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RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

THANDALAM, CHENNAI 602 105

DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

LESSON PLAN (JUNE 2011 NOV 2011

Faculty Name / Code : V.Gayathri / BT1!(S"#$%& L"')&"& * S.Thiruvengadam+ BT10(S"#$%& L"')&"&

Sub Code / Name : GE 2021-Professional Etics !nd "uman #alues

Class : # Semester (Sec ! / $%

GE 2021- PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND HUMAN VALUES

UNIT I HUMAN VALUES

The Story o ! C!r"e#ter

An elderly carpenter was ready to retire. He told his employer-contractor of his plansto leave the house- building business and live a more leisurely life with his wifeenjoying his extended family.

He would miss his paycheck, but he needed to retire. They could get by. Thecontractor was sorry to see his good worker go and asked if he could build just one

more house as a personal favor.

The carpenter said yes, but in time it was easy to see that his heart was not in hiswork. He resorted to shoddy workmanship and used inferior materials. t was anunfortunate way to end his career.!hen the carpenter finished his work and the builder came to inspect the house, thecontractor handed over the house key to the carpenter. "This is your house,# hesaid, "it is my parting gift to you.#

!hat a shock$ !hat a %hame$ f only he had known he was building his own house,

he would have done it all so differently. &ow he had to live in the home he built nonetoo well.'(odified from )*&+ !TH H& by %H* /H0A1

2o we find ourselves in similar situations as the carpenter3Moving through our work hours fast paced, driven to get the jo done!, withoutmuch thought to mora" va"ues.

How do we regain our focus as individuals and organi4ations3

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This is the cha""enge for the emp"oyee and the emp"oyer.

#thics are fundamenta" standards of conduct y which we work as a professiona".

VALUES

Va"ues are individua" in nature. Va"ues are comprised of persona" concepts of responsii"ity, entit"ement and

respect. Va"ues are shaped y persona" e$perience, may change over the span of a

"ifetime and may e inf"uenced y "essons "earned. Va"ues may vary according to an individua"%s cu"tura", ethnic and/or faith&

ased ackground.

"&ever change your core values.#'n spite of a"" the change around you, decide upon what you wi"" never change( yourcore va"ues.Take your time to decide what they are ut once you do, do not compromise on themfor any reason.ntegrityis one such va"ue.

MORALS

Mora"s are guiding princip"es that every citi)en shou"d ho"d.

Mora"s are foundationa" concepts defined on oth an individua" and societa""eve".

*t the most asic "eve", mora"s are the know"edge of the difference etween

right and wrong.

PERSONAL ETHICS

Simp"y put, a"" individua"s are mora""y autonomous eings with the power and

right to choose their va"ues, ut it does not fo""ow that a"" choices and a"" va"uesystems have an e+ua" c"aim to e ca""ed ethica".

*ctions and e"iefs inconsistent with the Si$ i""ars of -haracter &

trustworthiness, respect, responsii"ity, fairness, caring and citi)enship & aresimp"y not ethica".

PERSONAL ETHICS& everyday e$amp"es

& Software piracy& #$pense account padding& -opying of homework or tests& 'ncome ta$es& orrowing! nuts and o"ts, office supp"ies from emp"oyer

& -opying of Videos or -%s

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& "agiarism& 0sing the copy machine at work

RELIGION AND ETHICS

& The Go"den 1u"e! is a asic tenet in a"most a"" re"igions( -hristian, 2indu,3ewish, -onfucian, uddhist, Mus"im.

& o unto others as you wou"d have others do unto you.!& Treat others as you wou"d "ike them to treat you! 4-hristian5.& 2urt not others with that which pains you! 4uddhist5& 6hat is hatefu" to yourse"f do not do to your fe""ow men!

43udaism5& 7o man is a true e"iever un"ess he desires for his rother that

which he desires for himse"f! 4's"am5

MORALIT$ AND ETHICS

-oncerns the goodness of vo"untary human conduct that affects the se"f orother "iving things

Mora"ity 48atin mores5 usua""y refers to any aspect of human action

#thics 4Greek ethos5 common"y refers on"y to professiona" ehavior

#thics consist of the app"ication of fundamenta" mora" princip"es and ref"ect

our dedication to fair treatment of each other, and of society as a who"e. *n individua"%s own va"ues can resu"t in acceptance or rejection of society%s

ethica" standards ecause even thoughtfu""y deve"oped ethica" ru"es canconf"ict with individua" va"ues.

ASPECTS OF ETHICS

There are two aspects to ethics( The first invo"ves the ai"ity to discern right from wrong, good from evi" and

propriety from impropriety. The second invo"ves the commitment to do what is right, good and proper.

#thics entai"s action.

*n *8G#1* course wi"" teach you *8G#1*.* 2'ST91: course wi"" teach you 2'ST91:.* M*7*G#M#7T course wi"" teach you princip"es of M*7*G#M#7T.

ut, 6i"" an 0TH5%course teach you to e #TH5A);Think

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UNIT II - ENGINEERING ETHICS

Techno"ogy can have no "egitimacy un"ess it inf"icts no harm!&*dm.2.G. 1ickover,father of the 0S nuc"ear navy.

' !hat does Adm. ickover mean by this3' %hould engineers avoid technology that has the potential for inflicting

harm on a society or its members3

& #ngineers have an ethica" and socia" responsii"ity to themse"ves, their c"ientsand society.

& ractica""y 4a"though there is much deate aout this5, engineering ethics isaout a"ancing cost, schedu"e, and risk.

ENGINEERING ETHICSis(

& the study of mora" issues and decisions confronting individua"s andorgani)ations invo"ved in engineering and

& the study of re"ated +uestions aout mora" idea"s, character, po"icies andre"ationships of peop"e and organi)ations invo"ved in techno"ogica" activity.

TRAINING IN PREVENTIVE ETHICS

& Stimu"ating the mora" imagination& 1ecogni)ing ethica" issues& eve"oping ana"ytica" ski""s& #"iciting a sense of responsii"ity

& To"erating disagreement and amiguity

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IMPEDIMENTS TO RESPONSI%ILIT$

& Se"f&interest.

& =ear.& Se"f&deception.& 'gnorance.& #gocentric tendencies.& Microscopic vision.& Groupthink.

&UESTIONA%LE ENGINEERING PRACTICES

& Trimming > smoothing of irregu"arities to make data "ook e$treme"y accurateand precise!

& -ooking > retaining on"y those resu"ts that fit the theory and discardingothers!.

& =orging > inventing some or a"" of the research data?!& "agiarism > misappropriating inte""ectua" property.& -onf"icts of interest 4such as accepting gifts.5

' actua"' potentia"' apparent

CLEARL$ 'RONG ENGINEERING PRACTICES

& 8ying& e"ierate deception& 6ithho"ding information& =ai"ing to ade+uate"y promote the dissemination of information& =ai"ure to seek out the truth& 1evea"ing confidentia" or proprietary information& *""owing one%s judgment to e corrupted.

SENSES OF E(PRESSION OF ENGG) ETHICS

#thics is an activity and area of in+uiry. 't is the activity of understanding

mora" va"ues, reso"ving mora" issues and the area of study resu"ting from thatactivity.

6hen we speak of ethica" pro"ems, issues and controversies, we mean todistinguish them from non mora" pro"ems.

#thics is used to refer to the particu"ar set of e"iefs, attitudes and haits that

a person or group disp"ays concerning mora"ities. #thics and its grammatica" variants can e used as synonyms for @mora""y

correct%.

VARIETIES or APPROACHES OF MORAL ISSUES

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(5-0TH5% emphasi)es typica""y everyday pro"ems that can take onsignificant proportions in an engineer%s "ife or entire engineering office.

(A5-0TH5% addresses societa" pro"ems that are often shunted aside and are

not addressed unti" they une$pected"y resurface on a regiona" or nationa" sca"e.

MORAL PRO%LEMS IN ENGINEERING4S9M# #A*M8#S5

B.C. *n inspector discovered fau"ty construction e+uipment and app"ied a vio"ationtag, preventing its use. The supervisor, a construction manager viewed the case as aminor arasion of the safety regu"ations and ordered the remova" of the tag to speedup the project. 6hen the inspector ojected to this, he was threatened withdiscip"inary action.

B.D. *n e"ectric uti"ity company app"ied for a permit to operate a nuc"ear power p"ant.The "icensing agency was interested in knowing what emergency measures hadeen esta"ished for humans safety in case of reactor ma"functioning. The uti"ityengineers descried the a"arm system and arrangements with "oca" hospita"s fortreatment. They did not emphasi)e that this measures app"ied to p"ant personne"on"y and that they had no p"ans for the surrounding popu"ation. 6hen en+uired aouttheir omission, they said it was not their responsii"ity.

B.E. * chemica" p"ant dumped wastes in a "andfi"". 2a)ardous sustances found theirway into the underground water ta"e. The p"ant%s engineers were aware of thesituation ut did not change the method of disposa" ecause their competitors did itthe same cheap way, and no "aw e$p"icit"y forade the practice.

B.B. #"ectronics -ompany *- geared up for production of its own version of apopu"ar new item. The product was not yet ready for sa"e, ut even so, pictures andimpressive specifications appeared in advertisements. rospective customers were"ed to e"ieve that it was avai"a"e off the she"f and were drawn away from competing"ines.

T$PES OF IN&UIRIES

1) NORMATIVE IN&UIR$

These are aout @what ought to e% and @what is good%. These +uestions identify anda"so justify the mora""y desira"e norms or standards.

Some of the +uestions are(*. 2ow far engineers are o"igated to protect pu"ic safety in givensituations;. 6hen shou"d engineers start whist"e "owing on dangerous practices oftheir emp"oyers;-. 6hose va"ues are primary in taking a mora" decision, emp"oyee, pu"ic

or govt;

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. 6hy are engineers o"igated to protect pu"ic safety;#. 6hen is govt justified in interfering on such issues and why;

2) CONCEPTUAL IN&UIR$:

These +uestions shou"d "ead to c"arifications on concepts, princip"es and issues inethics. #$amp"es are(

*5 6hat is @S*=#T:% and how is it re"ated to @1'SF%5 @rotect the safety, hea"th and we"fare of pu"ic%&6hat does thisstatement mean;-5 6hat is a rie;5 6hat is a @profession% and who are @professiona"s%;

*) FACTUAL +DESCRIPTIVE, IN&UIRIES

These are in+uiries used to uncover information using scientific techni+ues. Thesein+uiries get to information aout usiness rea"ities, history of engineeringprofession, procedures used in assessment of risks and engineers psycho"ogy.

'hy t./y ENGINEERING ETHICS

#7G'7##1'7G #T2'-S is a means to increase the ai"ity of concerned engineers,managers, citi)ens and others to responsi"y confront mora" issues raised ytechno"ogica" activities.

MORAL DILEMMMA

There are three types of comp"e$ities.

V*G0#7#SS( This comp"e$ity arises due to the fact that it is not c"ear to

individua"s as to which mora" considerations or princip"es app"y to theirsituation.

-97=8'-T'7G 1#*S97S( #ven when it is perfect"y c"ear as to which mora"

princip"e is app"ica"e to one%s situation, there cou"d deve"op a situation where

in two or more c"ear"y app"ica"e mora" princip"es come into conf"ict.

'S*G1##M#7T( 'ndividua"s and groups may disagree how to interpret,

app"y and a"ance mora" reasons in particu"ar situations.

Steps in confronting M91*8 '8#MM*S(i5 'dentify the re"evant mora" factors and reasons.ii5 Gather a"" avai"a"e facts that are pertinent to the mora" factors

invo"ved.iii5 1ank the mora" considerations in the order of their importance as they

app"y to the situation.

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iv5 -onsider a"ternative course of action, tracing the fu"" imp"ications ofeach, as ways of so"ving di"emma.

v5 Ta"k with co""eagues, seeking the suggestions and perspectives of thedi"emma.

vi5 *rrive at a carefu""y reasoned judgment y weighing a"" the re"evantmora" factors and reasons in "ight of facts.

*"" the aove steps are distinct, even though they are inter&re"ated and can often e taken joint"y

MORAL AUTONOM$

& This is viewed as the ski"" and hait of thinking rationa""y aout ethica"issues on the asis of mora" concerns independent"y or y se"f&determination.

& *utonomous individua"s think for themse"ves and do not assume that

customs are a"ways right.& They seek to reason and "ive y genera" princip"es.& Their motivation is to do what is mora""y reasona"e for its own sake,

maintaining integrity, se"f&respect, and respect for others.

9ne who reaks an unjust "aw must do so open"y, "oving"y, and with a wi""ingness toaccept the pena"ty. ' sumit that an individua" who reaks a "aw that conscience te""shim is unjust and wi""ing"y accepts the pena"ty? is in rea"ity e$pressing the highestrespect for the "aw.! ev. (artin )uther /ing, 6r. in 8etter from a irmingham 3ai",CHE.

* person ecomes mora""y autonomous y improving various practica" ski""s "istede"ow(

i5 roficiency is recogni)ing mora" pro"ems and issues in engineering.ii5 Ski"" in comprehending, c"arifying and critica""y assessing arguments

on opposing sides of mora" issues.iii5 The ai"ity to form consistent and comprehensive viewpoints ased

upon consideration of re"evant facts.iv5 *wareness of a"ternate responses to issues and creative so"utions for

practica" difficu"ties.

v5 Sensitivity to genuine difficu"ties and sut"etiesvi5 'ncreased precision in the use of a common ethica" "anguagenecessary to e$press and a"so defend one%s views ade+uate"y.

vii5 *ppreciation of possii"ities of using rationa" dia"ogue in reso"ving mora"conf"icts and the need for to"erance of differences in perspectiveamong ora""y reasona"e peop"e.

viii5 * sense of importance of integrating one%s professiona" "ife andpersona" convictions i.e. maintaining one%s mora" integrity.

OHL%ERGS THEOR$

ST*G#S 9= M91*8 #V#89M#7T

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& 7re-conventional )evel6hatever enefits onese"f or avoids punishment. This is the "eve" ofdeve"opment of a"" young chi"dren. &*void punishment I Gain 1eward

& 5onventional )evel0ncritica" acceptance of one%s fami"y, group or society are accepted as fina"standard of mora"ity. Most adu"ts do not mature eyond this stage. &C.Gain*pprova" I *void isapprova" I D. uty I Gui"t

& 7ost-conventional )evelMotivation to do what is mora""y reasona"e for its own sake, rather thanso"e"y from u"terior motives, with a"so a desire to maintain their mora" integrity,se"f&respect and the respect of other autonomous individua"s. They are@Mora""y autonomous% peop"e. &C. *greed upon rights I D. ersona" mora"standards

GILLIGANS THEOR$

7re-conventional )evel

This is the same as Foh"erg%s first "eve" in that the person is preoccupiedwith se"f centered reasoning, caring for the needs and desires of se"f.

5onventional

2ere the thinking is opposite in that, one is preoccupied with not hurtingothers and a wi""ingness to sacrifice one%s own interests in order to he"p ornurture others 4or retain friendship5.

7ost-conventional )evel

*chieved through conte$t&oriented reasoning, rather than y app"ying astractru"es ranked in a hierarchy of importance. 2ere the individua" ecomes a"e tostrike a reasoned a"ance etween caring aout other peop"e and pursuingone%s own se"f&interest whi"e e$ercising one%s rights.

Dere#3e 4et5ee# the T'O THEORIES

F928#1G G'88'G*7

. 0thics of rules and rights 0thics of care . %tudies based on well educated,white male8s only, tending male bias.

%tudies included females and coloredpeoples

. Application of abstract rules rankedin the order of importance

Application of context-oriented reasoning.

*. %tudies were hypothesi4ed for boththe genders even though the study wasconducted mostly on males

%tudy was conducted on both gendersand it was found, men based theirreasoning on 9justice8 and women basedtheirs on 9care8

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HEIN6S DILEMMA

The famous e$amp"e used y Foh"erg was ca""ed 2ein)%s di"emma!. * woman"iving in #urope wou"d die of cancer un"ess she was given an e$pensive drug. 2er

husand, 2ein), cou"d not afford it. ut the "oca" pharmacist, who had invented thedrug at on"y one tenth of the sa"e price refused to se"" it to 2ein) who cou"d on"y raiseha"f the re+uired money from orrowings. esperation drives 2ein) to reak into thepharmacy and stea" the drug to save his wife.

6hen respondents were asked whether and why 2ein) shou"d or shou"d not stea" adrug to save his wife from a "ife&threatening i""ness. The responses of the individua"swere compared with a prototypica" response of individua"s at particu"ar stages ofmora" reasoning. Foh"erg noted that irrespective of the "eve" of the individua" theresponse cou"d e same, ut the reasoning cou"d e different.

=or e$amp"e, if a chi"d reasoning at a @preconventiona"% "eve" might say that it is notright to stea" ecause it is against "aw and someone might see you.

*t a @conventiona"% "eve", an individua" might argue that it is not right to stea" ecauseit is against "aw and "aws are necessary for society to function.

*t a @postconventiona"% "eve", one may argue that stea"ing is wrong ecause isagainst "aw and it is immora".

CONSENSUS AND CONTROVERS$

CONTROVERS$(& *"" individua"s wi"" not arrive at same verdict during their e$ercising their mora"

autonomy.& *ristot"e noted "ong ago that mora"ity is not as precise and c"ear&cut as

arithmetic.& *im of teaching engg ethics is not to get unanimous conformity of out"ook y

indoctrination, authoritarian and dogmatic teaching, hypnotism or any othertechni+ue ut to improve promotion of to"erance in the e$ercise of mora"autonomy.

CONSENSUS:The conductor of a music orchestra has authority over the musicians and hisauthority is respected y them y consensus as otherwise the music performancewi"" suffer. 2ence the authority and autonomy are compati"e.

9n the other hand, tension arises etween the needs for autonomy and the need forconcerns aout authority. The difference etween the two shou"d e discussedopen"y to reso"ve the issue to the common good.

PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONALISM

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#ngineers norma""y imagine that they are servants to organi)ations rather than apu"ic guardian. 1esponsii"ity to the pu"ic is essentia" for a professiona".

6ho is a professiona";

& 9vious"y a memberof a profession.

6hat is a profession;@39% or @9--0*T'97% that meets the fo""owing criteria from which a person earnshis living.

Fnow"edge > #$ercise of ski""s, know"edge, judgment and discretion re+uiringe$tensive forma" criteria.

9rgani)ation & specia" odies y memers of the profession to set standardcodes of ethics,

u"ic good&The occupation serves some important pu"ic good indicated y

a code of ethics.

6ho is a professiona" engineer;

& 2as a ache"or%s degree in engineering from an accredited schoo"& erforms engineering work& 's a registered and "icensed rofessiona" #ngineer& *cts in a mora""y responsi"e way whi"e practicing engineering

iffering views on rofessiona"s

9n"y consu"ting engineers who are asica""y independent and have freedom fromcoercion can e ca""ed as professiona"s.! &1oert 8.6hite"aw

rofessiona"s have to meet the e$pectations of c"ients and emp"oyers. rofessiona"restraints are to e imposed y on"y "aws and government regu"ations and not ypersona" conscience.! &Samue" ="orman

#ngineers are professiona"s when they C5 attain standards of achievement ineducation, jo performance or creativity in engineering and D5 accept the most asicmora" responsii"ities to the pu"ic as we"" as emp"oyers, c"ients, co""eagues and

suordinates.! &Mike Martin I 1o"and Schin)inger

MOTIVES FOR PROFESSIONALISM

* desire for interesting and cha""enging work and the p"easure in the act ofchanging the wor"d.

The joy of creative efforts. 6here a scientist%s interest is in discovering newtechno"ogy, engineers interest is derived from creative"y so"ving practica"pro"ems.

The engineer shares the scientist%s jo in understanding the "aws and ridd"es

of the universe.

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The sheer magnitude of the nature > oceans, rivers, mountains and prairies >"eads engineers to ui"d engineering marve"s "ike ships, ridges, tunne"s, etc.,which appea" to human passion.

The p"easure of eing in the presence of machines generating a comforting

and asoring sense of a managea"e, contro""ed and ordered wor"d. Strong sense of he"ping, of directing efforts towards easing the "ot of one%s

fe""ows.

The main p"easure of the engineer wi"" a"ways e to contriute to the we""&eing ofhis fe""ow&men.

MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERS

C. S*V'91( The representative engineer is a savior who wi"" redeem

society from poverty, inefficiency, waste and the drudgery of manua" "aour.D. G0*1'*7( #ngineers know, the directions in which and pace at which,techno"ogy shou"d deve"op.E. 01#*0-1*T'- S#1V*7T( The engineer as the "oya" organi)ationperson uses specia" ski""s to so"ve pro"ems.B. S9-'*8 S#1V*7T( #ngineers, in co&operation with management, havethe task of receiving society%s directives and satisfying society%s desires.J. S9-'*8 #7*8#1 *7 -*T*8:ST( #ngineers p"ay a vita" ro"e eyondmere comp"iance with orders. They he"p management and society understandtheir own needs and to make informed decisions.H. G*M# 8*:#1( #ngineers are neither servants nor masters of anyone.

They p"ay y the economic game ru"es that happen to e in effect at a giventime.

T$PES OF ETHICAL THEORIES

S.79 T:#S *S# 97

C Virtue ethics Virtues and vices

D 0ti"itarianism Most good for most peop"e

E uty ethics uties to respect persons

B 1ights ethics 2uman 1ights

VIRTUE ETHICS

& "The unexamined life is not worth living.# 4Socrates, BKL&E .-.5

& "The happy life is thought to be virtuous: now a virtuous life re;uires exertion

and does not consist in amusement.# 4*ristot"e, EB&EDD .-.5

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The =our Main Virtues

& rudence 4mind5( to think aout a mora" pro"em c"ear"y and comp"ete"y

& Temperance 4emotions5( contro" attraction to positive emotions& =ortitude 4emotions5( contro" aversion for negative emotions& 3ustice 4wi""5( choose according to truth and fairness.

Virtue #thics& =ocuses on the type of person we shou"d strive to e& *ctions which ref"ect good charactertraits 4virtues5 are inherent"y right& *ctions which ref"ect bad charactertraits 4vices5 are inherent"y wrong& Virtue ethics are tied more to individua" ehavior than to that of an

organi)ation 4e.g. usiness, government5

A%TT)0 says that mora" virtues are tendencies, ac+uired through haitformation, to reach a proper a"ance etween e$tremes in conduct, emotion, desireand attitude i.e. virtues are tendencies to find the Go"den Mean etween thee$tremes of too much and too "itt"e.

Some of the virtues are defined using e$amp"es here(

Virtue Too much Too "ess 4Go"den mean etween e$tremes55ourage

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=undamenta" virtues in e$ercising our mora" autonomy and responsii"ity. e.g.se"f understanding, humi"ity, good mora" judgment, courage, se"f discip"ine,perseverance, commitments, se"f&respect and dignity

D. 08'- S'1'T# V'1T0#S(

=ocusing on the good of the c"ients and pu"ic affected y the engineers% worky . not direct"y and intentiona""y harming others i.e. @nonma"eficence%. enificence, sense of community, generosity are other virtues fa""ing in thiscategory.

E. T#*M691F V'1T0#S(#na"es professiona"s to work successfu""y with others. #.g. co""egia"ity,cooperativeness, the ai"ity to communicate, respect for authority, "oya"ty toemp"oyers and "eadership +ua"ities.

B. 19='-'#7-: V'1T0#S(Mastery of one%s craft that characteri)e good engineering practice e.g.competence, di"igence, creativity, se"f&renewa" through continuous education.

MORAL INTEGRIT$

Mora" integrity is the unity of character on the asis of mora" concern, and especia""yon the asis of honesty. The unity is consistency among our attitudes, emotions andconduct in re"ation to justified mora" va"ues.

SELF-RESPECT

Va"uing onese"f in mora""y appropriate ways.

'ntegra" to finding meaning in one%s "ife and work * pre&re+uisite for pursuing other mora" idea"s and virtues.

Se"f&respect is a mora" concept of proper"y va"uing onese"f ut se"f&esteemis a psycho"ogica" concept of positive attitude towards onese"f.

Se"f&respect takes two forms.

C. ecognition self-respectis proper"y va"uing onese"f ecause of one%s inherentmora" worth, the same worth that every other human eing has.

D. Appraisal self-respect is proper"y va"uing ourse"ves according to how we"" wemeet mora" standards and our persona" idea"s.

VARIOUS SENSES OF RESPONSI%ILIT$

1esponsii"ity ascried y i5 virtue, ii5 o"igations, iii5 genera" mora" capacities ofpeop"e, iv5 "iai"ities and accountai"ity for actions and v5 "ameworthiness orpraiseworthiness.

C. y virtue( * person is said to e a responsi"e person when we ascrie amora" virtue to the person. 6e e$pect that the person is regu"ar"y concerned to

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do the right thing, is conscientious and di"igent in meeting o"igations. 'n thissense, professiona" responsii"ity is the centra" virtue of engineers.

D. y o"igation( Mora" responsii"ities can e thought of as o"igations or

duties to perform mora""y right acts.

E. y genera" mora" capacity( 6hen we view a person as a who"e rather thanone with respect to a specific area, we are actua""y thinking aout the activecapacity of the person for knowing how to act in mora""y appropriate ways e.g.the capacity of chi"dren grow as they mature and "earn.

B. y accountai"ity( 1esponsii"ity a"so means eing accounta"e,answera"e or "ia"e to meet particu"ar o"igations. The virtue of professiona"responsii"ity imp"ies a wi""ingness to e accounta"e for one%s conduct.

J. y eing "ameworthy( 6hen accountai"ity for a wrongdoing is at issue,responsi"e ecomes a synonym for "ameworthy. 6hen right conduct is theissue, the conte$t is praiseworthiness.

CAUSAL AND LEGAL RESPONSI%ILITIES

5ausal esponsibility( consists simp"y in eing a cause of some event. #.g. "ightningas eing responsi"e for a house catching fire.

)egal esponsibility( consists simp"y in eing a cause for harm that was so un"ike"yand a"so unforeseea"e that no mora" responsii"ity is invo"ved.

UTILITARIANISM

& That which produces the ma$imum enefit for the greatest numer of peop"e4e.g. emocracy5& Tries to achieve a a"ance etween the good and ad conse+uences of anaction& Tries to ma$imi)e the we""&eing of society and emphasi)es what wi"" providethe most enefits to the "argest group of peop"e& This method is fundamenta" to many types of engineering ana"ysis, inc"uding

risk&enefit ana"ysis and cost&enefit ana"ysis

rawacks(

Sometimes what is est for the community as a who"e is ad for certainindividua"s in the community

't is often impossi"e to know in advance which decision wi"" "ead to themost good

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rgani4ing 7rinciples to esolving 0thical ssues

& 0ti"itarian thinking

> a standard that promotes those individua" actions or ru"es that produce thegreatest tota" amount of uti"ity to those affected.

' * code that enjoins engineers to promote the safety, hea"th, and we"fare ofthe pu"ic.

' 6hat is uti"ity, though; 2appiness;

reference uti"itarianism> promote those conditions that a""ow each individua" to pursue happiness as heor she conceives it.

' Two conditions necessary for this( freedom and we""&eing.' ractica""y, for engineers, this advocates cost/enefit ana"yses.

ro"ems with 0ti"itarianism

& ifficu"t to +uantify enefits for *88 those affected.& Greatest good! difficu"t to app"y to an a""&inc"usive popu"ation.& Someone gets shafted! > approach justifies perpetrating injustice onindividua"s, i.e., someone gets "eft out.

& Three approaches(

C. -ost/enefit > +uantifia"e approach. Ma$imi)e positive uti"ities 4enefits5against negative uti"ities 4costs5.

D. *ct uti"itarian > 6i"" the course of action produce more good than anya"ternative course of action that ' cou"d take!;

E. 1u"e uti"itarian > 6ou"d uti"ity e ma$imi)ed if everyone did the samething in the same circumstances!; *doption of common"y accepted ru"es.

1) COST-%ENEFIT ANAL$SIS:

*ssess the avai"a"e options

*ssess the costs and enefits of each option for the entire audienceaffected Make the decision that is "ike"y to resu"t in the greatest enefitre"ative to cost.

2) ACT-UTILITARIANISM:4professed y 3ohn Stuart Mi""s5 =ocuses on individua" actions, rather than genera" ru"es.

*n act is right if it is "ike"y to produce the most good for the most peop"einvo"ved in the particu"ar situation.

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1u"es may e roken whenever doing so wi"" produce the most good in aspecific situation. 2appiness is the on"y @intrinsic% good and a"" others are @instrumenta"%goods that serve as the means of happiness.

*) RULE-UTILITARIANISM:4professed y 1ichard randt5 This regards mora" va"ues as primary.

6e shou"d fo""ow the ru"es and avoid ries, even when those acts do nothave the est conse+uences in a particu"ar situation, ecause the genera"practice of fo""owing ru"es and not riing produce the most overa"" good 1u"es shou"d e considered in sets ca""ed @mora" codes%. * mora" code isjustified when fo""owed, wou"d ma$imi)e the pu"ic good more than a"ternative

codes wou"d.

DUT$ ETHICS +I77!#.e8 !#t 9e5,

-ontends that certain acts 4or duties5 shou"d e performed ecause they areinherent"y ethica" such as(

e honest,

keep promises,

do not inf"ict sufferings on other peop"e,

e fair,

make reparation when you have een unfair, how gratitude for kindness e$tended y others

seek to improve own inte""igence and character,

deve"op one%s ta"ents,

don%t commit suicide.

uties, rather than good conse+uences, is fundamenta".

'ndividua"s who recogni)e their ethica" duties wi"" choose ethica""ycorrect mora" actions

These duties shou"d meet Fant%s E conditions i.e.

C. 't shou"d e$press respect for persons,

eop"e deserve respect ecause they have capacity toe autonomous and for exercising goodwill. Goodwi"" is the conscientious and honest effortto do whatis right according to universa" princip"es of duties. Mora" motives and intentions p"ay a prominent ro"e in dutyethics rather than uti"itarianism.

D. 't is an universa" princip"e uties are inding on us on"y if they are app"ica"e to everyone. They

must e universa"isa"e.

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E.'t e$presses command for autonomous mora" agents. uties prescrie certainactions categorica""y, without +ua"ifications or conditions attached. Va"id princip"esof duties are 5ategorical mperatives. They contrast with non&mora" commandsca""ed Hypothetical mperativeswhich are conditiona".

The aove NO @1#S#-T for #1S97S%

2rawback of /ant8s duty ethics> 't has fai"ed to e sensitive to how princip"es of dutycan conflictwith each other therey creating Mora" di"emmas.

R!58 De9e8o"7e#t o# !#t D.ty Eth3

1aw"s argues that a"" rationa" peop"e wou"d agree to aide y two asic mora"princip"es(

C. #ach person is entit"ed to the most e$tensive amount of "ierty compati"e with ane+ua" amount for others andD. ifferences in socia" power and economic enefits are justified on"y when they are"ike"y to enefit everyone, inc"uding memers of most disadvantaged groups.

RIGHTS ETHICS +OHN LOCE 1;*2-1

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EVALUATION OF ETHICAL THEORIES

6e are asica""y not interested in which of the ethica" theories is the est. 't ise"ieved that there are areas in which each theory comp"ements others y how theydiffer.

rocedure for Genera" #va"uation(

C. The theory must e c"ear and formu"ated with concepts that are coherent andapp"ica"e.D. 't must e interna""y consistent in that none of its tenets contradicts any other.E. 7either the theory nor its defense can re"y upon fa"se information.B. 't must e sufficient"y comprehensive to provide guidance in specific situations

of interest to us.J. 't must e compati"e with our most carefu""y considered mora" convictionsaout concrete situations.

SELF-INTEREST AND ETHICAL EGOISM

Py3ho8o>3!8 E>o7

*"" of our actions can e reduced to se"f&interest& 6e a"ways do what we most wantto do. e.g., a man who he"ps others haschosento do so, so he sees doing it, is in his self-interest& 6e do what makes us fee" good. e.g., a man who he"ps others must getpleasurefrom doing it > hence it is in his self-interest

The ro"em of -ounter #$amp"es

6hat aout charityandpity;These re+uire the egoist to distinguish se"fish and unse"fish actsfrom se"fish andunse"fish motives& -harity > ' enjoy showing my power& ity > ' worry that it might happen to me

So again, doing these, we act from self-interest

-onfusion over se"f&interest and se"fishness

& 7ot a"" actions are done from se"fishness& rushing my teeth 4se"f&interested ut not se"fish5

*"so confusion over se"f&interest and p"easure

& 7ot a"" actions are done from se"f&interest& Smoking cigarettes 4p"easura"e ut not se"f&interested5

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& %elf-interestP any interest the self has

6hat do a"" major #thica" Theories say aout this;

*"" major theories acknow"edge the importanceof Se"f 'nterest. 0ti"itarians take into account one%s own good as we"" as others.

uty ethics emphasi)es duties to ourse"ves.

1ight ethicists ta"k aout our rights to pursue our own good.

Virtue ethicists emphasi)e the importance of se"f&respect.ut a"" these theories a"so emphasi)e that the pursuit of se"f interest must ea"anced with our mora" responsii"ities to others.

Eth3!8 E>o7

* different view, which ta"ks of mora"ity as on"y the pursuit of se"f interest

Se"f interest is a @rationa" concern% re+uiring consideration of one%s "ong&term interests.#.g., taking rie may appear to serve one%s se"f interest ut it does not serve the"ong&term interest of se"f. 2ence taking rie is not accepta"e since it wou"d notdo any good on a "ong&term. This was professed y Thomas 2oes 4CJ&CHK5and *yn 1and 4CLJ&CD5.

*yn 1and > with on"y one "ife to "ive, the individua" is of utmost importance

't is in one%s se"f&interest to adopt the Mora" oint of View 42oes% Socia"

-ontract5

CUSTOMS !#/ ETHICAL RELATIVISM

1e"ativism(

istinction etween mora"s! 4treatment of others!5 and mores!4harm"ess customs!5

C.8t.r!8 +De3r"t9e, Re8!t97:

=actua" -"aims( $ is considered right in society y at time t! and isconsidered wrong in society ) at time t! #mpirica" -onc"usion( Mora"ities are re"ative

This is either true or fa"se 4anthropo"ogy >a study of mankind , its customs,e"iefs, etc.can figure it out5

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Nor7!t9e +Eth3!8, Re8!t97:

7ormative -"aim( 6hat is considered right in society $ at time t is right for

that society! * particu"ar cu"ture cannot e judged from outside of that cu"ture.

@#thica" 1e"ativism% says that actions are mora""y right when they areapproved y "aw and custom. They are wrong when they vio"ate "aws and custom.

#thica" egoism tries to reduce mora" reasons to matters of se"f interest,@ethica" relativism% attempts to reduce mora" va"ues to "aws, conventions andcustoms of particu"ar societies.

Co#e?.e#3e o Nor7!t9e Re8!t97

6e cannot say other mora"s! are inferior to our own society%s

6e decide the va"ue of our actions ased on"y on what our particu"arsociety thinks 6e shou"d show a "ot of to"erance for different customs and out"ooks in asociety in which we "ive in. 't means that customs can have mora" significance indeciding how we shou"d act. This view is ca""ed @ethica" p"ura"ism%.

Re!o# or A33e"t!#3e O Eth3!8 Re8!t97

The reasons professed for acceptance of ethica" re"ativism is threefo"d.

C. 8aws seem so tangi"e and c"ear&cut. They provide a pu"ic way endingseeming"y end"ess disputes aout rights and wrongs. ut many times, mora"reasons seem to e at variance with "aws e.g. apartheid "aws.

D. Mora" standards vary dramatica""y from one cu"ture to another. The on"y kind ofojectivity possi"e is "imited to a given set of "aws in a given society.*cknow"edging this re"ativity of mora"ity encourages the virtue of to"erance ofdifferences among societies.

E. Mora" judgments shou"d e made in re"ation to factors that from case to case,usua""y making it impossi"e to formu"ate ru"es which are simp"e. -ustoms and"aws are usua""y mora""y re"evant factors that shou"d e taken into account.

RELIGION !#/ DIVINE COMMAND ETHICS

Eth3 !#/ Re8>o#:

Mora" issues and re"igious e"ief are re"ated in severa" positive ways.

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=irst, they are shaped over time from the centra" mora" va"ues of majorwor"d re"igions. Second, re"igious views often support mora" responsii"ity y providingadditiona" motivation for eing mora". Third, sometimes re"igions set a higher mora" standard than isconventiona". Societies often enefit from a variety of re"igions that make prominentparticu"ar virtues, inspiring their memers to pursue them eyond what isordinari"y seen as mora""y o"igatory.

D9#e Co77!#/ Eth3:

This says that an act which is right is commanded y god and the onewhich is wrong is foridden y God.

The difficu"ty in this is to know precise"y what God%s commands are and inknowing whether God e$ists.

6e can view that mora" reasons are not reducible to re"igious matters, a"thoughre"igious e"ief may provide an added inspirationfor responding to them.

Ue O Eth3!8 Theore

C. #thica" theories aid in identifying the mora" considerations or reasons thatconstitute a di"emma.

D. They provide a precise sense of what kinds of information are re"evant to

so"ving mora" deve"opment.E. They sometimes, offer ways to rank the re"evant mora" considerations in order

of importance and provide a rough guidance in so"ving mora" pro"ems.B. The theories he"p us identify the fu"" mora" ramifications of a"ternative courses

of action, urging a wide perspective on the mora" imp"ications of the optionsand providing a systematic framework of comparing a"ternatives.

J. The theories augment the precision with which we use mora" terms and theyprovide frame works for mora" reasoning when discussing mora" issues withco""eagues.

H. y providing frame works for deve"opment of mora" arguments, the theoriesstrengthen our ai"ity to reach a"anced and insightfu" judgments.

UNIT III - ENGINEERING AS SOCIAL E(PERIMENTATION

To .#/ert!@e ! >re!t 5or@ !#/ e"e3!88y ! 5or@ o #o9e8 ty"e 7e!# 3!rry#>o.t !# eB"er7e#t) It 7e!# t!@#> ." ! tr.>>8e 5th the or3e o #!t.re5tho.t the !.r!#3e o e7er>#> ! ! 93tor !ter the rt !tt!3@)

8ouis Marie 2enri 7avier 4CKJ & CEH5 &

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ENGINEERING AS E(PERIMENTATION

#$perimentation 4re"iminary tests or Simu"ations5 p"ays a vita" ro"e in thedesign of a product or process.

'n a"" stages of converting a new engineering concept into a design "ike, first rough cut design, usage of different types of materia"s and processes, detai"ed design, further stages of work design and the finished product,

#$periments and tests are conducted to eva"uate the product. Modifications aremade ased on the outcome of these e$periments.

The norma" design process is thus iterative 4modifications eing made on the

asis of feedack information ac+uired from the tests5.

#ven though various tests and e$periments are conducted at various stages, theengineering project as a who"e in its totalitycan e viewed as an experiment.

SIMILARITIES TO STANDARD E(PERIMENTS

C. *ny project is carried out in partia" ignorance due to The uncertainties in the astract mode" used for the design ca"cu"ations,

The uncertainties in the precise characteristics of the materia"s purchased,

The uncertainties caused y variations in processing and farication ofmateria"s and

The uncertainties aout the nature of stresses the finished product wi""encounter.

'ndeed, #ngineer%s success "ies in the ability to accomplish taskswith on"y apartialknowledgeof scientific "aws aout nature and society.

D. The fina" outcome of engineering projects, "ike those of e$periments, is genera""yuncertain. Very often, possi"e outcomes are not even known and great risks maye presented which cou"d never e thought of.

E. #ffective #ngineering re"ies upon know"edge gained aout products oth eforeand after they "eave the factory& know"edge needed for improving currentproducts and creating etter ones. That is, ongoing success in engineeringdepends upon gaining new know"edge.

LEARNING FROM THE PAST

#ngineers shou"d "earn not on"y from their own ear"ier design and operating resu"ts,ut a"so from other engineers.

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#ngineers repeat the past mistakes of others due to the fo""owing reasons.

8ack of esta"ished channe"s of communication.

Misp"aced pride in not asking for information

#marrassment at fai"ure or fear of "itigation 4"ega" pro"ems5. 7eg"igence.

Examples>

C. TheTitanic "acked sufficient numer of "ife oats resu"ting in the deathof CJDD out of DDDK 4"ife oat capacity avai"a"e was on"y DJ5, a few decades "aterArcticperished due to the same pro"em.

D. 'n 3une CHH, a section of the Mi"ford 2aven ridge in 6a"es co""apsed

during construction. * ridge of simi"ar design, erected y the same ridge& ui"der inMe"ourne, *ustra"ia, a"so partia""y co""apsed in the month of 9ctoer, same year.uring this incident EE peop"e were ki""ed and many were injured.

E. Ma"functions occurred at nuc"ear reactors at various "ocations and theinformation reports were with acock and 6i"co$, the reactor manufacturer. 'n spiteof these, no attention was paid "eading to a pressure re"ief va"ve giving rise to theThree Mi"e 's"and nuc"ear accident on March D, CK.

CONTRASTS 'ITH STANDARD E(PERIMENTS

1) E(PERIMENTAL CONTROL: 'n standard e$periments, memers are in twodifferent groups. Memers of one group receive speciale$perimenta" treatment. Theother group memers, ca""ed @control group8 do not receivespecia" treatment, thoughthey are from the same environment in a"" other respects.

ut this is not true in engineering, since most of the e$periments are not conductedin "aoratories. The sujects of e$periments are human eings who are outside thee$perimenter%s contro".

Thus it is not possi"e to study the effects of changes in varia"e on different groups.2ence on"y historica" and retrospective data avai"a"e aout various target groupshas to e used for eva"uation. 2ence engineering as a socia" e$perimentation seemsto e an e$tended usage of the concept of e$perimentation.

2) INFORMED CONSENT( has two e"ements, knowledge and voluntariness. Thesujects 4human eings5 shou"d e given a"" the information needed to make areasona"e decision. 7e$t, they must get into the e$periment without eing sujectedto force, fraud or deception. Supp"ying comp"ete information is neither necessary norin most cases possi"e. ut all relevant informationneeded for making a reasona"edecision on whether to participate shou"d e conveyed. Genera""y, we a"" prefer to ethe suject of our own e$periments rather than those of someody e"se.

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-onditions defining nformed or *alid 5onsent

a. The consent is given vo"untari"y. The consent is ased on information a rationa" person wou"d want,

together with any other information re+uested and presented to them inunderstanda"e form.

c. The consenter was competent to process the information and makerationa" decisions.

d. 'nformation has een wide"y disseminated.e. The suject%s consent is offered y pro$y y a group that co""ective"y

represents many sujects "ike interests, concerns and e$posure to risk.

@#ngineering e$periments are not conducted to gain new know"edge un"ike scientifice$periments%. 's this distinction necessary;

This distinction is not vita" ecause we are concerned about the mannerin which thee$periment is conducted, such as valid consentof human sujects eing sought,safety measurestaken and means e$ist for terminatingthe e$periment at any timeand providing a"" participants a safe exit.

Fe!t.re o 7or!88y re"o#48e e#>#eer # o3!8 eB"er7e#t!to#

5onscientiousness( * primary o"igation to protect the safety of human sujects andrespect their right of consent.elevant information( * constant awareness of the e$perimenta" nature of anyproject, imaginative forecasting of its possi"e side effects and a reasona"e effort tomonitor them.(oral autonomy( *utonomous, persona" invo"vement in a"" steps of the project.Accountability( *ccepting accountai"ity for the resu"ts of the project.

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS:

-onscientious mora" commitment means sensitivity to the fu"" range ofre"evant mora" va"ues.

Sensitivity to responsii"ities that is re"evant. 6i""ingness to deve"op the ski"" and e$pend the effort needed to reach the

est a"ance possi"e among these considerations. -onscientiousness means consciousness ecause mere intent is not

sufficient.

-onceiving engineering as socia" e$perimentation restores the vision of engineers asguardians of the pu"ic interest in that they are duty ound to guard the we"fare andsafety of those affected y engg projects.

RELEVANT INFORMATION:

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-onscientiousness is "ind without re"evant factua" information. Mora" concerninvo"ves a commitment to otain and assess a"" avai"a"e pertinent information.*nother dimension to factua" information is the conse+uences of what one does.

6hi"e regarding engg as socia" e$perimentation points out the importance of conte$t,it a"so urges the engineer to view his or her specia"i)ed activities in a project as partof a "arger who"e having a socia" impact that may invo"ve a variety of unintendedeffects. 't may e etter to practice @defensive engg% 4-hauncy Starr5 or @preventiveengg% 41uth avis5.

MORAL AUTONOM$

eop"e are mora""y autonomous when their mora" conduct and princip"es ofaction are their own.

Mora" e"iefs and attitudes must e a critica" ref"ection and not a passive

adoption of the particu"ar conventions of one%s society, re"igion or profession. Mora" e"iefs and attitudes cannot e agreed to forma""y and adhered to

mere"y vera""y. They must e integrated into the core of one%s persona"ity and shou"d "ead to

committed action. 't is wrong to think that as an emp"oyee when one performs @ acts8 serving

company%s interests, one is no "onger mora""y and persona""y identified withone%s actions.

Viewing engg as a socia" e$perimentation he"ps to overcome this f"awedthought and restores a sense of autonomous participation in one%s work.

*s an e$perimenter, an engineer is e$ercising the specia"i)ed trainingthat forms the core of one%s identity as a professiona".

* socia" e$periment that can resu"t in unknown conse+uences shou"d

he"p inspire a critica" and +uestioning attitude aout the ade+uacy ofcurrent economic and safety standards.

'n turn, this "eads to etter persona" invo"vement with work.

ACCOUNTA%ILIT$:

1esponsi"e peop"e accept mora" responsii"ity for their actions.

*ccountai"ity is the wi""ingness to sumit one%s actions to mora" scrutiny ande open and responsive to the assessment of others. 't shou"d e understood as eing cu"pa"e and "ameworthy for misdeeds.

Sumission to an emp"oyer%s authority creates in many peop"e a narrow sense ofaccountai"ity for the conse+uences of their action. This is ecause of

i5 9n"y a sma"" contriution is made y one individua", when "arge sca"eengineering work is fragmented. The fina" product which is far away from one%simmediate workp"ace, does not give a proper understanding of the conse+uencesof one%s action.

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ii5 ue to the fragmentation of work, a vast diffusion of accountai"ity takesp"ace. The area of persona" accountai"ity is de"imited to the portion of workeing carried out y one.iii5 The pressure to move on to another new project does not a""ow one to

comp"ete the oservations "ong enough. This makes peop"e accounta"e on"y formeeting schedu"es and not for the conse+uences of action.iv5 To avoid getting into "ega" issues, engineers tend to concentrate more on"ega" "iai"ities than the containment of the potentia" risks invo"ved in their area ofwork.

Viewing engineering as a socia" e$perimentation makes one overcome thesedifficu"ties and see the pro"em in who"e rather than as part.

ENGINEERING CODES OF ETHICS

#ngineering -odes of #thics have evo"ved over time

EARL$ CODES

& -odes of persona" ehavior

& -odes for honesty in usiness dea"ings and fair usiness practices& #mp"oyee/emp"oyer re"ations

NE'ER CODES

& #mphasi)e commitments to safety, pu"ic hea"th and environmenta" protection

& #$press the rights, duties and o"igations of memers of the rofession

& o not e$press new ethica" princip"es, ut coherent"y restate e$isting standardsof responsi"e engineering practice

& -reate an environment within the rofession where ethica" ehavior is the norm

& 7ot "ega""y indingQ an engineer cannot e arrested for vio"ating an ethica" code4ut may e e$pe""ed from or censured y the engineering society5

Are Engineering Codes Needed NO:

' #ngineers are capa"e of fending for themse"ves

' -ommon "aw is avai"a"e to defend in ethica" disputes

' 9ffended pu"ic can seek redress through courts

Are Engineering Codes Needed $ES:

' #ngineers have few or no resources to defend themse"ves in an ethica"dispute

' -ommon "aw is avai"a"e in rea"ity on"y with great difficu"ty

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' -onverse"y, the pu"ic has simi"ar pro"ems in seeking redress through "ega"channe"s

Objectionsto EBt#> E#>#eer#> Co/e o Eth3:

' 1e"ative"y few engineers are memers of engineering societies.

' 7on&memers don%t necessari"y fo""ow the ethica" codes.' Many engineers either don%t know that the codes e$ist, or have not read them.

6hich ethica" codes app"y;

' epending upon your discip"ine and organi)ationa" affi"iations, you may eound y one, two or even more ethica" codes(& iscip"ine re"ated 4*SM#, '###, *S-#, ''# etc.5

& 7ationa" Society of rofessiona" #ngineers 47S#5& #mp"oyee codes 4corporation, university, etc.5& 0nion -odes

E#>#eer#> Eth3

9ur engineering ethics codes are derived from a 6estern cu"tura" tradition

' *ncient Greeks

' 3udeo&-hristian re"igions

' hi"osophers and thinkers 4e.g. 8ocke, Fant, Mi""s5

The H!77.r!4 Co/e

'f a ui"der has ui"t a house for a man and has not made his work sound, and thehouse he has ui"t has fa""en down and so caused the death of the househo"der, thatui"der sha"" e put to death. 'f it causes the death of the househo"der%s son, theysha"" put the ui"der%s son to death?.42ammurai, Fing of ay"on, CKJ .-.5

Co/e o Eth3 or E#>#eer

*ccreditation oard for #ngineering and Techno"ogy4*#T5The =undamenta" rincip"es

0ngineers shall uphold and advance the integrity, honor, and dignity of theengineering profession by>

& using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of the human race:& being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public, theiremployers, and clients:

& striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering

profession.

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& supporting the professional and technical societies of their discipline.

The F.#/!7e#t!8 C!##o#

#ngineers sha""& hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public in theperformance of their professional duties:& perform service only in areas of their competence:& issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner:& act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents ortrustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest:

& build their professional reputations on the merits of their services and shallnot compete unfairly with others

& act in such manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity and dignity

of the profession:& continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shallprovide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers undertheir supervision.

CODES OF ETHICS - ROLES OR FNCTIONS

1) I#"r!to# !#/ G./!#3e: -odes provide positive stimu"us for ethica" conduct and he"pfu" guidance y

using positive "anguage.

-odes shou"d e rief to e effective and hence such codes offer on"y genera"guidance. Supp"ementary statements or guide"ines to give specific directions are added

y a numer of societies or professiona" odies.

D) S.""ort: -odes give positive support to those seeking to act ethica""y. *n engineer under pressure to act unethica""y can use one of the pu"ic"y

proc"aimed codes to get support for his stand on specific mora" issues. -odes a"so serve as "ega" support for engineers.

*) Deterre#3e !#/ /3"8#e: -odes can e used as a asis for conducting investigations on unethica"

conduct. They a"so provide a deterrent for engineers to act immora""y. #ngineers who are punished y professiona" societies for proven unethica"

ehaviour y revoking the rights to practice as engineers are a"so sujected topu"ic ridicu"e and "oss of respect from co""eagues and "oca" community.

This he"ps to produce ethica" conduct even though this can e viewed as a

negative way of motivation.

=) E/.3!to# !#/ 7.t.!8 .#/ert!#/#>(

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The codes can e used for discussion and ref"ection on mora" issues and thereyimprove the understanding of mora" responsii"ities among a"" engineers, c"ients,pu"ic and good organi)ations.

) Co#tr4.t#> to the "roeo# ".483 7!>e:-odes present the engineering profession as an ethica""y committed society in theeyes of the pu"ic thus enhancing their image.

;) Prote3t#> t!t. ?.o:-odes esta"ish ethica" conventions, which can he"p promote an agreed uponminimum "eve" of ethica" conduct.

4.#e #teret:-odes can p"ace unwarranted restraints of commerce on usiness dea"ings.Re8!t9e 7"ort!#3e o the 9!ro. .#3to# o 3o/e o eth3

The perspective of engg as socia" e$perimentation c"ear"y emphasi)es the

primary ro"e @supportive function% of the codes of ethics. This is so ecause,on"y this support ena"es engineers, speak out c"ear"y and open"y their views,to those affected y engg projects.

The, @inspiration and guidance% and @educative% functions are a"so important inpromoting mutua" understanding and in motivating engineers to act withhigher mora" standards.

The @discip"inary% function in engg codes is of secondary importance. Those

with unethica" conduct when e$posed are suject to "aw. eve"oping e"aorate

para"ega" procedures within professiona" societies dup"icates a function whichcan e done etter y "ega" system. *t est, codes shou"d try to discip"ineengineers in areas which are not covered y "aw.

The worst ause of codes has een to restrict honest mora" effort in the nameof @preserving profession%s pu"ic mage% and @protecting status +uo%. The estway to increase trust is y encouraging and aiding engineers to speak free"yand responsi"y aout pu"ic safety.

Limitations o Co/e o Eth3

C. -odes are restricted to genera" and vague wording. They cannot e straightaway

app"ied to a"" situations. 't is impossi"e to foresee the fu"" range of mora" pro"emsthat can arise in a comp"e$ profession "ike engg.

D. 't is easy for different c"auses of codes to come into conf"ict with each other.0sua""y codes provide no guidance as to which c"ause shou"d have priority in thosecases, creating mora" di"emmas.

E. They cannot serve as the fina" mora" authority for professiona" conduct. 'f the codeof a professiona" society is taken as the "ast word, it means that we are getting into aparticu"ar set of conventions i.e. ethica" conventiona"ism.

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@. Andrew lden;uist and 0dward %lowter pointed out how the existence ofseparate codes for different professional societies can give members the feeling thatethical conduct is more relative than it is and that it can convey to the public the viewthat none is 9really right8. The current codes are by no means perfect but are

definitely steps in the right direction.

The "ro48e7 o 8!5 # e#>#eer#>

C. The greatest pro"em of "aw in engg is of @minima" comp"iance%. #ngineers andemp"oyers can search for "oop ho"es in the "aw to are"y keep to its "etter whi"evio"ating its spirit. #ngineers wi"" tend to refer to standard readymade specificationsrather than come up with innovative ideas. Minima" comp"iance "ed to the tragedy ofthe @Titanic%.

D. -ontinua""y updating "aws and regu"ations may e counter&productive and wi""

make "aw a"ways "ag ehind techno"ogy. This a"so overurdens the ru"es andregu"ators.

E. Many "aws are @non&"aws% i.e. "aws without enforcea"e sanctions. These mere"yserve as window dressing, fre+uent"y gives a fa"se sense of security to the pu"ic.

B. The opponents of the "aw may urden it intentiona""y with many unreasona"eprovisions that a repea" wi"" not e far off.

J. 2igh"y powerfu" organi)ations, "ike the government can vio"ate the "aws when theythink they can get away with it y inviting wou"d e cha""engers, to face them in"engthy and cost"y court proceedings. This a"so creates frustration with the "aw.

Ro8e o 8!5 # e#>#eer#>

't is wrong to write off ru"e&making and ru"e fo""owing as futi"e. Good "aws,

effective"y enforced, c"ear"y produce enefits. 1easona"e minimum standards are ensured of professiona" conduct. 't a"so provides a se"f&interested motive for most peop"e and corporations to

comp"y. They a"so serve as powerfu" support and defense for those who wish to act

ethica""y in situations where ethica" conduct might not e we"come. Viewing engineering as socia" e$perimentation provides engineers with a

etter perspective on "aws and regu"ations. recise ru"es and enforcea"e sanctions are appropriate in cases of ethica"

misconduct that invo"ve vio"ations of we"" esta"ished and regu"ar"yree$amined procedures that have as their purpose the safety of pu"ic.

'n areas of e$perimentation, ru"es must not attempt to cover a"" possi"e

outcomes of an e$periment, nor must they force the engineer to adopt arigid"y specified course of action. 2ere the regu"ations shou"d e road asedguide"ines ut shou"d ho"d the engineer accounta"e for his or her decisions.

UNIT IV SAFET$ RESPONSI%ILITIES AND RIGHTS

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SAFET$ AND RIS

'magine you are a fresh graduate.

:ou get a jo as an engineer in a "arge atomic power p"ant.

6ou"d you take it or not; 0nder what conditions wou"d you take it; 0nder what conditions wou"d you not; 6hy;

eop"e as -onsumers(

Active 5onsumers( direct"y invo"ve themse"ves e.g., mowing the "awn,

washing c"othes or toasting read. 7assive 5onsumers( have "ess choice and "ess contro" e.g., 6ater, #"ectricity,

etro", =ystanders( e.g., e$posed to o""ution from unknown sources

.6hat is safe to #ntrepreneurs, may not e so to #ngineers. e.g., i"ots( R'ndian*irports are not safeQ 8ow Vision in =og

6hat is safe to #ngineers, may not e so to u"ic. e.g., Top "oading 6ashing

Machine

Typica""y severa" groups of peop"e are invo"ved in safety matters ut have their owninterests at stake. #ach group may differ in what is safe and what is not.

Co#3e"t o S!ety

C. * ship in haror is safe, ut that is not what ships are ui"t for!> 3ohn *.Shedd

D. @* thing is safe if its risks are judged to e accepta"e% & 6i""iam 6. 8awrence 6e uy an i""&designed 'ron o$ in a sa"e& 0nderestimating risk 6e judge f"uoride in water can ki"" "ots of peop"e & 9verestimating risk 6e hire a ta$i, without thinking aout its safety & 7ot estimating risk 2ow does a judge pass a judgement on safety in these E cases;

?.%o, this definition wont do in real life.

Then, what is accepta"e a"so depends upon the individua" or group%s va"uejudgment. 2ence a etter, working definitionof concept of safetycou"d e,

* thing is safe 4to a certain degree5 with respect to a given person or group at agiven time if, were they fu""y aware of its risks and e$pressing their most sett"ed

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va"ues, they wou"d judge those risks to e accepta"e 4to that certain degree5.!&Mike Martin and 1o"and Schin)inger

* thing is 79T S*=# if it e$poses us to unaccepta"e danger or ha)ard

1'SF is the potentia" that something unwanted and harmfu" may occur.a. 6e take a risk when we undertake something or use a product that is

not safe.1isk in techno"ogy cou"d inc"ude dangers of

. odi"y harm,c. economic "oss, ord. environmenta" degradation.

Some may assume that safety! is a concrete concept, whi"e risk! is a vague,

hypothetica" concept 'n fact, its the other way around 1isks a"ways e$ist. ut true safety never e$ists, e$cept in hypothetica"

situations So, risk is reality, safety is fantasy

6hat degree of risk is accepta"e;

Safety is a matter of how peop"e wou"d find risks accepta"e or unaccepta"e, ifthey knew the risks, and are asing their judgments on their most settled valueperspective.

So, to this e$tent, it is objective.erspectives differ.To this e$tent, it is subjective.

So, Safety is acceptable risk.

A33e"t!48e R@

@* risk is accepta"e when those affected are genera""y no longer 'or not1apprehensiveaout it.%

*pprehension 4i.e. an$iety5 depends "arge"y on factors such as whether the risk is assumed vo"untari"y. how the proai"ities of harm 4or enefit5 is perceived. jo&re"ated or other pressures that causes peop"e to e aware of or to

over"ook risks. whether the defects of a risky activity or situation are immediate"y noticea"e

or c"ose at hand . whether the potentia" victims are identifia"e eforehand.

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Vo8.#t!ry r@ !#/ Co#tro8

* person is said to take 9*)&TAB %/8&when he is sujected to risk y either his own actions or action taken y others and

&volunteersto take that risk without any apprehension.&=or e$amp"e, 3ohn and *nn Smith enjoy riding motorcyc"es over rough ground foramusement. They take vo"untary risk, part of eing engaged in such a potentia""ydangerous sport.

-onnected to this notion of vo"untarism is the matter of 5ontrol. 'n the e$amp"e cited,the Smiths are aware of the high proai"ity of accident figures in such a sport, utthey disp"ay characteristica""y unrealistic confidence of most peop"e when theye"ieve the dangers to e under their control. 'n terms of engineering as socia"e$perimentation, peop"e are more willing to be the subjects of their own experiments

than of someone e"se%s 4whether socia" e$periment or not5.

-hauncey Starr informs us that individua"s are more ready to assume vo"untary risksthan invo"untary risks, even when vo"untary risks are CLLL times more "ike"y toproduce a fata"ity than the invo"untary ones.

* 'S*ST#1 P * serious"y disruptive event * state of unprepared ness. e.g., Titanic co""ision with an iceerg, at night( #mergency =ewer "ifeoats, inade+uate training and warnings of iceergs

unheeded & isaster.

Ee3t o #or7!to# o# r@ !e7e#t

The manner in which information necessary for decision making is presented cangreat"y inf"uence how risks are perceived. -onsider this e$amp"e(

'n a particu"ar case of disaster management, the on"y options avai"a"e are providedin D different ways to the pu"ic for one to e chosen 4where "ives of HLL peop"e areat stake5.

A8ter#!te 1

'f program * is fo""owed, DLL peop"e wi"" e saved. 'f rogram is fo""owed, C/Eproai"ity is HLL peop"e wi"" e saved and D/E proai"ity that noody wi"" e saved.

Re"o#eKDU of the target group chose option * and DU option

A8ter#!te 2'f program * is fo""owed, BLL peop"e wi"" die. 'f rogram is fo""owed, C/E proai"ityis that noody wi"" die and D/E proai"ity that HLL peop"e wi"" die.

Re"o#e

This time on"y DDU of the target group chose option * and KU option

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Concl!sion"C. The option perceived as yie"ding firm gain wi"" tend to e preferred over thosefrom which gains are perceived as risky or on"y proa"e.

D. 9ption emphasi)ing firm "osses wi"" tend to e avoided in favour of thosewhose chances of success are perceived as proa"e.

Se3o#/!ry Cot o Pro/.3t

-ost of products is 2igh, if designed unsafe"y 1eturns and 6arranty #$penses 8oss of -ustomer Goodwi"" -ost of "itigation 8oss of -ustomers due to injuries in using it -ost of rework, "ost time in attending to design pro"ems

Manufacturer%s understanding of the risk in a product is necessary( To he"p reduce secondary costs To know the possi"e risk for purposes of pricing, disc"aimers, "ega" terms and

conditions, etc. To know the cost of reducing the risks To take a decision efore fina"i)ing the design.

uyer%s understanding of the risk in a product is necessary( To judge whether he/she wants to take the risks To judge whether the @risk vs. costs% justifies taking the risk.

O% RELATED RISS

Many workers are taking risks in their jobsin their stride "ike eing e$posed to

asestos.

0xposure to riskson a jo is in one sense of voluntary naturesince one cana"ways refuse to sumit to the work or may have contro" over how the jo isdone.

ut genera""y workers have no choiceother than what they are to"d to do

since they want to stick to the only jobavai"a"e to them.

ut they are notgenera""y informedaout the e$posure to to$ic sustances

and other dangers which are not readilyseen, sme"t, heard or otherwisesensed.

9ccupationa" hea"th and safety regu"ations and unions can have a etter sayin correcting these situations ut sti"" things are far e"ow e$pected safetystandards.

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#ngineers whi"e designing work stations must take into account the casua"

attitude of workers on safety 4esp. when they are paid on piece rate5.

Pro48e7 !3e/ 4y e#>#eer !4o.tp!blic concept o# sa#et$

The optimistic attitude that things that are fami"iar, that have not caused harm eforeand over which we have some contro"present no risks.

The serious shock peop"e fee" when an accident ki""s or maims peop"e in largenumbersor harms those we know, even though statistica""y speaking such accidentsmight occur infre+uent"y.

S!ety # ! 3o77o/ty 3o7e 5th ! "r3e EB"8!#)

Absolute safety is never possible to attain and safety can e improved in an

engineering product on"y with an increase in cost.

9n the other hand, unsafeproducts incur secondary coststo the producer eyondthe primary 4production5 costs, "ike warranty costs "oss of goodwi"", "oss ofcustomers, "itigation costs, downtime costs in manufacturing, etc.

=igure indicates that & 7rimary costs are high for a highly safe4"ow risk5 productand S& %econdary costs are high for a highly risky4"ow safe5 product.

'f we draw a curve TPS as shown, there is a point at which costs are minimum

e"ow which the cost cannot e reduced.

'f the riskat Minimum Tota" -ost oint is not acceptable, then the producer has tochoosea lower acceptable riskva"ue in which case the total cost wi"" e higherthanM and the product designed according"y.

't shou"d now e c"ear that @safety comes with a price8 on"y.

#o58e/>e o r@ or 4etter !ety

1oert Stephenson writes that a"" the accidents, the harms caused and the

means used to repair the damage should be recordedfor the enefit of theyounger Memers of rofession.

* faithfu" account of those accidents and the damage containment was rea""y

more valuablethan the description of successfu" work. 2ence it is imperative that know"edge of risks wi"" definite"y he"p to attain

etter safety. ut it shou"d e orne in mind, that sti"" gaps remain, ecause

i5there are some industries where information is not freely sharedandii5there are a"ways new applications of old technology that render the

avai"a"e information less useful.

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U#3ert!#te e#3o.#tere/ # /e># "ro3e

* decision on ma$imising profit or ma$imising the return on investment.

0ncertainties aout app"ications "ike dynamic "oading instead of static"oading, virations, wind speeds.

0ncertainties regarding materia"s and ski""s re+uired in the manufacturing. -hanging economic rea"ities. 0nfami"iar environmenta" conditions "ike very "ow temperature. The avai"a"e standard data on items "ike stee", resistors, insu"ators,

optica" g"ass, etc are ased on statistica" averages on"y. ue to the inherent nature of processes, a"" compts have a to"erance in

design "eading to the proai"ity statistics y which assem"ies% capai"ityis assessed.

Tet#> tr!te>e or !etySome commonl$ !sed testing met%ods: 0sing the past e$perience in checking the design and performance. rototype testing. 2ere the one product tested may not e representative of

the popu"ation of products. Tests simu"ated under appro$imate"y actua" conditions to know the

performance f"aws on safety. 1outine +ua"ity assurance tests on production runs.

The aove testing procedures are not a"ways carried out proper"y. 2ence we cannottrust the testing procedures uncritica""y. Some tests are a"so destructive andovious"y it is impossi"e to do destructive testing and improve safety.'n such cases, a simu"ation that traces hypothetica" risky outcomes cou"d e app"ied. Scenario *na"ysis 4#vent & -onse+uences5 =ai"ure Modes I #ffects *na"ysis 4=ai"ure modes of each component5 =au"t Tree *na"ysis 4System =ai"ure & ossi"e -auses at component "eve"5 6hat if there is a comination of factors;

*"" *na"ysis pre&suppose a thorough understanding of the physica"system

Fail!re modes and e##ect anal$sis &F'EA( >

This approach systematica""y e$amines the fai"ure modes of each component,without however, focusing on re"ationships among the e"ements of a comp"e$system.

Fa!lt Tree Anal$sis &FTA( "

* system fai"ure is proposed and then events are traced ack to possi"e causes atthe component "eve". The reverse of the fau"t&tree ana"ysis is @event > tree ana"ysis%.This method most effective"y i""ustrates the discip"ined approach re+uired to capture

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as much as possi"e of everything that affects proper functioning and safety of acomp"e$ system.

R@ %e#et A#!8y

#thica" 'mp"ications 6hen is someone entit"ed to imposea risk on another in view of a supposed

enefit to others; -onsider the worst case scenarios of persons e$posed to maximum risks

whi"e they are reaping on"y minimum benefits. *re their rights violated; *re they provided safera"ternatives; #ngineers shou"d keep in mind that risks to known persons are perceived

differentlyfrom statistica" risks #ngineers may have no controlover grievance redressa".

Co#3e"t.!8 /3.8te # R@-%e#et A#!8y

oth risks and enefits "ie in future 2eavy discounting of future ecause the very "ow present va"ues of

cost/enefits do not give a true picture of future sufferings. oth have re"ated uncertainties ut difficu"t to arrive at e$pected va"ues 6hat if benefitsaccrue to one partyand risks to another; -an we expressrisks I enefits in a common set of units;

e.g. 1isks can e e$pressed in one set of units 4deaths on the

highway5 and enefits in another 'speed of travel1;

Many projects, which are high"y eneficia" to the pu"ic, have to e safe also.

2ence these projects can e justified using 1'SF#='T ana"ysis. 'n thesestudies, one shou"d find out

i5 6hat are the risks invo"ved;ii5 6hat are the enefits that wou"d accrue;iii5 6hen wou"d enefits e derived and when risks have to e faced;iv5 6ho are the ones to e enefited and who are the ones sujected to risk&are they

the same set of peop"e or different.

The issue here is not, say, cost-effectivedesign ut it is on"y cost of risk taking *sbenefitana"ysis. #ngineers shou"d first recommend theproject feasibility ased onrisk&enefit ana"ysis and once it is justified, thenthey may get into cost-effectivenesswithout increasing the risk visua"i)ed.

'n a"" this, engineers shou"d ask themse"ves this ethica" +uestion( @0nder whatconditions, is someone in society entit"ed to impose a risk on someone e"se oneha"f of a supposed benefit to others.8

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D3.8te # !e#> Pero#!8 R@

'ndividua"s are ready to assume voluntaryrisks than involuntaryrisks.

The difficu"ty here is genera""y in assessing persona" risks which areinvo"untary.

The pro"em of +uantification of risk raises innumera"e pro"ems.

=or e$amp"e, how to assign a rupee value to one8s life. There is no over thecounter trade in "ives.

#ven for a sa"e, it has to e c"ear under what conditionsthe sa"e is to takep"ace.'f one uys a kg of rice it matters whether it is just one additiona" purchase

one makes regularlyor it is the first rice purchase after ;uite sometime.

#ven when compensations are made to peop"e e$posed to invo"untary risk,the asis on which it is made or even the intensity of risk cou"d e different fordifferent people.

*s of now, the one suggestion cou"d e to emp"oy an open procedure,overseen y trained ariters, in each case, where risk to individuals is to bestudied and remedied.

P.483 R@ !#/ P.483 A33e"t!#3e 1isks and enefits to pu"ic are more easi"y determined than to individua"s 7ationa" 2ighway Traffic Safety *dministration 472TS*5& proposed a va"ue for

"ife ased on( "oss of future income other costs associated with the accident estimate of +uantifia"e "osses in socia" we"fare resu"ting from a fata"ity 79T a proper asis for determining the optima" e$penditure a""ocated

to saving "ives

A33o.#t#> ".4838y or 4e#et !#/ r@

#ngineers shou"d account pu"ic"y for enefits and risks in the fo""owing manner(

#ngineers must remain as objective as human"y possi"e in their

investigations and conc"usions. They must a"so stateopen"y anypersonal biasesthat they may have aout

the project eing investigated. #ngineers, even if they are acknow"edged e$perts, may not have complete

knowledgeof the issues at hand.

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They shou"d, if necessary, admit their lack of knowledge, in any particu"ar

area pu"ic"y. * wi""ingness to admit uncertainty and a"so to reveal methodology and

sources particu"ar"y when numerica" data is presented.

The way statistica" information is presented can create misconceptions in thepu"ic mind. 2ence it shou"d e presented in a way to improve realisticinterpretations.

They must consider the views of the parties affected y the project under

study beforecoming to conc"usions. The type of action taken shou"d e mora""y eva"uated regard"ess of its

conse+uences. 'f it is wrong to vio"ate certain rights, then figuring out theenefit of the conse+uences of doing so is irre"evant.

D3.8te # et!48h#> S!e>.!r/

'ncomp"ete know"edge of the engineering suject 1efusa" to face hard +uestions caused y "ack of know"edge

=a"se sense of security e.g. 7uc"ear waste disposa" pro"em

-aution in stating proai"ities of rare events Varying understanding of risk ased on presentation of facts 1isk assessments ased on incorrect/unaccepta"e assumptions/data 9n"y a few persons/groups participate in the e$ercise

Some of the ways y which engineers may try to reduce risks.

'n a"" the areas of works, engineers shou"d give top priority for product safety. They shou"d e"ieve that accidents are caused y dangerous conditions that

can e corrected. 7eg"igence and operator errors are not the principa" causesof accidents.

'f a product is made safe, the initia" costs need not e high if safety is ui"t

into a product from the eginning. 't is the design changes done at a "aterdate that are cost"y. #ven then "ife cyc"e costs can e made "ower for theredesigned or retrofitted product 4for safety5.

'f safety is not ui"t into the origina" design, peop"e can e hurt during testingstage itse"f.

They shou"d get out of the thinking that warnings aout ha)ards are ade+uate

and that insurance coverage is cheaper than p"anning for safety. *"" it takes to make a product safe is to have different perspective on the

design pro"em with emphasis on safety.

#$amp"es of 'mproved Safety Magnetic door catch introduced on refrigerators

revent death y asphy$iation of chi"dren accidenta""y trapped inside

The catch now permits the door to opened from inside easi"y

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-heaper than o"der types of "atches ead&man 2and"e for rivers in trains Semaphore signa"ing Vo"kswagens car safety e"t

*ttachment on the door so that e"t automatica""y goes in p"ace onentry

L!48ty

#ar"y "ogic and socia" phi"osophy( 41ichard -. Vaughan5 @-aveat #mptor%( uyer eware #$amine what you want efore you uy 'f he is neg"igent, he suffers the ad argain. 8aw wi"" not aid those who are neg"igent

@rivity of -ontract%( 0ser, if he is not a party to the contract, has no rights forany c"aim 4 user uys from the retai"er and not from the manufacturer5.

Gradua""y....Manufacturer was made "ia"e for injuries resu"ting from neg"igence in thedesign/manufacture The new "aw( concept of Strict 8iai"ity was esta"ished in the case @Green

man vs. :ua ower roducts% in -a"ifornia. 'f the product so"d is defective, the manufacturer is "ia"e

for any harm that resu"ts to users

I7"83!to# to E#>#eer:

#ngineers must weigh chances of defect causing injury against cost ofminimi4ing defects

(inimal compliance is insufficient> adhering to accepted practices Istandards not enough

Standards are mere checklists& use them creative"y and judgmenta""y

#ngineers can be suedpersona""y even when acting accordingto guide"inesset y employers

e.g. 9ne county highway engineer was sued for fai"ure to repair roads&& had topay WD mi""ion

Some -os. protect their engineers and a""ow themse"ves to e sued for suchmoney damages

'ndependent engineers can write "iai"ity "imits into their contracts

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Good know"edge of "iai"ity is necessary for engineers

SAFE E(IT

't is a"most impossi"e to ui"d a comp"ete"y safe product or one that wi"" never fai".6hen there is a fai"ure of the product %A

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t is not defaming colleagues, but it does not close the eyes to unethicalpractices of the co-professionals, either.

C8!3!to# o Loy!8ty

Agency-)oyalty

o =u"fi"" one%s contractua" dutiesto an emp"oyer.o uties are particu"ar tasks for whichone ispaido 5o-operatingwith co""eagueso

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D. )oyalty to employersmay not mean obeyingone%s immediate supervisor.

E. rofessiona" o"igations to oth an emp"oyer and to the pu"ic mightstrengthen rather than contradicteach other.

Nee/ or A.thorty

*uthority is needed sincea5 *""owing everyone to e$ercise uncontrolled individual discretion creates chaos

4confusion5.5 -"ear "ines of authority identifies areas of persona" responsii"ity and

accountability.

I#tt.to#!8 A.thorty !#/ EB"ert A.thorty

nstitutional authority

@The institutiona" right given to a person to e$ercise power ased on the resources ofthe institution%.

o 't is ac+uired, e$ercised and defined within institutions.o 't is given to individua"s to perform their institutiona" duties assigned within the

organisation. There is not a"ways a perfect match etween the authoritygranted and the +ua"ifications needed to e$ercise it.

0xpert authority

@The possession of specia" know"edge, ski"" or competence to perform some task orto give sound advice%.

#ngineers may have e$pert authority ut their institutiona" authority, may only be, toprovide managementwith ana"ysis of possi"e ways to perform a technica" task, afterwhich they are restricted to following management8s directiveaout which option topursue. 'n "arge companies, engineers, advisors and consultants in staff function

carry expert authority, whi"e institutional authorityis vested on"y with line managers.

Authority *s 7ower

neffective persons, even if vested with authority y their institution, may not be ableto summon the power their position a""ows them to e$ercise. 9n the other hand,peop"e who are effectivemay e able to wield greater powerthat goes eyond theauthority attached to the positions they ho"d. 2igh"y respected engineers of provenintegrity e"ong to this c"ass.

Authority - (orally justified

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9servations on authority.

o *n employer who has institutiona" authority may direct engineers to dosomething that is not morally justified.

o #ngineers may fee" that they have an institutiona" duty to obeya directive thatis morally unjustified, buttheir mora" duty, a"" things considered, is not to obey.

o To decide whether a specific act of exercising institutional authority is morallyjustified, we need to know whether the institutiona" goals are themse"vesmorally permissible or desira"e and whether that act violates asic mora"duties.

6o#e O A33e"t!#3e o A.thorty

@* suordinate is said to accept authority whenever he permits his ehaviour to eguided y the decision of a superior, without independent"y e$amining the merits ofthat decision%& 2erert Simon

o Simon notes that a"" emp"oyees tend to have a 94one of acceptance8in whichthey are wi""ing to accept their emp"oyer%s authority.

o !ithin that 4one, an individua", re"a$ing his own critica" facu"ties, permitsthedecision of the employerto guidehim.

o #mp"oyees genera""y do not make an issue of +uestiona"e incidents onmora"ity, out of a sense of responsibilityto give their emp"oyer "eeway withinwhich to operate and often not to risk their jobs.

o The problem increases when emp"oyees s"ow"y expand the oundaries oftolerance and rationali4eit.

This on"y shows that engineers shou"d never stopcritica""y reviewingthe emp"oyer%sdirectivesespecia""y on moral issues.

F!th.8 A>e#t Ar>.7e#t

7ationa" Society of rofessiona" #ngineers 47S#5 -ode states,

The engineer ???wi"" act in professiona" matters for c"ient, or emp"oyer as afaithful agent or trustee?????2e wi"" not actively participate in strikes, picket"ines or other coercive action!meaning that when one is a faithfu" trustee of one%s emp"oyer he cannot active"yparticipate in any co""ective forci"e action.

=oard of 0thical eview argued that engineers have a higher standard than se"finterest and that their ethica" duty is to act for their emp"oyer as a faithfu" agent ortrustee.

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5ollective bargainingis inconsistent with loyaltyto emp"oyers ecause ito is against the desires of the emp"oyero uses force or coercion against the emp"oyer ando invo"ves co""ective and organi)ed opposition.

ut every instanceof such conduct need not be unethical.*n e$amp"e(Three engineers sincere"y fee" that they are underpaid. *fter their representations totheir osses are in vain, they threaten their emp"oyer, po"ite"y, that they wou"d seekemp"oyment e"sewhere. 2ere, even though, they act against the desires of theiremp"oyer and have acted co""ective"y, they have not acted unethica""y or vio"atedtheir duty.

Co#38.o#:@

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Co#/e#t!8ty or 3o#/e#t!8 #or7!to#

o 'nformation considered desira"e to e kept secret.o *ny information that the emp"oyer or c"ient wou"d "ike to have kept secret in

order to compete effective"y against usiness riva"s.o This information inc"udeshow business is run, its products, and suppliers,

which direct"y affects the ai"ity of the company to compete in the market p"aceo Helpsthe competitor to gain advantageor catch up

Pr98e>e/ #or7!to# Pro"ret!ry #or7!to# !#/ P!te#t)

o 7rivileged information> @'nformation avai"a"e on"y on the basis of special privilege% such as

granted to an emp"oyee working on a specia" assignment.

o 7roprietary information> 'nformation that a company owns or is the proprietor of. This is primari"y used in legal sense. *"so ca""ed Trade %ecret. * trade secret can e virtua""y any type of

information that has not become public and which an emp"oyer hastaken steps to keep secret.

o 7atents> 2ifferfrom trade secrets. )egally protect specific productsfrom eing manufactured and so"d y

competitors withoutthe e$presspermission of the patent holder. They have the drawback of being public and competitors may easily

work around themy creating a"ternate designs.

O48>!to# o Co#/e#t!8ty

C. ased on ordinary mora" considerations(

'. espect for autonomy(

o ecogni4ing the legitimate controlover private information 4individua"s orcorporations5.

o This contro" is re+uired to maintain their privacy and protect their se"f&interest.

''. espect for 7romise(o 1especting promises in terms of employment contracts not to divu"ge

certain information considered sensitive y the emp"oyer

'''. egard for public well being(o 9n"y when there is a confidence that the physician will not reveal

information, the patient wi"" have the trust to confidein him.

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o Simi"ar"y only when companies maintainso