znanosti, 3 magistri in 19 z visoko{olskoizobrazbo) ni ve~ pomembno nara{~alo in leta 1980 jebilo zaposlenih 99 (14 dr. znanosti, 2 magistra in 11 dipl.in`.). V osemdesetih letih je In{titut zaradi preusmeritvepredal Laboratorij Polje Rudarskemu in{titutu, in {tevilozaposlenih je do leta 1990 padlo na 87. In{titut je zelohudo finan~no krizo doìvel v letih 1989 do 1991(dolgovi MIL-PP, zmanj{anje trì{~a za izdelke pilotneproizvodnje), tako da se je {tevilo zaposlenih zmanj{alood 87 na 62. Ob pridobitvi statusa javni raziskovalnizavod leta 1997 je bilo na IMT zaposlenih 64 delavcev,od tega 29 raziskovalcev (11 dr. znanosti in 7 magi-strov). Ob 50-letnici dela leta 2000 pa je bilo zaposlenih62 delavcev, med njimi 34 z univerzitetno diplomo, odteh pa 17 z doktoratom ter 8 magistrov iz metalur{kih,gradbenih, fizikalnih ali strojni{kih ved.

V 50 letih so od za~etka naprej in{titut vodili: prof.in`. Ciril Rekar (16 let), Alojz Pre{ern, univ. dipl. in`.(21 let), prof. dr. Joè Rodi~, univ. dipl. in`. (4 leta),prof. dr. Franc Vodopivec, univ. dipl. in`. (5 let), prof.dr. Leopold Vehovar, univ. dipl. in`. (4 leta) in od aprilaleta 2000 je na tem mestu direktorica doc. dr. MonikaJenko, univ. dipl. in`.

2 FINANCIRANJE RAZISKOVALNEGA DELAIN NABAVE OPREME

Do leta 1954 je in{titut financiralo Ministrstvo zaprosveto in kulturo LRS, potem pa se je financiralsamostojno s projekti, {tudijskimi elaborati in drugimideli. Od leta 1954 do 1960 sta se prihodek in odhodekpove~ala za ve~ kot petkrat. Raziskovalne projekte sofinancirali do okoli leta 1965 uporabniki iz vseJugoslavije. Sredstva iz zveznih skladov in SkladaBorisa Kidri~a do leta 1961 niso presegala 8 % prihodka,v letu 1962 je financiranje iz skladov zraslo na 20 %prihodka in se nato za nekaj let ustalilo na 15 do 20 %prihodka in{tituta. Vsa leta je in{titut pridobival do 20 %prihodka iz ekspertnih in laboratorijskih storitev zarazli~ne naro~nike, predvsem industrijska in energetskapodjetja. V tej dejavnosti so imeli pomembno vlogolaboratoriji za mehanske preiskave, kemijsko analitiko,metalografijo, po letu 1986 pa tudi laboratorij zavakuumsko toplotno obdelavo. Mnogo ve~ji, kasneje paenak je bil prihodek iz pilotne proizvodnje na in{titutu



research fields, the title of the journal was first changedto Kovine Zlitine Tehnologije, and then finally toMateriali in Tehnologije (Materials and Technology).

In 1950, the staff of MIL consisted of 22 full-timeand 3 part-time employees, 10 of whom had a universitydegree. Over the next 10 years, the number of staffincreased to 100, 27 of them with part-time jobs and 45with a university degree. In 1970, there were 104employees (6 with PhDs, 3 with MSc degrees and 19with the degree of diploma engineer), and in 1980 therewere 99 employees (14 with PhDs, 2 with MSc degreesand 11 with university diplomas). In the 1980s, theinstitute transferred the Laboratorij Polje to the Instituteof Mining and the number of staff decreased to 87 in1987. The institute survived a very serious economiccrisis in 1990 and 1991, which was due to debts of theMIL-PP, a reduction in the market for pilot-plantproduction and a decrease in the volume of projects forindustrial companies. As a result, the number of staffwas reduced from 87 to 62. On the date the status ofpublic research institution was granted, there were 64employees, 29 of them researchers (11 with PhDs and 7with MSc degrees). On the 50th anniversary, in 2000,there were 62 employees, 34 researchers from thefaculties of metallurgy, physics, civil engineering,mechanical engineering and electrical engineering, 17 ofthem with PhDs and 8 with MSc degrees.

The directors of the institute were as follows: Prof.Ciril Rekar (16 years); Alojz Pre{ern, dipl. un. eng. (21years); Prof. dr. Joè Rodi~ (4 years); Prof. dr. FrancVodopivec (5 years); Prof. dr. Leopold Vehovar (4years); and from the year 2000 Doc. Dr. Monika Jenko.

2 FINANCING OF THE RESEARCH

Until 1954, the work of the institute was financedmostly with grants from the Ministry of Culture ofSlovenia. In the years that followed, the instituteacquired funds independently with research-and-development (R&D) projects, research reports, expertservices, pilot-plant production and from other activities.In the period from 1954 to 1960, the income increasedmore than fivefold. Until about 1965, the R&D projectswere mainly financed by companies from the formerYugoslavia. The money from federal funds and theSlovenian Boris Kidri~ fund did not exceed 8 % of thetotal income. In 1962, the money from public fundsincreased to 20 % of the total, after which it stabilised at15 to 20 %. Each year approximately 20 % of the incomewas earned from expert and laboratory services fordifferent clients, mostly industrial companies and powerplants. Most of this activity was performed in thelaboratories for mechanical testing, analytical chemistryand metallography, and after 1986, this also included thelaboratory for vacuum heat treatment. Initially, more(and later approximately the same level of) income camefrom the pilot-plant production of alloys with special

razvitih zlitin s posebnimi lastnostmi, npr.: razli~nemehkomagnetne materiale in nikljeve zlitine, pa tudiizdelki iz njih, ter storitve valjanja, kovanja, vle~enja intoplotne obdelave. Dobi~ek iz storitvenega dela in pilot-ne proizvodnje se je vlagal v lasten sklad za financiranjeraziskovanja.

Pomemben preskok v na~rtovanju raziskovanja infinanciranja je bil doseèn v za~etku sedemdesetih let stem, da je bila prvi~ na rednem XXI. posvetovanjustrokovnjakov iz podjetij ~rne in barvne metalurgije terlivarstva v Portoroù javno predstavljena kvantifikacijarezultatov raziskovalnega dela z metalur{kega podro~ja vraziskovalnem letu 1974/75 in usklajen spisek predlogovraziskovalnih nalog in projektov s podro~ja metalurgijeza leto 1977 (MI s sodelavci iz raziskovalnih oddelkovin Fakulteto za naravoslovje in tehnologijo (FNT) VTOMontanistika). Izhajal je iz predloga srednjero~negaprograma slovenske metalurgije do leta 1980 in je bilpredloèn Raziskovalni skupnosti Slovenije (RSS),Gospodarski zbornici (GZ) in vodstvu Slovenskihèlezarn (S@). V nadaljevanju se je raziskovalne temeusklajevalo v Odboru za raziskave in razvoj S@ in vKomisiji za razvoj in raziskave Splo{nega zdruènja ~rnein barvaste metalurgije ter livarstva Slovenije pri GZ inpredloìlo v financiranje ali sofinanciranje podjetjem inRSS. V program raziskav na In{titutu in na Metalur{kemodseku FNT so bile sprejete tiste teme, ki so jihzastopniki podjetij ocenili kot relevantne. Iz teh tem sose tudi izbirale tiste, ki so bile predloène v sofinan-ciranje RSS. S tem na~inom selekcije tem je bilodoseèno, da sta in{titut in fakulteta ostajala v stalnemustvarjalnem stiku z raziskovalno in tehnolo{ko proble-matiko mati~ne industrije in porabnikov proizvodov teindustrije, podobno kot raziskovalne institucije vzahodnih razvitih dràvah.

Po letu 1970 je In{titut ustvarjal ve~ji del prihodka izraziskovalnih in razvojnih projektov, ki so jih financiralave~inoma podjetja iz Slovenije, dele` sofinanciranja RSSje bil okrog 27 %, iz drugih dejavnosti pa okrog 30 %.Na~in usmerjanja raziskovalnega dela in financiranja seje ohranil do leta 1991, ko se je materialni poloàjmetalur{ke in livarske ter druge slovenske industrijeskokoma zelo poslab{al. In{titut se je sre~al z resnimiproblemi, ker je v enem letu prihodek padel za okoli40 %. Z angaìranjem vodstva in zaposlenih se jefinan~no stanje saniralo, tudi za ceno zmanj{anja {tevilazaposlenih. V devetdesetih letih je IMT pridobivalsredstva na javnih razpisih Ministrstva za znanost intehnologijo (MZT), iz projektnega in kasneje program-skega financiranja, iz "ustanoviteljskih obveznosti", izdirektnih pogodb s podjetji iz Slovenije in iz medna-rodnih projektov. Tako je bila struktura prihodkov v letu2000: 63,3 % MZT, 22,5 % industrijska in energetskapodjetja, 8,2 % storitve, 2 % tujina in 7 % drugi viri.



properties, developed at the institute, e.g. soft-magneticmaterials and other nickel alloys, as well as specialproducts, e.g. sheets, rods, wire, transistor casings,soft-magnetic cores, wire for glass vacuum joints, castsliding joints, tools from corrosion and wear-resistantalloys, electrodes for the cathodic protection of struc-tures, etc., and also technical services, e.g. sheet rolling,wire drawing, forging and the heat treatment of magneticmaterials. The profit from this activity was invested forthe support of research.

A very significant step in the planning of researchwas achieved at the XXI Conference of Experts ofCompanies from the Ferrous and Non-ferrous Industries,which took place in Portoro`. For the first time inSlovenia, a public evaluation and quantification of theresults of the R&D work in metallurgy during the years1974 and 1975 was presented, and a list of potentialR&D projects for the year 1977 was discussed and thefirst selection performed. The basis for the selection ofR&D projects was a medium-term plan for thedevelopment of metallurgy in Slovenia up to 1980. Theselection was then presented to the companies, while theChamber of Economics was only notified. Thereafter,the R&D projects were discussed by the Research Boardof the Slovenian Steelworks and the R&D commissionof the Association of Slovenian Foundries, and thenfinally presented for funding or co-funding to theSlovenian Research Foundation or to various companies.In the research plan for the institute and the Faculty ofMetallurgy, the only projects that were included werethose assessed as relevant by the delegates fromindustrial companies. In addition, publicly fundedprojects had to be approved by industry delegates. Usingthis method for selecting R&D projects, enabled theinstitute and the faculty to remain actively and creativelyconnected with the problems of research and technologyin industrial companies and with the users of metalproducts.

From about 1970 the institute acquired most of itsincome from R&D projects supported by Sloveniancompanies, the share of public funding was approxi-mately 27 %, and 30 % of that was for non-researchactivities. This system for preparing the R&D was usedup to 1990, when the transition crisis badly affected theeconomic situation with regard to industry – as well asthe country. The institute was faced with seriousproblems, and the income decreased by approximately40 % in one year. With a change in direction and thecooperation of the employees, the financial crisis wasovercome. However, this also led to a reduction in thenumber of people working at the institute. In the 1990s,the institute obtained funding from founder liability andfrom public calls for R&D projects by the Ministry ofScience and Technology (MZT), from other public callsfor R&D projects, and from direct contracts withcompanies in Slovenia and international projects. In2000, the structure of the income was as follows: 61 %,

3 RAZISKOVALNA OPREMA

Za raziskovalni razvoj In{tituta so va`ni mejniki-leta,ko je bila kupljena ali izdelana oz. aktivirana ve~jaraziskovalna oprema, ki je imela za posledico skokovitnapredek v metodologiji raziskovalnega in analitskegadela. V letu 1956 sta bila na In{titutu dva trgalna stroja,naprava za merjenje hitrosti lezenja v razponu tempe-rature od 400 °C do 800 °C, naprava za dolo~anje trajnenihajne trdnosti s kombinacijo upogiba in torzije, malamerilna in analitska oprema ter oprema za bogatenjemineralnih surovin. @e od leta 1956 je In{titut financiralrazvoj in gradnjo presevnega elektronskega mikroskopana Fakulteti za elektrotehniko Univerze v Ljubljani.Mikroskop je bil postavljen leta 1958, vendar ni bilprimeren za rutinsko rabo zaradi premalo natan~ne me-hanske izdelave. In{titut je v okviru sredstev zveznegasklada razvil in zgradil 2 modela klasi~nega in nizko-{ahtnega plav`a z dvema slojema pihalic ter pe~ sson~nim ogrevanjem, v kateri je bilo mogo~e dose~itemperaturo do 3500 °C. S to pe~jo so bili dolo~eni faznidiagrami za nekatere okside z visokim tali{~em. V letu1959 je bil pridobljen metalografski mikroskop inizdelane so bile naprave za bru{enje in poliranje, kar jeomogo~ilo za~etek dela na podro~ju metalografije. Vletu l961 je bila postavljena vakuumska talilna pe~, leta1963 je bil usposobljen za delo rabljeni dilatometer,darilo in{tituta MPIE (Max-Planck-Institut für Eisen-forschung) iz Nem~ije in IRSID (Institut de Recherchesde la Sidérurgie) iz Francije. Tega leta je bila postavljenatudi hladna izostatska stiskalnica. Leta 1962 je bilusposobljen za delo duo valjalni stroj, ki ga je pridobilaiz reparacij Mariborska livarna in ga odstopila v uporaboIn{titutu. Leta 1972 je bil dopolnjen za vro~e valjanjeplatin z debelino do 55 mm in nato v za~etku devet-desetih let odkupljen.

Pomemben skok v raziskovalni metodiki je bildose`en v letu 1969, ko je bil na In{titutu postavljen ssredstvi ve~ podjetij, in{titutov, univerze in RSSelektronski mikroanalizator, ki je deloval vse do leta1998. V sklopu te naprave je bila pridobljena tudi najboljnujna in sodobna oprema za metalografsko delo in {olskipresevni elektronski mikroskop za opazovanje replik. Vsedemdesetih letih sta bili izdelani dve napravi zaraziskave preoblikovalnosti kovin pri visokih tempe-raturah s torzijo, ena konvencionalna in ena, ki jeomogo~ala zelo kratke preizkuse z veliko hitrostjodeformacije in ohlajanja. Postavljeni sta bili najprejmajhna, nato pa ve~ja naprava za elektri~no pretaljevanjepod `lindro. Na ve~ji napravi se je talilo okrogle ingote spremerom 200 mm, tudi ingote, ki so jih v @elezarniRavne kovali v delovne valje za Sendzimir valjalni{kaogrodja za hladno valjanje tankih trakov z veliko stopnjoenkratne deformacije. Izdelan je bil polindustrijski»fluo-solid« reaktor in nabavljena naprava za vpihovanjepra{nih delcev v talino. Leta 1978 je bil nabavljenvrsti~ni (scanning) elektronski mikroskop, ki je bilkasneje nadgrajen za elektronsko mikroanalizo in je {e v



public funding; 22 %, industrial companies and powerplants; 8%, services; 2%, foreign projects; and 7 %,other sources.

3 RESEARCH EQUIPMENT

Modern research instruments are vital for theinstitute, since such equipment makes it possible to carryout a variety of investigations and analyses. In 1956, theinstitute’s scientific equipment consisted of thefollowing: two tensile-testing machines, a device forcreep measurement in the temperature range 400–800°C, a fatigue-testing machine with a combination offlexion and torsion stressing, various types of apparatusfor ore beneficiation studies and small analytical andmeasuring instruments. In 1956, the institute financedthe development and the construction of a transparentelectron microscope at the Faculty of ElectricalEngineering of the University Ljubljana. The microscopewas installed in 1958; however, it was not suited forroutine observations because of the poor quality of someof the mechanical parts. With funding from the federalfund, the institute designed and built two classical blastfurnaces and one low-stack blast furnace with two layersof tuyères. In addition, a solar-energy furnace wasdesigned and built, which was able to reach atemperature as high as 3500 °C, and was used forinvestigations of the phase diagrams of oxides with highmelting points.

In 1959, a metallographic microscope was acquired;some basic devices for the preparation of specimens foroptical microscopy were manufactured; and work onmicrostructures was begun. In 1961, a vacuum meltingfurnace with a capacity of 25 kg was installed; in 1963,two dilatometers, gifts of the Max Planck Institut fürEisenforschung, Germany, and of the Institut deRecherches de la Sidérurgie, St. Germain-en-LayeFrance, were commissioned. This year also saw thepurchase of a cold isostatic press. In 1962, a two highrolling stand, war reparation object for the companyMariborska livarna was put into operation at theinstitute. In 1972, it was reconstructed for the hot rollingof small slabs with thicknesses up to 55 mm. Later, therolling stand became the property of the institute.

A significant milestone was achieved in 1969, whenan electron microprobe analyser was acquired with fundsprovided from the institute, several other institutes,industrial companies, the University of Ljubljana, andthe support of the Research Foundation of Slovenia. Themicroanalyser was in operation up until 1998. At thistime, some indispensable pieces of equipment formodern metallography and a small electron microscopefor the observation of replicas were obtained. After1970, two machines for the testing of hot deformabilitywith rotational stressing – one for conventional testingand one for tests at high rates and high cooling rates –were designed and manufactured. A small and then alarge furnace for electric slag-remelting were also



Analizator ogljika in `vepla (ELTRA CS800) ter analizator kisika indu{ika (ELTRA ON900) v laboratoriju za analizno kemijoCarbon and sulphur analyser and oxygen and nitrogen analyser in thelaboratory of analytical chemistry

Napravi za vodno atomizacijo in ulivanje tankih trakov ter vplivpritiska vode na povpre~no velikost zrn prahu iz dveh jekelDevices for water atomisation and casting of thin sheet and influenceof water pressure on average size of powder from two steels

Ra~unalni{ko krmiljena naprava za meritve po~asne deformacije privisoki temperaturiComputer controlled equipment for creep measurements

Odvisnost med ~asom obremenitve in hitrostjo ter skupno deformacijo(D. A. Skobir)Relationships creep rate and creep deformation versus testing time (D.A. Skobir)

d50 = 3323.5.p-0.7633

R2

= 0.97

0

50

100

150

200

250

50 100 150 200 250

Tlak vode (bar)

Po

vp

reèn

av

eli

ko

std

elc

ev

(µm

)

Fe 0.1C, 0.35Mn, 0.22Si

Fe 0.9C, 4Cr, 6W, 2V, 5Mo

Vpliv pritiska vode na povpre~no velikost zrn prahu iz dveh jekel (B.[u{tar{i~)Influence of water pressure on average size of powder from two steels(B. [u{tar{i~)

rabi. Omogo~al je tudi stereolo{ke analize mikrostruktur.Istega leta je bil postavljen sodoben univerzalnipreizku{evalni stroj (500 kN) za mehanska stati~na indinami~na preizku{anja (frekvenca od 0 Hz do 200 Hz),ki dela {e danes, in kasneje hidravli~na stiskalnica 2500kN kot neustrezni nadomestek za plastometer. Leta 1984je pri~el delovati osnovni del procesnega ra~unalnikaPDP 11, ki se je v nadaljnjih letih dopolnjeval, vendar znjim niso bili doseèni pri~akovani rezultati zaradihitrega razvoja ra~unalni{kih tehnologij. Nato so sledili:



installed. The larger furnace produced ingots with adiameter up to 200 mm, which were used in the Ravne

Slika 2: Difuzijska cona v paru Ni-W, ki je bila àrjen 100 ur pri 1200°C. (L. Kosec, F. Vodopivec, B. Rali}, 1971)Figure 2: Diffusion layer in a Ni-W couple annealed for 100 h at 1200°C (L. Kosec, F. Vodopivec, B. Rali}, 1971)

020 40 60 80 100

(m/min)

0

20 2

40 4

60

(mg/min)

(mg/min)6

80 8

×10–3 ×10–4

Slika 1: Nara{~anje specifi~ne obrabe noà iz hitroreznega jekla pristruènju jekla za obdelavo na avtomatih (F. Vodopivec, D. Sen~ar, J.Hodnik in H. Golias, 1964)Figure 1: Growth of the specific wear of a high-speed-steel tool byturning a free-machining steel (F. Vodopivec, D. Sen~ar, J. Hodnik inH. Golias, 1964)

Rekonstrukcija povr{ine in rast interkristalne faze pri povi{ani tem-peraturi pri opazovanju v Microlab 310-F (a) in AES-spekter za 4to~ke ozna~ene na SEM-posnetku (b) (M. Jenko)Surface reconstruction and growth of a new phase on a grain boundaryat higher temperature observed in Microlab 310-F (a) and AES spectrafor 4 points on the SEM-image (b) (M. Jenko)

Microlab 310-F visokolo~ljivostni spektrometer Augerjevih elektro-nov z dodatno opremoMicrolab 310-F high resolution Auger electron spectrometer withadditional equipment

(a)

(b)

visokofrekven~ni aperiodi~ni generator 100 kW, 1986pe~ za toplotno obdelavo v vakuumu in du{iku, napravaza neprekinjeno konduktivno ogrevanje ìc, leta 1990naprava za vodno atomizacijo talin in leta 1994 pe~ zaionsko nitriranje v pulzirajo~i plazmi.

Leta 1988 je bila s sredstvi posojila, ki ga je najelaInterna banka S@, na In{titutu postavljen sklop naprav(indukcijski vakuumska in talilno vzdrèvalna pe~ skapaciteto do 350 kg in ra~unalni{ko voden sistem zatriìlno neprekinjeno horizontalno litje), na kateri je bilorazvito litje posebnih zlitin v vrsto razli~nih drobnihprofilov, tudi profilov s trapezastim prerezom 20 mm2.Ta projekt je povzro~il velike finan~ne teàve, ki so biledeloma obvladane z ustanovitvijo samostojnega podjetjaMIL-PP, d. o. o., ki je s ste~ajem prenehalo delovati leta1994.

Poseben doseèk raziskovalno inènirskega znanja jebilo na~rtovanje in izdelava ra~unalni{ko krmiljenenaprave za preizkuse lezenja z natan~nostjo merjenjaraztezka, bolj{o od 1 µm, in regulacijo temperature vrazponu ± 0,5 °C. V vsem ~asu dela se je in{titut bogatilz manj{o raziskovalno opremo, npr. z moderniminapravami za instrumentalne kemijske analize, napra-vami za moderne raziskave in preiskave korozijskihpojavov, aparaturami za toplotno tehni~ne meritve,opti~nimi mikroskopi, zadnji je opremljen s kamero inprogramom za stereologijo, napravami za merjenjetrdote, in{trumentiranim Charpyjevim kladivom, vzadnjem desetletju pa tudi z osebnimi ra~unalniki inra~unalni{ko mreò. Zadnja velika pridobitev leta 1998je bila najsodobnej{a naprava za analizo povr{in, kiomogo~a analize po metodah HRAES, SEM, SAM,XPS, XRD in EELS.

4 MEDNARODNO SODELOVANJE

Kmalu po ustanovitvi je In{titut vzpostavilsodelovanje s tujimi sorodnimi in{tituti. Najbolj poznanasta bila MPIE Düsselldorf, Nem~ija, in IRSID St.Germain-en-Laye, Francija. Na obeh in{titutih so se



Steelworks for the forging of working rolls and for thecold rolling of thin sheets with a large per-pass rollingdeformation on the Sendzimir rolling stand. A pilot-plantfluo-solid reactor was also constructed, while a devicefor the injection of powder into a melt was purchased.

In 1978, a scanning electron microscope wasacquired, and later supplemented with devices forelectron microprobe analysis and stereology. Thismicroscope is still in use. In the same year, a moderntensile-testing machine with a capacity of up to 500 kNwas installed. The machine is used for fatigue testingwith a frequency up to 200 Hz and it is still in operation.Later, a 2500-ton hydraulic press was acquired as anunsuitable substitute for a plastometer. In 1984, the basicpart of a PDP 11 computer was acquired. In thefollowing years it was added to; however, its use did notproduce the expected results. Other equipment acquiredby the institute included: a high-frequency aperiodic100-kW generator; in 1986, a furnace for vacuum heattreatment and quenching in high-pressure nitrogen; adevice for the continuous heating of wire duringdrawing; in 1990, a water-atomisation device; and in1994 a furnace for plasma-ion nitriding.

In 1988, the Interna banka S@ financed theinstallation of a complex of industrial devices at theinstitute: a vacuum melting and a holding furnace withcapacities of 350 kg and a computer-controlled threestrands horizontal continuous-casting machine. Usingthis installation, the casting of different small-sectionprofiles, as well as profiles with a trapezoidal sectiondown to 20 mm2, was developed. The realisation of thisproject placed the institute in debt, because the institute’sworking capital was also bound up in the project. Thissituation was partially overcome with the establishmentof the independent company MIL-PP, which wentbankrupt in 1994, leading to a significant reduction inthe number of institute staff.

A particular scientific and engineering success wasthe design and the construction of a computer-controlledmachine for creep testing with a deformation measu-rement accuracy of better than 1 µm and a temperatureregulation inside of ± 0.5 °C. During this time, theinstitute was constantly acquiring small research devices,e.g. modern devices for analytical chemistry, for inve-stigations of corrosion processes, for heat technologymeasurements, optical microscopes (equipped forstereology), hardness testers, an instrumented Charpytester, and a large number of personal computers linkedby a computer network. The last major research-equipment purchase was in 1998, when the institutebought apparatus for surface analysis equipped withHRAES, SEM, SAM, XPS, XRD and EELS.

4 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Soon after the start of activities, the first director,Prof. C. Rekar, established contacts with foreigninstitutes active in the field of metallurgy, and inparticular the Max Planck Institut für Eisenforschung

Slika 3: Odvisnost med upogibno trdnostjo karbidnih trdin terrazmerjem med elasti~nim modulom karbidne in kovinskekomponente (S. Jurca, 1971)Figure 3: Dependence bending strength of hard metals versus theratio of the elastic modulus of the carbide and the metallic component(S. Jurca, 1971)

usposabljali nekateri raziskovalci z In{tituta in FNTMontanistike. V kasnej{ih letih se je razvilo {esodelovanje z in{tituti v Glivicah na Poljskem, VUH@ izDobre v ^SR, VASKUT iz Budimpe{te in Paton izKijeva ter s sorodnimi in{tituti, ki so nastali po letu 1965v Jugoslaviji. Leta 1959 je In{titut v sodelovanju z MPIEin IRSID-om priredil v Portoroù eno od prvih, ~e neprvo, mednarodno znanstveno konferenco v Jugoslaviji''Residuals and trace elements in iron and steel(Oligoelementi v èlezu in jeklu)'', na kateri so nastopalipredvsem raziskovalci iz tujine in o kateri je bil kasnejev Franciji tiskan zbornik. Na tej konferenci so bili polegdrugega prvi~ javnosti predstavljeni rezultati analizdendritskega izcejanja v jeklu z uporabo elektronskegamikroanalizatorja. Konference so se periodi~no prirejaledo leta 1986. Poleg te konference so tuji strokovnjakisodelovali na vsakoletnih posvetih v okviru Jesenskihposvetovanj in Znanstveno tehnolo{kih posvetov. Leta2000 je bilo 53. posvetovanje o metalurgiji in kovinskihmaterialih, 8. posvetovanje o materialih in 8. konferencao materialih in tehnologijah.

Pred letom 1990 so bili raziskovalci z In{tituta dvetriletni obdobji vklju~eni v raziskovalni projekt EUCasting and Solidification in v dva bilateralna projekta vsodelovanju z ZDA, po~asi se je sodelovanje raz{irilo



(MPI) in Germany and the Institut de Recherches de laSidérurgie (IRSID) in France. Several researchers fromthe institute and from the Faculty of Metallurgy weretrained at various times in both institutes. Later,cooperations were also started with other institutes, suchas the Institute of Metallurgy in Glivice, Poland; VUH@in Dobra, Czechoslovakia; VASKUT in Budapest,Hungary; The Paton Institute in Kiev, Ukraine; and stilllater with institutes founded after 1970 in Yugoslavia. In1958, in cooperation with the MPI and IRSID, one of thefirst – if not the first – international scientific conferencein Yugoslavia was organised in Portoro`, with the title''Residuals and Trace Elements in Iron and Steel''. Mostof the speakers at the conference were from abroad.Later, a conference book was printed in France. At thisconference, for the first time results on the electron-probe analysis of dendritic segregations in steel werepresented. Subsequent conferences were periodicallyorganised up until 1986. Foreign speakers were alsopresent at annual, national symposia and conferences. In2000, the 53rd Symposium on Metallurgy and MetallicMaterials was organised jointly with the 8th Conferenceon Materials and Technology.

Before 1990, the researchers at IMT were for twoperiods of three years involved in the project "Castingand solidification" in the frame of the HACS and twobilateral Slovenia-USA projects. Gradually, thecooperation with foreign institutions broadened, and in2000, IMT researchers were involved in a number ofinternational R&D projects: COST 517, EUREKA EU

0,1 0,20,3

0,40,5

0,60,8

1,0 %0,080,05

800900

700

600

500

400

300

200

100908070

60

50

40

30

Aktivnikisik(ppm

)

N = 39R = -0,9492

a % C = 31,111,189

log % C = 1,2556 – 0,8413 · log a

log a (ppm) = 1,4929 – 1,189 log % C

Ogljik (%)

Slika 5: Odvisnost med vsebnostjo aktivnega kisika in ogljika vjekleni talini (B. Korou{i}, 1976)Figure 5: Correlation between the contents of active oxygen andcarbon in the steel melt in an electric-arc furnace (B. Korou{i}, 1976)

4

25

30

3,5

20

3

15

2

10

1

5

0,027

0,027

Srednjahrapavost R

(µm)

aMaksimalna

hrapavost R

(µm)

max

0,132

0,132

0,222

0,222

Podajanje (mm/vrt)

CuZn39Pb – vle~enoCuSn9P – nehomogenizirano – vle~enoCuSn8PS – vle~enohomogenizirano –CuSn8PS – vle~enohomogenizirano –

Hitrost rezanja 300 m/minglobina reza – 1 mmno` – karbidna trdninac = 75°a = 5°g = 6°l = 0°r = 0,5 mm

Slika 4: Hrapavost povr{ine Ra in Rmaks primerjalne medi (100-odstotna obdelovalnost) in leàjnih bronov za obdelavo na avtomatih.Broni so {e v proizvodnji (B. Breskvar, 1975)Figure 4: Roughness of the surface of a comparative brass (100 % ofmachinability) and of free-machining bearing bronzes. The bronzesare still in production (B. Breskvar, 1975)

tako, da so leta 2000 raziskovalci sodelovali pri 10projektih, in sicer: COST 517, EUREKA EU 2060,BRITE-EURAM HEMBOT, pri treh projektih izmenjal-nih analiz, pri dveh slovensko-hrva{kih, enem sloven-sko-ameri{kem in enem slovensko-italijanskem projektu.

5 ORGANIZIRANOST IN CILJIRAZISKOVANJA

V petdesetih letih je imel Metalur{ki in{titut {tevilneoddelke in pododdelke: konstrukcijski oddelek indelavnice, v raziskovalnem sektorju pa kemi~no skupino,skupino za rude, goriva in nekovine, metalur{ko skupino,fizikalno in metalografsko skupino, tehnolo{ko skupinoter laboratorij Piran in administracijo.

V {estdesetih in sedemdesetih letih je raziskovalnodelo potekalo po raziskovalnih podro~jih in oddelkih(bogatenje mineralnih surovin, priprava rude in èle-zarstvo, jeklarstvo, livarstvo, kovinarstvo in metalurgijaprahov, v ognju odporni materiali, toplotna tehnika inmetalur{ke pe~i, kemijske analitske in tehnolo{keraziskave, teorija metalur{kih procesov, metalografija intehnologija kovin). Z oènjem programa dela in s hitrorastjo pomena raziskav tehnologije izdelav in predelav,lastnosti èleznih in neèleznih kovin in zlitin ternjihovih lastnosti pri uporabi, se je zmanj{eval obsegraziskovanja na podro~ju ekstraktivne metalurgije, zatose je {tevilo oddelkov zmanj{evalo. Po letu 1980 se jedelo odvijalo po dejavnostih v {tirih kompleksnihskupinah: ekstraktiva (fizikalna kemija metalur{kih pro-cesov, èlezarstvo, jeklarstvo, barvne kovine), tehno-lo{ka metalurgija (metalografija, mehanske preiskave,toplotna obdelava, tehnologija barvnih kovin, livarstvo,toplotna tehnika in energetika ter pilotna proizvodnja),kemijska analitika (klasi~na analitika, fizikalno-kemi~naanalitika, analiza plinov, fazna analiza in varstvo okolja)in bogatenje mineralnih surovin (rude barvnih kovin,nekovinske rude, livarski materiali, tehnologije opleme-nitenja in sekundarne surovine).

Teì{~e raziskovalnega dela v prvih dveh desetletjihpo ustanovitvi so bili problemi pridobivanja mineralnihsurovin, ekstraktivne metalurgije èleza, barvnih kovinin ognje-vzdr`nih materialov. Najve~ dela in sredstev jebilo vloènih v projekt razvoja konstrukcije plavà, vkaterem bi uporabljali polkoks iz lignita oz. rjavegapremoga kot reducent za èlezovo rudo in v son~nireaktor. Raziskave so obsegale {tudije in investicijskeelaborate za gradnjo jugoslovanskih surovinskih, meta-lur{ko ekstraktivnih in predelovalnih obratov, tehno-logijo bogatenja rud barvnih kovin; karakterizacijoèlezovih, nekovinskih rud in livarskih surovin izjugoslovanskih nahajali{~, izdelavo polkoksa, obrato-vanje in rekonstrukcije ogrevnih pe~i v èlezarnah;rekonstrukcije visokih in Siemens-Martinovih pe~i,zamenjavo ogrevanja z generatorskim plinom z ogre-vanjem z mazutom, strjevanje evtekti~ne celice v sivilitini; termodinamiko in kinetiko procesov v `lindrah,



2060, BRITE-EURAM HEMBOT and two projectsinvolving the exchange of results of analyses, in twoSlovenia-Croatia projects, one Slovenia-USA project andone Slovenia-Italy project.

5 ORGANISATION AND RESEARCH GOALS

In the 1950s, the institute consisted of a number ofunits: the research units, a design group, the mechanicaland electrical workshops and the administration. Theresearch sector consisted of groups for chemistry, oresand fuels, metallurgical and chemical technology and thePiran laboratory.

In the next two decades the research activity wasgradually reorganised to conform better with theeconomic activity in metallurgy and mining in a numberof laboratories and groups, these included: ore benefi-tiation, iron-ore treatment and pig-iron production, steeltechnology, casting technology, non-ferrous metals,powder metallurgy, refractory materials, heat technologyand metallurgical furnaces, analytical and technologicalchemical investigations, the theory of metallurgicalprocesses, metallography and non-ferrous metals techno-logy. By the end of the 1970s the research programstarted to narrow fields related to extractive metallurgy,while the importance of research in topics related tomanufacturing, the hot and cold working of steels andnon-ferrous alloys as well as their properties started togrow. The number of departments, laboratories andworking groups was gradually decreased also. After1980, the research was performed in four departments:extractive metallurgy (physical chemistry of metallur-gical processes, pig iron, steel and non-ferrous alloys),technological metallurgy (metallography, mechanicaltests, heat treatment, technology of non-ferrous alloys,heat technology and pilot-plant production), analyticalchemistry (conventional and instrumental analyses,analyses of gases in metals, chemical phase analyses,environment analyses) and ore benefitiation (benefi-tiation processes, non-ferrous ores, castings off auxiliarymaterials, scrap metals).

In the first two decades of activity, the accent was ontopics relating to the extraction of mineral raw materials,on the extractive metallurgy of iron and non-ferrousmetals and the connected development of refractorymaterials. A lot of funding was invested in a project todesign and construct a new type of blast furnace, inwhich semi-coke from lignite or brown coal would beused as a reducing agent for iron ore and for thesolar-energy reactor. The activity included studies andinvestment-expert reports for the construction of plantsfor the exploitation of ores and the casting of auxiliarymaterials, for different metallurgical plants, and researchtopics, such as the characterisation of ores from depositsin Yugoslavia, the technology of benefitiation ofnon-ferrous ores, the production of semi-coke, theworking and reconstruction of heating furnaces in steel

talinah in v trdnem; cementacijo, toplotne obdelave,obdelovalnost jekla s stru`enjem, selektivno oksidacijopovr{ine jekla in z njo povezano segregacijo oligo-elementov; izdelavo TTT diagramov za razli~na jekla;razvijanje postopkov za kemijske analize metalur{kihsurovin in izdelkov, skupaj z izolacijo nekovinskih faz,optimizacijo lu`enja jekel, razvoj zlitin s posebnimi



works, the reconstruction of Siemens-Martin furnaces,the replacement of the generator gas with mineral fuel,the eutectic cell solidification in grey irons, thethermodynamics and kinetics of processes in slags, meltsand in solid metals, case hardening, the machinability ofsteels, heat treatment, the selective oxidation of steelscontaining residuals, the preparation of TTT diagramsfor a variety of steels, the methodology of analyticalchemistry, phase separation and determination, thede-scaling and pickling of steels, the development ofalloys with particular properties for defence projects, themanufacturing of alloys from powder, etc.

Starting from 1970, the volume of research in topicsrelated to extractive metallurgy gradually decreased,while the volume of research related to the technologicalprocesses of melting, the hot and cold working of metals

Slika 6: Preoblikovalnost jekla v odvisnosti od temperature in na~inasegrevanja oz. ohlajanja na temperaturo za~etka deformacije (A.Kveder, M. Tau~er, 1974)Figure 6: Hot workability of steel in dependence of the test tempe-rature achieved with heating and cooling of specimens to the testtemperature (A. Kveder, M. Tau~er, 1974)

Slika 7: Odvisnost med trdoto in velikostjo zrn ferita v rekrista-liziranih jeklih za masivno preoblikovanje (A. Kveder, A. Razinger,1976)Figure 7: Dependence of hardness versus ferrite grain size for coldforging steels (A. Kveder, A. Razinger, 1976)

Slika 9: Porazdelitev legirnih elementov v difuzijskem pasu valjal-ni{ko platiranega konstrukcijskega in orodnega jekla (D. Kmeti~, J.Gnamu{, F. Vodopivec, 1987)Figure 9: Distribution of alloying elements in the diffusion layer of ahot-rolling joint between a tool and a structural steel (D. Kmeti~, J.Gnamu{, F. Vodopivec, 1987)

Slika 8: Vpliv stopnje predelave z vro~im valjanjem na trdnostvaljalni{ko platiranega spoja med orodnim in dvema konstrukcijskimajekloma (D. Kmeti~. J. Gnamu{, F. Vodopivec, 1987)Figure 8: Effect of hot-rolling deformation on the strength of theplated joining of two tool steels and a structural steel (D. Kmeti~. J.Gnamu{, F. Vodopivec, 1987)

fizikalnimi lastnostmi za namensko proizvodnjo,izdelavo zlitin po postopkih metalurgije prahu in drugo.

@e pred letom 1975 se je za~el zmanj{evati obsegraziskovanja na podro~ju ekstraktivne metalurgije, rastipa je za~el obseg raziskovanja tehnolo{kih procesov inlastnosti kovin, metalurgije prahov, procesne meta-lurgije, razvoja zlitin s posebnimi lastnostmi, jeklarskihprocesov in tehnologije, metodologije raziskovanja,tehnologije barvnih kovin. Kakovost raziskovalnega delain {irina tematike sta se pove~evali zaradi bolj{ih kadrovin opremljenosti ter sodobne metode dela. V razisko-valne projekte je bilo pritegnjeno vsako leto ve~ desetininènirjev raznih strok iz podjetij, ki so bila naro~nikiRR-projektov, zato je bilo bogato in ustvarjalnosodelovanje med In{titutom in industrijo ter mati~nofakulteto.

Po letu 1980 se je vse raziskovalno delo na In{titutuzdruìlo v naslednja tematska podro~ja:



and alloys increased, as did the development of alloysand improvements to their properties. Specific topicswere as follows: the processing metallurgy for steels andnon-ferrous metals, powder metallurgy technology andproducts, the development of alloys for special purposesand research methodology. The quality and the relevanceof the investigative work increased gradually due to theimproving competence of the research staff, betterresearch equipment and the improving workingmethodology. In R&D projects, every year a number ofcollaborators with different university degrees fromindustrial companies were involved, and in this way, theinstitute and the faculty were also closely involved in thesolution of practical problems of technology and ofproperties of products.

A better assessment of the work performed can beobtained from a survey of the topics of the applied and

152 136

56484044

3224168

46

120 104 88 72 56 40 24 8 0

H (kA/m)

B(T)

1,21,31,4

1,0

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0,2

1,1

0,9

0,7

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0,1

(kJ/m )3

1500 Simag

standardAr atomizacija + ADCvodna atomizacija + CIP

Slika 11: Razmagnetilna krivulja za liti AlNiCo magnet in zamagneta, izdelana s sintranjem vodno in v argonu atomiziranega prahu(B. [u{tar{i~, Z Lengar, S. Ta{ner, V. Holc, S. Beseni~ar, 1992)Figure 11: Demagnetisation curve for the cast AlNiCo magnet andtwo magnets manufactured with the sintering of argon and water-atomised powders (B. [u{tar{i~, Z Lengar, S. Ta{ner, V. Holc, S.Beseni~ar, 1992)

100 20

C

CrT

Si

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peratura

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Si

%C

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60 ton1100 m O /h3

2

1700

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0,100,02

0016,0

0,200,0417,0

0,300,06

0,400,08

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Slika 10: Ra~unalni{ka simulacija oksidacije razli~nih elementov vjekleni talini v VOD-pe~i pri vpihovanju O2 1100 m3/h (N. Smaji},1985)Figure 10: Computer simulation of the oxidation of different elementsin the steel melt in the VOD furnace during the blowing of O2 at 1100m3/h (N. Smaji}, 1985)

Slika 12: Zmanj{anje Charpyjeve ìlavosti krom molibdenovega jeklazaradi segregacije fosforja po kristalnih mejah martenzitnih zrn (B.Ule, F. Vodopivec, M. Pristavec, F. Gre{ovnik, 1990)Figure 12: Decrease of Charpy toughness of a chromium-molybde-num steel because of the segregation of phosphorus on martensitegrain boundaries (B. Ule, F. Vodopivec, M. Pristavec, F. Gre{ovnik,1990)

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Slika 13: Globina notranje oksidacije zlitine Ag10,5Cd pri dvehtemperaturah v odvisnosti od tlaka kisika (B. Breskvar, D. Gnidovec,1984)Figure 13: Thickness of the layer of internal oxidation for the alloyAg10.5Cd for two temperatures in dependence of the oxygen pressure(B. Breskvar, D. Gnidovec, 1984)

– Jeklarska teorija in tehnologija. Raziskovalci so biliaktivni nosilci ali sodelavci pri projektih uvajanjamazutnih gorilnikov za Siemens-Martinove pe~i, kar jebistveno izbolj{alo produktivnost in ekologijo jeklarskeproizvodnje. Temu je sledila dezoksidacija z aluminijem,uporaba sinteti~nih `linder, elektri~no pretaljevanje pod`lindro; uporaba kompleksnih dezoksidantov, najprej zdodajanjem v kosih, nato z vpihovanjem prahov inkon~no z injekcijo ìce, polnjene s CaSi, v jeklenotalino, uvajanje neprekinjenega litja, uvajanje ponov~nemetalurgije in uvajanje vakuumskega ìlavenja. Zaradistalnih inovacij je proizvodnja jekla preìvela in je danestehnolo{ko na nivoju tehnologije razvitih industrijskihdràv, na takem nivoju pa nista proizvodna in prede-lovalna oprema.



related basic research, where the activity increased after1980:

– Processing of steel. The institute research staff wasactively involved in projects, such as: the introduction ofoil burners to the Siemens-Martin furnaces, whichimproved the economics of production and theenvironmental acceptability; aluminium de-oxidation;the use of synthetic slags and of complex deoxidisers,

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Slika 14: Dele` rekristalizacije in spremembe trdote po kratkotrajnihàrjenjih pri razli~nih temperaturah in pri aluminijevih zlitinah zabimetalne trakove za enostranske izparilnike. Trakovi so bilipredhodno izvaljani s 60-odstotno enkratno redukcijo pri temperaturi460 °C. (B. Breskvar, I. K. Bani~, J. Marini~, 1995)Figure 14: Share of recrystallisation and hardness change after shortannealing for aluminium alloys for bimetal strips for one-sided-blownevaporators (B. Breskvar, I. K. Bani~, J. Marini~, 1995)

Slika 15: Relativna gostota polov v mehkomagnetni plo~evini razli~nedebeline iz silicijevega jekla z dodatki antimona in brez njih (F.Vodopivec, M. Jenko, F. Marin{ek, F. Gre{ovnik, 1992)Figure 15: Relative density of poles in soft magnetic sheet ofdifferent thickness for a steel with and without antimony (F.Vodopivec, M. Jenko, F. Marin{ek, F. Gre{ovnik, 1992)

Slika 16: Deformacijska utrditev za mehko konstrukcijsko jeklo ter zasuperferitno in avstenitno nerjavno jeklo (B. Arzen{ek, F. Perko, J.Mrak, N. Vojnovi~, D. Lazar, F. Legat, D. Kmeti~, J. @vokelj, 1990)Figure 16: Strain hardening for a soft steel and a superferritic and anaustenitic stainless steel (B. Arzen{ek, F. Perko, J. Mrak, N. Vojnovi~,D. Lazar, F. Legat, D. Kmeti~, J. @vokelj, 1990)

Slika 17: Kinetika nastajanja ravnote`ne povr{inske segregacijeantimona v silicijem jeklu za mehkomagnetne plo~evine (M. Jenko, F.Vodopivec, B. Pra~ek, 1993)Figure 17: Kinetics of the equilibrium surface segregation ofantimony on a silicon steel for soft magnetic sheets (M. Jenko, F.Vodopivec, B. Pra~ek, 1993)

– Metalurgija barvnih kovin. Raziskovalci In{titutaso vodili ali sodelovali pri razvoju ekstraktivnih postop-kov priprave surovin, kasneje tudi sekundarnih surovinbarvnih kovin ter pri razvoju materialov in tehnologij,npr.: disperzijsko in izlo~evalno utrjene bakrove zlitineza elektrode, baker in bakrove zlitine za obdelavo naavtomatih, svin~eve zlitine za akumulatorje, mikrocinkza tiskarsko tehniko, superplasti~ne cinkove zlitine,neprekinjeno litje in predelava Properzi, aluminijevegnetne in livarske predzlitine in zlitine, izbolj{anjetehnologije obdelave talin aluminijevih zlitin, dentalnezlitine, troìlno (do φ 7 mm) neprekinjeno litje srebrovihlotov in ve~slojni elektri~ni kontakti. Z ve~letnimprojektom Orao pa je bila vpeljana proizvodnja vsehoblik duralov za letalsko industrijo, prav tako paizdelava primarnih referen~nih etalonov za livarskezlitine. S podro~ja aluminijevih zlitin velja posebejomeniti razvoj platiranega traka za enostransko izbo~enehladilne plo{~e in razvoj industrijske naprave zarafinacijo aluminija s ~istostjo nad 99,7 %. Mnogorazvitih postopkov je postalo standardna tehnologija vpodjetjih, {tevilni razviti proizvodi pa so bili sprejeti vprogram industrijske proizvodnje.

– Na podro~ju preoblikovanja se je raziskovalaplasti~nost jekel s torzijo in z valjanjem, evolucijamikrostrukture konstrukcijskih jekel med vro~imvaljanjem, identifikacija nastanka povr{inskih napak navro~e valjanih profilih, valjarni{ko platiranje orodnih nakonstrukcijska jekla in tehnologija zaklju~nega valjanjajekel, legiranih s silicijem in z aluminijem za mehko-magnetne plo~evine. Na in{titutu se je opravilo tudipionirsko delo pri razvoju danes splo{no uporabljanegatermomehanskega kovanja delov za motorna vozila vutopih in pri razvoju mikrolegiranega jekla za tapostopek kovanja.

– Na podro~ju toplotne obdelave jekla je bilo v letih1965-1970 zelo intenzivno raziskovanje kaljivosti jekelza cementacijo ter povezave mikrostrukture in trdote zvsebnostjo ogljika. Po letu 1970 so se raziskave toplotneobdelave izvajale predvsem v podjetjih na industrijskihnapravah v okviru projektov, ki so jih financiralapodjetja. Na in{titutu so bili narejeni diagrami zapremeno avstenita pri izotermnem in pri kontinuirnemohlajanju za zelo {tevilna jekla. Raziskovanje napodro~ju toplotne obdelava in trdega spajkanja je mo~nozaìvelo po letu 1985, ko je in{titut iz programa nabaveraziskovalne opreme tedanje RSS in s sponzorstvom izindustrije nabavil sodobno pe~ za vakuumsko toplotnoobdelavo, ki je omogo~ila, da se je raz{irila tudistoritvena dejavnost, predvsem za ve~ deset podjetij, kiizdelujejo in izvaàjo industrijska orodja, npr. orodja zahladno oblikovanje kovin, orodja za tla~no litje alumi-nijevih zlitin itd. Dejavnost je pridobila na obsegu invsebini po letu 1994, ko je bila nabavljena naprava zanitriranje v plazmi. To je omogo~ilo, da se je in{titutvklju~il v nekatere bilateralne in multilateralne projektedràv EU.



first in the form of lump additions, then the injection ofpowder, and finally with the injection of filled wire; theintroduction of continuous casting, ladle metallurgy andthe vacuum treatment of steel melt. The constantintroduction of innovations in steel processing kept thesteel companies at a similar level of technology to theircompetition in more developed countries; however, thecompanies lagged behind when it came to investments inmodern production equipment.

– The metallurgical processing of non-ferrous alloyswith researchers from IMT involved the preparation ofraw materials, the development of extraction processes,also for the use of metal scrap; the development ofdifferent copper alloys, e.g. alloys for dispersion andprecipitation hardening, free machining alloys; leadalloys for batteries; micro-zinc for printing plates;continuous casting and working processes; thedevelopment of aluminium casting and working alloys,and the processing of their melts; the development andpilot-plant production of dental alloys, multilayerelectrical contacts and primary reference alloys for theanalytical chemistry of cast aluminium alloys and thedevelopment of the continuous casting of wire fromsilver alloys. In addition, the production of differentaluminium alloys for aircraft was introduced in the frameof defence projects. A significant success was theoriginal technology developed for the manufacturing ofone-sided convex aluminium sheets and the design,construction and the start of an original device for therefining of an aluminium melt to a purity greater then99.7 %. A number of the processes were (or still are) astandard technology, in use in different companies,whereas a number of products were for a time (or stillare) in production.

– In the field of hot working, the evolution ofmicrostructure was investigated with hot torsion androlling tests; the integrity of the surface of rolledproducts was improved; the process of hot-rollingplating of tool steels was developed; the hot-rollingtechnology of soft magnetic steels alloyed with siliconand aluminium was improved and a pioneering work inthe introduction of controlled forging for automotive-parts manufacturing was successfully achieved.

– In the field of heat treatment, the hardenability ofcase-hardening steels was investigated in the years1965-1970, and the relation to the content of carbon,cooling rate, microstructure and hardness wasestablished. After the 1970s, the investigations relatingto heat treatment were performed mostly on industrialequipment in different companies. In the institute, TTTdiagrams for continuous and isothermal cooling wereestablished. The research in heat treatment and brazingincreased a great deal after 1985, when a vacuumfurnace for cooling in high-pressure nitrogen andvacuum brazing was acquired. The furnace was also usedfor heat-treatment services for industry, especially for afew tens of companies, manufacturers of tools for export,e.g. tools for the cold-forming of metals, for the pressure

– Prvi uspeh na podro~ju metalurgije prahov (PM) jebil razvoj bakrove zlitine za elektrode za to~kastovarjenje, disperzijsko utrjene s kromovim oksidom.Zlitina je bila pri uporabi mnogo bolj{a kot do tedajuporabljane elektrode. Sledil je razvoj razli~nih karbid-nih trdnin, kontaktnih materialov AgNi, AgC, WAg inelektrodnega materiala za erozijo (W-Cu). Nato se jePM-dejavnost zmanj{ala, ker se je nosilni raziskovalecprezaposlil v industrijskem podjetju in tam razvil PM vizvozno proizvodnjo. Njegovo delo se je nekaj ~asanadaljevalo v okviru oddelka za tehnologijo barvnihkovin in zlitin. Iz tega obdobja velja omeniti razvoj inproizvodnjo drobnih mikrofiltrov zahtevnih oblik zgarantirano prepustnostjo in padcem tlaka za uteko-~injenje plinov v miniaturnih napravah, razvoj ve~plast-nih pirometalu{kih PM-kontaktnih materialov AgCdO/AgCd/Ag/Ag-lot ter novega kontaktnega materiala PMAgZnO/Ag/Ag-lot, prodani in industrijsko uvedeni pasta bili licenci za srebrov prah in kontakte WAg. Nato jedelo znova zaìvelo v okviru samostojne dejavnosti poletu 1990, ko je bila na in{titutu postavljena naprava zavodno atomizacijo kovinskih materialov in kasnejenaprava za hitro strjevanje, ki sta skupaj omogo~ili razis-kave in razvoj èleznih ter neèleznih zlitin, izdelanih popostopkih metalurgije prahov. Med pomembnej{imiuspehi s podro~ja PM velja posebej omeniti izdelavoAlNiCo-magnetov iz vodno atomiziranega prahu, ki jedanes v Sloveniji industrijska tehnologija.

– Na podro~ju metrologije smo bili prvi v Jugoslavijiod Zveznega zavoda za mere in plemenite kovinepoobla{~eni za kemi~ne analize, silo in trdoto ter zaumerjanje strojev in naprav za mehanska preizku{anja,od Zveznega zavoda za standardizacijo pa je in{titut imeltudi posebno pooblastilo za atestiranje verig za ladijskasidra.

– Na podro~ju racionalne rabe energije so seraziskave izvajale na industrijskih agregatih. Na osnovirezultatov so bile izvr{ene rekonstrukcije ogrevnih pe~i,izbolj{alo se je njihovo delovanje, zniàla se je porabaenergije za ogrevanje, pove~ala se je produktivnostagregatov, v zadnjih letih je bilo uvedeno ra~unalni{kokrmiljenje naprav.

– Razvite so bile tehnologije in izdelava naslednjihzlitin s posebnimi lastnostmi, npr.: razli~no mehko-magnetni materiali vrst permaloy, kovar, invar, koercit,nikelj in druge nikljeve zlitine pa tudi izdelki iz njih,npr.: razni trakovi, palice in ìce, ohi{ja za tranzistorje,mehkomagnetna jedra, miniaturni transformatorji,magnetni oklopi, ìca za vtaljevanje v steklo inkeramiko, ulitki (drsna tesnila) in orodja iz korozijsko inobrabno obstojnih zlitin (akrit, stellit), elektrode zakatodno protikorozijsko za{~ito konstrukcij itd., pa tudistoritve valjanja, kovanja, vle~enja in toplotne obdelave,psevdozlitine vrste AgCdO, AgZnO, WAg, WCu inAgNi za elektri~ne kontakte, elektri~ni kontakti, dentalnezlitine na osnovi kobalta in niklja, dvostransko platiranitrakovi Sn/Pb/Sn za elektromedicino, zlitine ogljika,



casting of aluminium alloys, and for the drop forging ofsteel parts. This activity increased again in 1994 with theacquisition of a furnace for plasma nitriding. In theseareas, the institute was involved in international bilateraland multilateral projects with institutions and companiesfrom the EU.

– The first success in the field of powder metallurgywas the development of a copper alloy, dispersionhardened with chromium oxide, which during usebehaved much better than the other alloys used at thattime. There was also the development of specific hardalloys; contact alloys AgNi, AgC, AgW; and of the alloyCuW for spark erosion electrodes. Later, activity in thefield of powder metallurgy diminished because theleading researcher left for a company, where heintroduced the industrial manufacturing of PM parts. Hiswork at the institute was continued at a reduced level, bythe group for non-ferrous metallurgy. A particularsuccess was the development and the pilot-plantproduction of microfilters of different forms, withdetermined permeability and with controlled loss ofpressure of diameter down to 3 mm for miniatureair-liquefying devices; multilayer contact alloysAgCdO/AgCd/Ag/ Ag solder, a new contact alloyAgZnO/Ag/Ag solder. Two licenses were sold for themanufacturing of the electrical contact alloy and for Agpowder. After 1990, when a water-atomisationinstallation, and after, a spin-melt device were acquired,the research in powder metallurgy continued again as anindependent unity. A significant success was thedevelopment of AlNiCo magnets from water-atomisedpowder, which is now in production.

– The institute was the first institution to receivefrom the Federal Institute for Measures and PreciousMetals in the former Yugoslavia the authorisation forarbitration chemical analysis and the calibration ofdevices for determining force and hardness. The federalinstitute for standardisation authorised the institute forthe official testing of chains for ships’ anchors.

– In the field of the use of energy technology, workwas performed on industrial installations. Severalreconstructions were carried out on heating furnaces,their operation was improved, their productivity wasincreased, their consumption of energy diminished, andin recent years their operation became computercontrolled.

– Special alloys were developed, and for a conside-rable time manufactured as pilot-plant production, e.g.different soft-magnetic materials of the types permalloy,kovar and invar in sheets, rod and wire, or products suchas transistor casings, soft-magnetic cores, miniaturetransformers and magnetic yokes; wire for glass solders;castings for slip seals; tools from corrosion- anderosion-resisting hard alloys; high-silicon-alloy electro-des for the electrolytic protection of steel structures;silver and copper pseudoalloys for different purposes;electrical contacts; dental alloys based on cobalt,

kobalta, kroma, in molibdena za vlo`ke orodij, ki soobremenjena s korozijo in abrazijo, posebne visokosilicirane èlezove zlitine za korozijsko za{~ito pod-zemnih jeklenih cevovodov, disperzijsko in izlo~evalnoutrjene bakrove zlitine za elektrode za to~kovno varjenje,bakrove zlitine za obdelavo na avtomatih, bakrove zlitineza spajke, koluti iz zlitine bakra, kobalta in berilija zavarjenje nerjavnih plo~evin, razli~ne cinkove zlitine, npr.mikrocink, ZnCuTi, tiskarske zlitine, mehke in trdespajke, superplasti~na plo~evina in ìce iz zlitine ZnAl22, zlitine za rafinacijo in modifikacijo aluminijevihgnetnih in livarskih zlitin in {e druge zlitine. Materiali sose izdelovali na opremi, ki je bila namenjena predvsemza raziskovanje.

– Mnogo truda in inventivnosti je bilo vloèno vosvajanje novih raziskovalnih in kontrolnih metod intudi v razvoj in konstrukcijo lastnih naprav. Posebejvelja omeniti analitski laboratorij, ki se je izkazal npr. stem, da je pri 0,02 % Al in 0,01 % N v jeklu dolo~il,koliko aluminija je vezano v oksidni oz. nitridni obliki inkoliko ga je raztopljenega v feritu. Zgodaj so bileosvojene razli~ne metode za stereolo{ko ovrednotenjemikrostrukture, z uporabo elektronskega mikroanali-zatorja pa je postala dosegljiva analiza izcej inmikrotujkov do velikosti 1 µm. Veliko dela je bilovloènega tudi v razvoj metodike mehanskih preiskav, in



chromium and nickel; two-sided plated sheets for use inmedicine; carbon-cobalt-chromium alloys for toolsresistant to corrosion and erosion; dispersion-hardenedcopper alloys for electrodes for spot welding; coppersolder alloys and Cu-Co-Be alloys for welding discs;different zinc alloys, e.g. micro-zinc for printing andZn-Cu-Ti alloys with increased creep resistance; alloysfor brazing and soldering; super-plastic ZnAl 12 alloyand primary alloys for the modification of aluminiumalloys. The pilot-plant production was carried out onequipment intended primarily for research.

– Considerable efforts were oriented to the develop-ment and the implementation of new investigation andcontrol methods and in the design and the constructionof scientific equipment, e.g. the laboratory of analyticalchemistry was able to determine by 0.02 % Al, 0.01 %N2 and 0.0005 O2 % in steel, the share of aluminium insolid solution and bound to nitride and oxide. At a veryearly stage, sterology was used for quantitativemetallography, while the electron probe analyser openedthe way for the analysis of constituents of microstructuredown to a size of 1 µm. The results made it possible toimprove the technology in ferrous and non-ferrousmetallurgy as well as fundamental research. Themechanical testing methods were improved constantly

Instrumentirano Charpyjevo kladivo s krivuljama sila-deformacija insila-~as za duktilen prelom (B. Arzen{ek)Instrumented Charpy device and relatonshios load versus deflectionand time (B. Arzen{ek)

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Naprava za ionsko nitriranje in mikrostruktura nitrirane plasti obpovr{ini nitriranega jekla (V. Leskov{ek)Device for ion nitriding and microstructure of the nitrided layer of thesurface of the steel (V. Leskov{ek)

v zvezi s tem velja posebej omeniti na~rtovanje inkonstrukcijo naprave za dolo~anje deformacije zlezenjem. Razviti so bili tudi postopki za toplotnoobdelavo v vakuumu in ionsko nitriranje.

Zelo pomembna je bila in je {e storitvena dejavnostza zunanje naro~nike, npr. laboratorijske meritve,analize, preiskave ter ekspertna mnenja za mednarodnearbitraè o velikih havarijah na energetskih in indu-strijskih napravah. Na In{titutu so bile pripravljene tudiekspertize o havarijah, pri katerih je {koda presegalamilijon EUR-ov, ki so bile uveljavljene proti doba-viteljem iz zahodnih dràv. Veliko je bilo storitev izlaboratorijev kemijsko-analitskega, mehanskega (talaboratorij ima uradno pooblastilo za umerjanje



and in this field, the design and the construction of anoriginal computer-controlled machine for creep testingwith excellent performance should be mentioned.Specific processes for vacuum thermal treatments andion nitriding were developed also.

The servicing of external clients continues to be animport area, with different laboratory measurements andanalyses. These have included expert reports forinternational arbitrations on damages to industrial and

Slika 18: Vpliv trajanja katodne polarizacije na kontrakcijo dvehkonstrukcijskih jekel. Jeklo 1- mikrostruktura iz toplotno obdelanihferita in perlita in mejo plasti~nosti 490 MPa, jeklo 2- mikrostrukturaiz poligonalnega ferita in perlita in mejo plasti~nosti 350 MPa (L.Vehovar, 1995)Figure 18: Influence of the length of cathodic polarisation for twostructural steels on the reduction of area. Steel 1: microstructure ofheat-treated ferrite and pearlite and yield stress of 490 MPa. Steel 2:microstructure of polygonal ferrite and pearlite and yield stress of 350MPa (L. Vehovar, 1995)

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Slika 21: Odvisnost med temperaturo preizku{anja in mehanskimilastnostmi ekstrudiranega kompozita Al/SiC z volumskim deleèm 20% SiC (B. [u{tar{i~, M. Dober{ek, B. Breskvar, M. Torkar, V.Kevorkijan, A. Smolej, V. Nardin. S. Dai, 1992)Figure 21: Dependence between the testing temperature and thetensile properties of an extruded composite Al/SiC with 20 vol. % ofSiC (B. [u{tar{i~, M. Dober{ek, B. Breskvar, M. Torkar, V. Kevor-kijan, A. Smolej, V. Nardin. S. Dai, 1992)

preizku{evalnih naprav) in metalografskega laboratorijater iz oddelka za toplotno in povr{insko obdelavo. Vlaboratoriju za metalografijo je bilo opravljeno velikodela pri elektronskem mikroanalizatorju in vrsti~nemelektronskem mikroskopu. Poseben dokaz zaupanja vkakovost in odgovornost dela je pooblastilo In{tituta, davsako leto opravlja nekatera nadzorna dela pri remontihv NEK (Kr{ko) in dejstvo, da je in{titut pripravil tistidela varnostnega poro~ila po 20-letnem obratovanju, kiobravnava stanje zlitine, iz katere je izdelan primarnicevovod. Laboratorijske storitve in pilotna proizvodnjaso ohranjale operaterski kader pri raziskovalnih napravahv dobri kondiciji, kar je bilo bistveno za napredekmetodike raziskovanja in za zanesljivost ter racionalnostlaboratorijskega dela.

6 OBJAVLJANJE IN SODELOVANJE NAZNANSTVENIH IN STROKOVNIHKONFERENCAH TER POSVETOVANJIH

O vsakem raziskovalnem projektu in nalogi je bilopripravljeno vsako leto podrobno delovno poro~ilo,vsako leto tudi letno poro~ilo in ob okroglih obletnicahve~letna poro~ila, v katerih so bili povzeti najboljpomembni dose`ki iz preteklega obdobja in predstavljenistatisti~ni podatki, pomembni za dejavnost In{tituta. Vrazpredelnici 1 so navedeni podatki o {tevilu poro~il oraziskovalnih in razvojnih nalogah in projektih ter oobjavah v Sloveniji, v Jugoslaviji in v drugih dr`avah podesetletjih za obdobje 1950-2000.

Institut je prvo mednarodno konferenco organiziral ssodelovanjem sorodnih in{titutov iz Nem~ije in Francije`e leta 1959. Konference v sodelovanju z obema in{titu-toma so bile organizirane periodi~no do leta 1986. Odleta 1968 naprej so bila vsako leto organizirana posveto-vanja, na katerih se je poro~alo o rezultatih uporaberaziskovalnih projektov v industrijskih podjetjih,predstavljena pa so bila tudi znanstvena dela v oblikigovornih in kasneje posterskih prispevkov. Vsakoletnekonference, ki se pod nazivom Konferenca o materialihin tehnologijah organizirajo {e sedaj in na njih sepredstavlja med 80 in 100 deli v govorni in posterskiobliki.



energy installations up to 1 million ECU. Most serviceswere performed in the laboratories for analyticalchemistry, mechanical testing, metallography andvacuum heat treatment. The fact that the institute staff isinvolved every year in control operations for the NEpower plant Kr{ko and that it was called upon to preparepart of the safety report related to the state of the primarycircuit is good evidence of the quality of the routinework of different laboratories. The laboratory servicesand the pilot-plant production kept the operators in goodcondition, which was, and still is, essential for goodlaboratory work.

6 PUBLISHING AND PARTICIPATION INNATIONAL AND INTERNATIONALCONFERENCES

Annual reports were prepared for all projects andprograms, a report summarising all the activity in thepast year and periodical reports on the activity for a fewyears were prepared, and statistical data on the activityincluded. In Table 1 is the data on the number of reportson R&D projects and on the number of publications inSlovenia, Yugoslavia and abroad per decade in theperiod 1950 to 2000.

The first international conference, probably the firstof its type in Yugoslavia, was organised with thecooperation of institutes from Germany and France, in1959. Periodically, conferences with the cooperation ofboth institutes were organised up to 1986. Starting from1968, a national conference was organised every year,where besides the standard communications and lectures,a survey was also given on the implementation of R&Dresults in industry. An annual conference with the title"Conference on Materials and Technology" is stillorganised every year, and 80 to 1000 communicationsare presented in the form of oral lectures and posters.

The publication in periodicals began after 1960, forresults available to the public in Slovenian andYugoslavian journals, such as: Rudarsko-metalur{kiZbornik, @elezarski Zbornik (the name was laterchanged to Kovine Zlitine Technologije and finally toMateriali in Tehnologije), Rudarstvo, Geologija inMetalurgija, Metalurgija and Livarski Vestnik. Articles

Preglednica 1: [tevilo poro~il o raziskovalnih nalogah in objavah po desetletjih v obdobju 1950-2000. Pripravila N. Li~anin.Table 1: Number of reports on research projects and of publications per decade for the period 1950 to 2000. Data from Ms. N. Li~anin

Obdobje/Period

^lanki v revijah/Articles in journals Predavanja v/Comm. at confer. Naloge,projekti/

R&D projects,reports

Sloven./Slov.

Jugosl./Yugosl.

tuje/Foreign

Sloveniji/Slov.

Jugosl./Yugosl.

tujini/Foreign

1950-1960 45 26 4 4 2 20 1851961-1970 140 21 36 65 28 37 7171971-1980 181 30 73 169 77 41 7151981-1990 135 11 32 227 44 79 6581991-2000 164 21 103 192 17 142 245

Skupaj/Total 665 109 248 657 168 301 2.520

Raziskovalci z In{tituta so bili vsako leto obvezanipripraviti iz~rpna poro~ila o izvr{enih raziskovalnih inrazvojnih projektih in nalogah. @e kmalu po letu 1962 sose za~ela objavljati dela, za katera je naro~nik dalpristanek, da smejo v javnost, in sicer v slovenskih injugoslovanskih revijah, npr. Rudarsko-Metalur{kiZbornik, @elezarski Zbornik (kasneje preimenovan vKovine Zlitine Tehnologije, sedaj Materiali in Tehno-logije) Rudarstvo, Geologija i Metalurgija, Metalurgijain Livarski vestnik. Objavljali pa so tudi v revijah, ki sose tiskale v Nem~iji, Franciji, Angliji, Kanadi,Nizozemski, Avstriji, Italiji, in Japonski, npr. MemoiresScientifiques de la Revue de Métallurgie, Archiv für dasEisenhüttenwesen-Steel Research, Metals Tehnology,Metals Science, Materials Science and Technology,Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Journalde Physique, Journal of Materials Processing Techno-logy, Vacuum, Journal of ISI of Japan in drugih.Raziskovalci so sodelovali tudi na {tevilnih znanstvenihkonferencah v prakti~no vseh dràvah Evrope, v ZDA,Aziji in v Avstraliji. Podatki v razpredelnici kaèjo, dase je po desetletju 1950-1960 {tevilo poro~il o razisko-valnih nalogah in projektih ustalilo, {tevilo objav pa vvsem obdobju stalno raste, skladno z izbolj{anjemkakovosti in izvirnosti raziskovalno-razvojnega dela inzahtevami okolja za ve~jo odprtost. ê upo{tevamo, daje bilo povpre~no {tevilo raziskovalcev v vsem obdobjuokoli 30, je {tevilo objav razli~ne vrste zelo veliko. Ktemu je treba pri{teti {e vsako leto nekaj deset ekspertizrazli~ne zahtevnosti in obsega, pogosto tudi arbitra` inocen velikih havarij na industrijskih objektih.

7 NARO^NIKI RAZISKOVALNIH NALOGOZIROMA PROJEKTOV

@e kmalu po ustanovitvi, ko so se zmanj{ala sredstvaiz zveznih skladov, je In{titut poiskal naro~nikeprojektov v {tevilnih podjetjih iz mati~ne in drugihindustrij. Ve~ina teh podjetij je na In{titutu financiralapo ve~ projektov za svoje potrebe. Obseg financiranja seje po letu 1990 precej zmanj{al zaradi tranzicijske krize,vendar sodelovanje ni bilo nikdar popolnoma prekinjeno.V prvih 20 letih so naro~ila za RR-projekte prihajala izvse Jugoslavije in iz agencij zvezne vlade, ki so vBeogradu odgovarjale za razvoj razli~nih podro~ij,predvsem oceno mo`nosti industrijske eksploatacijemineralnih rud in goriv. Po letu 1970 se je ta dejavnostmo~no zmanj{ala in teì{~e se je usmerilo na tehnolo{keinovacije, razvoj novih zlitin, zmanj{anje porabe energijein zmanj{anje obremenitve okolja. Podjetja navajamobrez podatkov o tem, koliko projektov je bilo zanjeizvr{enih in koliko sredstev je s projekti in{titut pridobil.V za~etku velika podpora zveznih skladov se jezmanj{ala, ko se je In{titut usmeril predvsem naslovensko okolje, nikdar pa ni prenehalo sodelovanje zindustrijskimi podjetji iz vse biv{e Jugoslavije.Naro~niki raziskovalnih nalog in projektov so bili npr.:



with authors from IMT were printed in Germany,France, England, Canada, Holland, Austria, Italy andJapan, in journals such as: Memoires Scientifiques de laRevue de Métallurgie, Archiv für das Eisen-hüttenwese-Steel Research, Metals Technology, MetalsScience, Materials Science and Technology, Journal ofTechnology, Journal of Magnetism and MagneticMaterials, Journal de Physique, Journal of MaterialsProcessing Technology, Vacuum, Journal of ISI of Japanand others. Researchers participated with communi-cations in a number of scientific conferences in virtuallyevery European country, in the USA, Australia and someAsia countries.

The data in the table indicate that the number ofreports stabilised after the decade 1950-1960, while thenumber of publications increased steadily with theincreasing originality and quality of the R&D results,and the increasing openness. When taking account of thefact that for the whole period there was a constant staffof approximately 30 researchers, the number ofpublications of all types is relatively high. Additionally,every year a few tens of expert reports of varyingimportance were prepared, there were also frequentevaluations of the causes of severe damage to industrialequipment and installations.

7 FINANCERS OF R&D PROJECTS

The support from federal funds diminished soon afterthe initial years of activity, and the institute was forcedto find money for R&D projects from industrial andmining companies. A number of companies financed atleast a few R&D or other projects. The volume ofindustrial financing dropped strongly in 1990 because ofthe transition’s economic crisis; however, it neverstopped completely.

In the first 20 years of activity the contracts forprojects were concluded with companies from all overYugoslavia, and from the federal agencies responsiblefor the development of different industrial branches.Very frequently, the topics of the projects were theevaluation of the feasibility of exploiting ores and solidmineral fuels. After 1970, this activity decreased verysignificantly, and the accent was given to technologicalinnovations, to the development of new alloys, to therationalisation of energy use and to the reduction ofenvironmental pollution. The companies are mentionedas R&D partners of the institute without data on thenumber of projects and the volume of financing involvedfor their realisation. Although the support of federalfunds virtually stopped after the institute turned toSlovenian industry and funds, the cooperation withcompanies from the whole of Yugoslavia was notinterrupted until the break up of Yugoslavia.

Starting from 1950, the financers of R&D projectswere: The Federal Direction for Ores, The Federal Fundfor Science and the Assotiation of Yugoslavian Iron and

Savezna direkcija za mineralne surovine, Beograd;Savezni fond za nau~ni rad, Beograd; Sklad BorisaKidri~a, Ljubljana; UJ@, Beograd; @elezarna Jesenice;@elezarna Ravne; @elezarna [tore; @elezarna Skopje;TOVIL, Ljubljana; @i~na, Celje; Tvornica FENI,Kavadarci, Makedonija; Institut Mihajlo Pupin, Beograd;RMK, Zenica; EI Ni{; Rudnici i topionica, Zletovo;Valjaonica bakra Slobodan Penezi~ Krcun, Sevojno;Impol, Slovenska Bistrica; TGA-Talum, Kidri~evo;Mariborska livarna; Cinkarna Celje; Rudniki intopilnica, Meìca; Aurodent, Ljubljana; LTH, [kofjaLoka; In{titut Zoran Rant, [kofja Loka; Livarna Komen;Zlatarna Celje; Termit, Domàle; Exoterm, Kranj; IskraKondenzatorji, Semi~; Tovarna polprevodnikov,Trbovlje; Iskra Stikala, Kranj; Vazduhoplovni institut,@arkovo, Beograd; TLM, [ibenik; TUP, Dubrovnik;KAT, Titograd; Iskra Releji, Ljubljana; Merkur, Kranj;Belt, ^rnomelj; Livarna, Ivan~na Gorica; Kova{kaindustrija Zre~e; VTI, Beograd; Institut za brodogradnjo,Zagreb; Croacija, Zagreb; Iskra Zmaj, Ljubljana; Iskra[tevci, Kranj; Metalna, Maribor; TAM, Maribor;Tovarna du{ika in ferozlitin, Ru{e; Veriga, Lesce;Plamen, Kropa; Strojna tovarna, Maribor; Kovinarska,Kr{ko; Tomos, Koper; Energoprojekt, Beograd; Energo-invest, Sarajevo; Termoelektrarna [o{tanj; Termoelek-trarna in toplarna Ljubljana; Kovinarstvo, Kr{ko;Nuklearna elektrarna Kr{ko; S@ Acroni, Jesenice; S@Metal, Ravne; Litostroj, Ljubljana; Tovarna magnetov,Ljubljana; Feriti, Ljubljana; Kolektor, Idrija; Unior,Zre~e in drugi.

8 SKLEP

Zgo{~en pregled odkriva v 50 letih dela na In{titutuzelo uspe{na, manj uspe{na in celo kriti~na obdobja. Bilaso odsev dogajanja v industrijskem okolju, s katerim jebil In{titut povezan, in raziskav, ki so bile usmerjene vnapredek tehnologije in razvoj novih postopkov terproizvodov. Prete`na navezanost na industrijo, ki je {e



Steelworks, Belgrade; The Boris Kidri~ Fund, Ljubljana;Iron Works, Jesenice, Ravne and [tore, Slovenia; Toviland @i~na, Slovenia; Institute Mihajlo Pupin, Belgrade;RMK Zenica, Bosnia; Rudnici in topionica Zletovo,Macedonia; Valjonica bakra Sevojno, Serbia; Impol,TGA-Talun, Mariborska livarna, Cinkarna Celje,Slovenia; Rudniki in topilnica Meìca, Aurodent andLTH, Slovenia; In{itut Zoran Rant, Livarna Komen andZlatarna Celje, Slovenia; Termit Domàle, Eksoterm andIskra kondenzatorji, Slovenia; Tovarna polprevodnikovTrbovlje and ISKRA Stikala, Slovenia; Vazduhoplovniinstitut, Serbia; TLM and TUP, Croatia; KAT,Montenegro; Iskra releji, Merkur, Belt, Livarna Ivan~naGorica and Kova{ka industria @re~e, Slovenia; VTI,Serbia; Institut za brodogradnju and Croatia, Croatia;Iskra Zmaj, Iskra {tevci and Metalna, Slovenia, TAM,Tovarna du{ika in ferozlitin, Veriga, and Plamen,Slovenia, Strojna tovarna Maribor, Slovenia, KovinarskaKr{ko and, Tomos, Slovenia, Energoprojekt, Serbia;Energoinvest, Bosnia; Termoelektrarna [o{tanj, Termo-elektrarna in toplarna Ljubljana, and Kovinarstvo Kr{ko,Slovenia, Nuklearna Elektrarna Kr{ko, Slovenia; S@Acroni, S@ Metal, S@ Jeklo and Litostroj, Slovenia;Tovarna magnetov Ljubljana, Feriti, Kolektor and Unior,Slovenia and other companie from all Yugoslavia.

8 CONCLUSION

This survey shows that in 50 years of activity theinstitute has met very successful, less successful andeven critical periods, depending on the economicsituation in industry and the research policy in thefederal and republican agencies charged with subsidizingthe scientific research and development. In Slovenia, thestrong relations with industry, which are also found inresearch institutions of similar orientation in developedcountries, are not secure in the long term, mostly due tothe absence of a stable financing system that is similar tothat in developed countries. In addition, the Slovenian

Laboratorijska pe~ in merilni sistem za visokotemperaturno umerjanje termoelementov (do 1300 °C) in simulacijski model ogrevanja za vsakogredico v realnem ~asu (Allino pe~ – Metal Ravne), razvit na IMTLaboratory furnace and measuring system for the calibration of termoelements up to 1300 °C and simulation model for the heating of singlebillets in real time (Allino furnace – Metal Ravne), developed in IMT

danes temelj delovanja v sorodnih in{titutih v razvitihdràvah, se je dolgoro~no pokazala kot nezanesljiva, kerni bilo sistemske ureditve in financiranja po zgledurazvitih dràv in ker raziskovalna politika vlade po letu1990 ni dovolj podpirala aplikativnega in razvojnegaraziskovanja za potrebe slovenske industrije. ê se bopisala bolj natan~na kronika dela in{tituta bo mogo~ena{teti {tevilne konkretne primere, ko je In{titut dalpobudo ali pa vsaj odigral pomembno vlogo pri razvojutehnologij in proizvodov v podjetjih mati~ne industrije.Tudi In{titutu gre zasluga, da je v zadnjem ~asu taindustrija gospodarsko uspe{na, saj se je izpostavil vnjeno obrambo v ~asu, ko se je zdelo, iz danes nejasnihrazlogov, da èlijo nekateri politiki ustaviti metalur{koindustrijo v Sloveniji. Z RR-projekti, s storitvami,pilotno proizvodnjo je In{titut sodeloval in {e sodeluje s{tevilnimi industrijskimi podjetji in je gotovo medinstitucijami, ki so se z delom pokazale kot zelo koristneza industrijo in dràvo.

Orientacija na industrijsko okolje in ekonomskanavezanost nanj pa nista omogo~ali, da bi bil in{titut zeloveliko prisoten v temeljnih raziskavah, ki bi sodelavcemdale veliko mo`nosti za objavljanje rezultatov dela vtujih strokovnih in znanstvenih revijah. Objavatehnolo{ko pomembnih dognanj je bila tudi odvisna odpristanka naro~nikov dela, javna sredstva pa so seporabljala za temeljna raziskovalna dela, ki so izhajala izproblemov v tehnologijah in pri proizvodih, ki jih ni bilomogo~e zanesljivo pojasniti z è objavljenim splo{nimteoreti~nim znanjem. Vendar je bila tudi v tistem ~asupublicisti~na dejavnost dokaj razvita, In{titut pa je bilcelo soizdajatelj revije @elezarski zbornik. Zato je bilamogo~a v novem ~asu (ki je v metodiki ocenjevanjakakovosti raziskovanja, ki se financira iz javnih sredstev,dal prednost objavam in citatom ter podcenil pomenrelevantnosti raziskovanja pri vedah, ki so bile vSloveniji dolgoletno navezane na industrijsko okolje), {epravo~asna in zadostna preusmeritev in s tem prepre~itevtistega, kar se je zgodilo drugim, v preteklosti podobnoorientiranim in{titutom. V 50 letih dela pa je bilo tolikouspehov in dose`kov, da so na delo In{tituta lahkoponosni njegovi ustanovitelji, uporabniki ter vsi biv{i in{e danes zaposleni.

POJASNILO

Pregledu dela je priloèno dvoje vrst slik, ki nisoneposredno povezane z razlago v tekstu. O{tevil~eneslike prikazujejo izbrane raziskovalno-razvojne izsledkeod leta 1964 naprej. Izbrane so bile s ciljem, da sepredstavi vsebinski obseg dela in posredno tudi uporab-ljene raziskovalne in analitske metode. Neo{tevil~eneslike prikazujejo pomembnej{o raziskovalno opremo vuporabi na in{titutu leta 2000 in primere rezultatovanaliz in preizkusov.

Diagrami so predstavljeni tako, kot so bili objavljeni.



government’s research policy after 1990 did notsufficiently support R&D projects with topics of interestto Slovenian industry.

In a more detailed article, a number of cases will bementioned where the institute did play a significant rolein the projects of advanced technology and products indifferent companies, or at least proposed significant anduseful suggestions for changes and improvements. Eventhe economic success of the metallurgical industry inpast years can be partially ascribed to the institutebecause of its warnings to the public in times ofeconomic crisis that had political roots, when somepoliticians pleaded openly for a Slovenia withoutconventional industries. With R&D projects, technicalexpert work and pilot-plant production, the institute tookpart in the R&D of a number of industrial companies,and it continues to play a similar role now. The researchorientation and the great economic dependence onprojects financed by industrial companies did not givethe researchers many opportunities for basic research ontopics of current scientific interest abroad, which wouldhave given them more opportunity to publish articles inforeign scientific journals. The publishing of findingsthat could be related to advances in technology waspossible only after the consent of the contractor. Publicsupport for basic research was mostly aimed at R&D ontopics related to industrial technology and development,and the findings used to prepare better R&D projects forindustrial clients. In spite of these impediments, thepublishing activity was above average when compared toR&D institutions of similar orientation. The institutewas, for a number of years, co-editor of the journal@elezarski Zbornik. For this reason, in the period ofpublic research policy, when in the evaluation ofresearch a preference was given to publications that werenot industrially relevant, also in technical sciences, thereorientation was possible and with it the prevention ofvery serious deleterious consequences.

Everything achieved in the 50 years of R&D andrelated work entitles the founders as well as the past andpresent staff to be proud of the activity of the instituteand its role in the growth of industry in Slovenia and inthe former Yugoslavia.

EXPLANATION

Two kinds of figures without direct relation to thetekst are included in the survey. The numbered figurespresent results of R&D work from 1964 and wereselected with the aim to show the range of topics of R&Dresearch and to show indirectly also the usedexperimental and analytical methods. The non-numberedfigures show some of the more important researchequipment in use in the institute in the year 2000 andexamples of tests and analyses.

Diagrams are presented in the original form.

f.vodopivecetal.:in[titutzakovinskematerialeintehnologije,ljubljana...

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