BRAC University Journal, Vol. II, No. 1, 2005, pp. 65-76

GENDERED MARGINALIZATION OF DISABLED BODIES: UNDERSTANDING 'MARGINALIZATION' AS (PERHAPS) THE

MOST DANGEROUS FORM OF OPPRESSION.

Shuchi Karim Department of English And Humanities, BRAC University , 66 Mohakhali CIA

Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh email: shuchi@bracuniversity.ac.bd

ABSTRACT

The essay applies Iris Marion Young's discussion of marginalization as a form of oppression suffered differentially by specific social groups, in relation to women with disabilities. It draws on Young's frame, which desegregates 'oppression', taking it away from theories overarching and systematic structures of racism for example, or patriarchy, presenting instead the concept of oppressed groups as overlapping rather than distinct, and of oppression as multiplex and differentially affecting different social groups. The essay considers women with disabilities in terms of their vulnerability to marginalization, one of Young's five types of oppression.

Key words: oppression, marginalization, disability, gender.

INTRODUCTION

issue that this essay attempts to address rather simple when I first thought about it.

I had to handle were three key concepts or :marginalization, oppression and gender! So, happily I started preparing by collecting

reading them, taking notes, and talking people about the topic. Soon I realized

was sinking into this quicksand of apparently looking straightforward statement, and it a black hole where all possible ideas,

and ideologies were being sucked in. As I with the concept of 'oppression', it brought notions like power, equality, difference,

and 'otherness' along. With the notion came 'gender' issues, and different

and of course, (being a feminist at heart) present, overpowering interpretations of issues through the lens of 'feminism'. But

feminism never comes in one universal in all shapes and sizes trying to cater to especially of the cultural nature! The

concept of the essay, i.e. 'marginalization' less problematic as I took the concept

\1arion Young and her understanding of forms of oppression. Slowly a very

hut surprisingly a clearer picture started

to emerge where all ideas amalgamated with each other, and made mQre sense than they did in isolation. )

So, here I am, making an attempt to justify Young's statement that 'Marginalization is perhaps the most dangerous form of oppression'. As Young herself points out m the specific section on marginalization that there are many social groups that fall under this category, I have chosen 'people with disability,' as my focus group, and 'women with disability' as my prime concern of discussion. The essay is divided into S sections: Section 1: Power and Oppression discusses, in brief, the concepts o~ oppression in relation to power; while Section 2: Marginalization As A Form of Oppression looks into this concept as specified by Young a~d ' tries to understand what makes it the most dangerous form of oppression.

I

Section 3: People with Disabilities as a Marinalized Group makes attempts to reveal the different aspects of marginalized oppression this group suffers from; and Section 4: Disability and Gender deals with the 'gender' aspect of marginalized oppression of my focus group by throwing lights on the realities of 'women with disabilities'. Section 5: Women with Disabilities in Bangladesh is a very concise depiction of the

conditions of women with disabilities in the contex t of Bangladesh. Needless to say that this essay takes feminist theories into account, and major concepts are based on Iris Marion Young's book named 'Justice and the Politics 4 Differences '. 1

SECTION 1: POWER AND OPPRESSION

The concept of 'oppression' cannot be discussed without taking the concept of 'power' into consideration as 'power' in general means relative powerlessness of' one group resulting from ' injustice' of another 2

. 'Powerlessness', according to Young, in turn Is a form of oppression, and the word 'oppression' also connotes concepts like 'subordination' and 'domination' - all indicating to the notion of power (or the absence of it) that gives birth to injustice.

Very often the concept of power is termed as 'zero-sum' 1meaning that more power one person or a group 'has, the less another has. According to th is calculation,, power !s 'distributional', and therefore, it is concentrated on key social structure$ fike the state, the economy, class hierarchy etc. ~ut if power was entirely distributional, with some groups completely lacking in power and some with all of it, then there is a problem with the question of resistance because without the possession of some kind of countervailing power, it is impossible to resist. Foucault developed a concept of power that did not locate itself in agencies. His concept of power was, therefore, a critique of Marxist theory of power as an instrument of a class dominance that was understood to originate from economic ir.nerest. On the contrary, Foucault saw power 'as something that is exercised rather than possessed; it is not attached to agents and interests but is incorporated in numerous practices'3. For him, power is co-extensive with the social body, and we are all already regulated, and already participants in the networks of power.

Young brings up similar notions about power and oppression in her book. Traditionally the term oppression means the exercise of power or tyranny

l. Young, 1990, Justice and Politics of Differences, Princeton University Press, USA

2. Young: 1990 3. Barrett, Michel, 1991, The Politics of truth, Polity

Press, UK, pp. 134-137

66

by a ruling group. The left 1960's and the 70's shifted the 'disadvantage and injustice some not because of tyrannical power because of the collective everyday practices of a welll-1/Ut~• society. Its causes are embedded ill norms, habits and symbols, in till underlying institutional rules and consequences of followillf rules. '"'Oppression in this sense i according to Young, it does not paradigm of conscious, and i"''"'''n_, of one group by the other oppression is 'an enclosing and barriers which tends to the and reduction of a group or cato~Vlii'Y•

Young argues that the concept of begin with the concepts of oppression, and that we should like decision making, division of social group differences. Social explicit acknowledgement of soctal their differences in order to oppression. 6 According to her, a group/s will reinforce group She admits that even though groups without individuals, but at the sane groups reflect the ways people themselves and others, and in the others accordingly. Sometimes a exist only because one group excJu(jj~l category of persons, and those to identify themselves as a group. and mainly on the basis of their shared

Young specifies that

rule, and claims to provide a that everyone can adopt. At the denies the differences between out two problems with such feeds "cultural imperialism'

4. Young, 1990, pp. II 5. Frye, M, as cited in Young, 1990,pp 6. Ibid. pp.3 7. Young, 1990, pp. 46-47

experience and perspective of a group as universal '; and secondly, there

that the so-called 'experts' can 'impartial ' decision making power. 8

lh1s gives birth to ideas like 'normative a smgle aesthetic scale under which

· and a result of which some constructed as ugly, disgusting, or All these eventually make way for

tereotyping of racism, sexism, ageism, and ableism. She points out

society (Young mainly refers to the society, especially to the USA) an

anxious reaction to the bodily presence to oppression.9

that to ensure social justice, we must include the elimination of institutional

and oppression . In contexts and social group differences exist and

are privileged while others are and it will be almost impossible to find where 'group differences 'don't exist),

requires explicitly acknowledging to those groups' differences to

2: MARGINALIZATION AS A FORM OF OPPRESSION

to Young, oppression is the result of social pi·actices that establish,

perpetuate subordination. Young has named them as 'The Five Faces of

: is based on the systematic of the energies or labor of the ' to the 'haves' with the result

the power,

occurs when specific of people are excluded from socially

and socially recognized

.,.,,~~~~"« : refers to those set of people whom power is consistently exercised

who have very limited scope to exercise themselves or to engage in acts of

67

Gendered Marginalization of Disabled Bodies

agency that lead to self-determination, self­expression, and self-actualization.

• Cultural Imperialism or 'Othering': it operates through the establishment of a standard or norm that reflects the behaviors, values and beliefs of the dominant group. This standard or norm acts as a reference point against which non-dominant groups are typically found to be deficient or lacking- that is 'other'. Because subordinated groups are thus 'known' and 'know themselves' through the images of inferiority and deficiency, these images form part of their self-understanding - that is, people who comprise subordinate groups actually feel inferior and may grapple with issues of self-esteem and self-confidence.

• Violence : including physical attacks, harassment, intimidation and ridicule - is violence that is directed at members of a group simply because they are members of that group and not because of anything that they have done. Its systematic and random nature makes members of vulnerable groups live in fear, knowing that they are potential victims of violence. 10

,

Marginalization refers to a proce~s i..vhereby a subject or a sign is rendered marginal to the center through the exercise of power11 Young states marginalization as the 'most dangerous form of oppression '12 as under this one hea

1

ding a whole category of people is excluded, or rather expelled from any kind of useful participation in almost every sphere of life, thus making them subjected to severe material deprivation. There are two more categories of InJUStice beyond material distribution, especially in capitalist soci~ties that causes more harm to the

1 people from this

oppressed group. Firstly, most of the developed countries (i.e. capitalist) provid~ socio-economic as well as health care support through the system of welfare. But this provision (l)f welfare, according to Young, is another form of injustice as it deprives the dependent of the rights and freedom that any other civilians have. Secondly, it is unjust as it blocks the opportunity for these people to

10. Young, 1990, Justice and the Politics of Differences, Princeton University Press, USA

11 . Lovell, Terry, 2000, A Glossary of Feminist Theory, Arnold, pp.150

12. Young, 1990, pp. 53

exercise their capacities as per the socially defined and recognized ways. 13 Young here recalls the early bourgeois liberalism which explicitly excluded from citizenship all those whose reason was questionable or not fully developed, and those who were dependent (naming mainly the poor, women, children, and mentally ill), and then she points out that at present time, in reality, such excl usion of category still exists within the modern libera lism which i based on equal citizenship. People dependent on social welfare for support, for example like the old, poor and the disabled are always subjected to patronizing, punitive, often demeaning and arfu itrary treatment both by the state policies as well as the people who are associated with it.

Young explains that there exists a relation between dependency and marginalization, as marginalization constructs people as "dependants"1 which often imply being legitimately ,subjected to the authority of social service providers and other administrators. She says, 'dependency should not be a reason to be deprived of c#oice and respect, and much of the oppression many marginals experience would be lessened if a less individualistic mode) of rights prevailed.' 14 Dependency on state prohibits the marginalised to become full citizens because there is an assumption that moral agency and full citizenship require a person to be autonomous and independent. Young blames the individualistic model of rights for much of the oppression experienced by the marginalized as it deprives them of choice and opportunities from participation in social life. Moreover, marginalization doesn't cease to be oppressive even if one has the security of food, shelter or access to other basic material resources because marginality remains in the form of uselessness, boredom, lack of self-respect and self-esteem.

Young perceives "Oppression" as a plural concept where group differences are cutting across individual lives in a multiplicity of ways . In other words , individuals can belong to several groups. Privilege and oppression might thus entail for the same person in different respects. For example, being both male and poor, a poor man might be oppressed in relation to a rich man/woman, but privileged in relation to gender, i.e. better off than

13. Ibid. 14. Young. 1990:55

68

an equally poor woman. In that way, a be exploited and powerless because economic class position, but might not be of 'othering' and 'violence' because of the other way round. But, an individual to a socially defined/ categorized ' (marginalization can spring up from the 'othering') is very much likely to be economically for the barriers in mainstream economic activities, which in hi s/her vulnerability to further powerlessness. Therefore, once a group marginalized within a social structure, d much possible that individuals of that group will be deprived of social justice.

The extend to which marginalized oppression of all kinds can be better we take a particular group for a detailed and I have chosen 'people with disabilibel focus group for this paper.

SECTION 3: PEOPLE WITH.., • ..,, ...... AS A MARGINALIZED GROUP

The definition of the term 'disability' problematic one as there has been a objection raised by the disabled people their disability movement since 1960s way they have been constructed through and definition 16

• In the book 'The Cre,ahlla:

Forgot' by David Hevey, disability is 'the disadvantage or restriction of actmq by a contemporary social organiZilliort, takes no or little account of people physical impairment and thus excbuill

15. Nancy Fraser, 1997, Justice lmerruptus .. & London: Routledge, objected that the difference advocated by Young is not as applicable as is implicated by her makes an analytical distinction understandings of tnjustice: injustice, such as exploitation, mmgimdiZIIil deprivation; and there is injustice that i social patterns of representation and such as cu ltural domination, disrespect, which results in inhibition with expression and communication. Though I Fraser's analysis of oppression, but for the of this essay, I will restrict my discussa Young's framework.

16. Treglown, Jane, I 998, Refiguring Disability, Impairment, and Feminist Body, University of Warwick, pp.6

the mainstream of social activities.>~? adopted 'disability as a social condition,

or mechanism of the body'. 18 But she out that (and I agree with her) that these

are not unproblematic as there is sti II a of 'false universalizing' and of ignoring the

of different impairments and other social . Nevertheless, these are usual 'as long is social oppression based on disability,

though the forms ... and the ways it is may vary greatly among societies and

to other factors, such as age. gender, lass, religion, caste and sexual identity.' 19

are four main discourses on disability as by Fulcher: medical, lay. charity and

The 'medical' discourse which centers professionalism and creates 'experts' who

what is best for the 'patient ', and it has a personal and social construction of . The 'charity ' discourse defines

with disabilities as those that need help, are of pity, personally tragic, dependent,

children , and low achievers by the ideal or standard. The ' lay ' discourse

the 'otherness ' or disability in that that are unfavorably constructed against the

. There is a kind of fear and felt around what is perceived as physical appearances. The 'rights'

perhaps provides the most political for people with disability as it is based

principles of empowering people with and tries to guarantee their right to

access of services enjoyed by mainstream This discourse is defined by themes such

I' independence, consumer wants than 'needs"). It is undeniable that the first embody a worldview, which constructs

around notions of disputed degrees of feared status, and perceptions of

as a personal issue rather than a public 21

as it has been discussed realer, 1s a when it comes to marginalization as a

Creatures Time Forgot,

as cited by Treglown, 1998, pp.6 as cited by Bourk, J Michael. 2000.

Disability , .lomw .net.au/uso/d i scrse. html

69

Gendered Marginalization of Disabled Bodies

form of oppression, especial ly regarding people with disabilities. Oliver (ll)l)3) notes the idea of dependency as:

"An inevitable consequence of living in industrial society is that we all live in a condition of mutual dependency. However, the dichotomy of dependence/independence has been a significant influence on both the ways disabled people are perceived in general and on the development of social policies geared towards them in particular. "22

Oliver summarizes by stating that disability is a form of oppression in which one class oppresses the other, and therefore, disabled people are yet another oppressed class.

Dependency also means 'subordination' or 'subjugation'. In this sense the welfare clients like people with disabilities are subordinate to and of less importance than the state . The process of 'assisting' welfare clients. because it provides them with insufficient income to become full participants/consumers of the range of services which might assist them to become active political players, resulting in their marginalization . The one consistent feature of dependency i~ that whether it is expressed in the form of · subordination, subjugation or marginalization is that it i'r!vdlves a power differential . 23

Hevey points out that through the media,/i lm and literature 'it is clear that this is the impaired body of the disabled person on to which is •projected the negative manifestations of that impairment in society'. 24 He cites examples from world-famous pieces like Richard III, Frankenstein, and Graham Greene's Raven, villains from films like James Bond (and there are numerous examples that can be cited from Bollywood films) .... all have their evilness signified by their impairment. and it is implied that their villainy springs .frqm self-hatred

22. Oliver, 1993 :59, as cited in Raci m and Disability , http://www.york .ac.uk/studentlsu/essaybank/socialp olicy!racism.html

23. Tomlinson, John, 1997. There but for the grace of wealth go I, presented at the conference 'Beyond Poverty: Citizenship, Welfare, and Well-being in the 21st Century ' , Massey University. http://www .geoci ties.com/ubinz/JT/ 1997BeyondPov erty.htrnl

24. Hevey, 2000, The Creatures Time Forgot, Routledge, pp.l2

and bitterness of soul. Therefore, disablement is something that is generally viewed as 'personal tragedy' and loss within the body. And. there are different ideologies that feed into this 'personal tragedy' theory for example, often it is perceived as a punishment from God or done by evil magic; sometimes they are seen as ~bodies warped or malfwzctioning, leaving their humanity in doubt', considered as neither dead nor fully alive, unidentified. ambiguous people that live in isolation from society. There is also an underpinning view of disability which focuses on the societies where economic survival is a constant struggle, and : therefore, people who are 'unproductive' (like the old, weal and impaired) should be either killed at birth or left to die as they threat this struggle for survival.25

Even though in modern days it might not be so harsh or straight-forwardly cruel in many societies, especially ,the affluent ones, but there is a sense of isolation .br segregation in terms of people's attitude or state policies when it comes to dealing with people with disabilities . This prejudice is a refusal 1to Adentify with a person's reality, and in that way setting .them apart from humanity. It is often based on assumptions that the quality of lives experienced by these people is so pathetic and poor that they are not even worth living. Therefore, the services and opportunities provided for people with disabilities also turn into something that is done with a sense of moral superiority and thus, in a way, becomes barrier in itself to the achievement of justice for this marginalized group. Agencies that work often see themselves as better able to make decisions on behalf of people with disabilities than the persons themselves, and thus people with disabilities are denied the rights and responsibilities of citizenship, and even adulthood.26

SECTION 4 : DISABILITY AND GENDER:

When one talks about oppression or marginalization, it is difficult not to bring the issue of gender to that discussion. There seems to be a common link between women and people with disabilities as the groups experience oppression,

25. Ibid. pp.l2-13 26. Hanely, Pat. 1998, Voluntary- Sector Associations

as Part of the Problem or Part of the Solution: Empowering People with Disabilities, NILEPA newsletter, June

70

discrimination, marginalization, and daily basis. But at the same time, it is people with disabilities to simply oppression as a whole because oppression on bodily ability has different causes, and effects. To merge the both groups denial of the specific discrimination women and disabled people. Because prevailing gender discrimination against is often said that in a way 'all disabled'. and therefore, they ha1e a understanding of 'impairment'. One acknowledge that disability is not an only confined to women, but at the same important to see how men and women disability on the basis of their gender.

Even after considering all these problemauc of looking at gender and disability. I still unacceptable not to take women with as a group that is marginalized more than way. The position of women with disability understood fully by many, and it is argued position is due to her being a woman and a with a disability, which leaves her in a ambiguity. Where does her alliance lie? Is woman's movement or the disability The former is oriented to non-disabled the latter to disabled men. 27 Women disabilities face inequality between men disabilities and non-disabled women as Women with disabilities are. marginalized and dis-empowered by movements, which could be an effective for advocating their rights. Women disabilities are further isolated by planners as 'special needs' group, which is with pity and charity but with very understanding.

According to Jenifer Lee and Shirley women with disabilities is a little group, perhaps a sub-minority that prejudice and discrimination from both their gender, and their disability. 28 It is true people with disabilities are at the risk of denied their gender because very often they given the opportunity to fill

27. Francis. Julian , 1995, Review of the People with Disability in Bangladesh, AMOD, British High Commission, Dhaka

28. Lee and White, 2000, Economic Women with Disability, doc/prdl/othr/z00ap/z00ap00305.html

11/Dt,OIOi~tcal/ernot:tOnal roles, such as mother, wife, lover etc. This can have a detrimental

and foremost barrier that any woman with has to experience is perhaps the 'body

. Body image is something that is important in forming self-identity. Much feminist has been focused on identifying the reality omen's bodies are objectified for the of male pleasure and domination. Recent have covered aspects of cultural

of disabled bodies. These are feminist inspired, and follow on

feminist concerns with social/cultural of femininity, cultural stereotypes,

physical beauty and etc. from this the particular situation of women with is a more extreme version of the

experience of all women. Many blame ably) the media to a great extent for this

image of disability . Women (as well as disabilities are almost invisible in the

the occasional depiction of their lives distorted form through romantic or

portrayal of child-like dependency or anger. This in many ways do

to the increasing discomfort of others come in contact with women with and also it perpetuates the sense of

that women with disabilities may feel media views of disability show a

of exaggeration and romanticization of good examples of this can be

Hindi-Bengali drama serials in is shown especially in the case of as a punishment. and also his

is used for the glorification of the of virtue' , i.e. heroine in terms of

feminine qualities like forgiveness , and compassion etc. Such representation

compared with the prevailing focus on normality. These values are deeply

for all women, but particularly oppress do not fit the stereotype.30

Kann, 1998, 'What is the Impact of Disability WWDA, Australia

et al., 1987 as cited by Shakespeare, Tom, Cufturaf Representation of Disabled: dustbins tsavowal , in Barton & Oliver eds., 1997,

Studies: Past Present Future. Leeds: The

71

Gendered Marginalization of Disabled Bodies

Shildrick and Price are of the view that disabled bodies are constructed in order to secure the identity or able-bodiness. There is a constant policing of the boundaries between the notions of health and disease, between the 'beautiful' and the 'grotesque', and in that process it disables people with impairment rurther. 31 These qualities are del'ined (socially and economically) by the dominant culture. and by those who are in power i.e. primarily white, able-bodied, heterosexual men. However, many women with disabilities argue that a great deal of feminist analysis may not be reflective of all women's experience, especially for the ones who are labeled as 'disabled'. In reflecting societal beliefs regarding disability, their bodies become objectified for the purpose of domination, but within a different context. The author/s of an article titled 'Bodv Beautiful/ Bodv Perfect: Challenging the Status Quo: where Do women with Disabilities Fit In? points out the realities that women with disabilities live in their daily lives. 3

" Disability is considered as something ' undesirable'. This message is often internalized. and it has a great impact on self-identity. A distorted image of an incomplete woman - a woman incapable of participating in the roles that are usually expected of women, is formed in early years. and these are confirmed or altered by the responses or evaluations made by others. And for many disabled women , society's beliyve in the lack of their physical attractiveness vhatilpers their ability to get beyond physical differences.

Disabled bodies are often objectifi4d as pat't of medical process. Most of them since childhood, had to display their bodies to group of male doctors in the guise of 'medical treatment' without prior knowledge or consent. 'We may have been asked to strip, walk back and forth in front or complete strangers so that they can get a better view of what the physical 'problem' is, or to mutually manipulate our limbs to determine nexibility and dexterity"3

• It further implies that because of intrusive medical ,, intervention and popular methods of cosmetic surgery. there is a need felt by these women to c11ange or to alter their 'imperfect' bodies. To be non-di sabled is the

31. Shildrick & Price, as cited by Treglown, 1998, pp.26 32. Author/s Unknown, 2001, Body Beautiful/Body

Perfect: Challenging the Status Quo: Where Do Women With Disabilities Fi t In? http://www.geocities.com/HotSprings/7319/sex.html

33. Ibid.

'ideal ' and there is an expectation for the quest of the ·perfect body'.

There is a further marginalization for women with disabilities as far as body is concerned. Cathy Spicer specifies that women of this group, especially the ones with intellectual disabilities be at the receiving end of a dose of marginalization because they are not perceived as 'normar women 34

. This perception allows society to believe that it is all right to objectify these women, and debate their right to freedom of sexual expression, to maintai~ 'bodily integrity and personal inviolability. Such assumptions lead to the blatant eugenics polic'ies aimed at the elimination of disabilities through sterilization programs. Joan Hume strongly criticizes the pre-natal screening and diagnostic technologies through which eugen ic values are operating in their promotion and application. She states that eugenics operates when women with disabilities are pressured not to have ch ildren{ when non-disabled women are

'encouraged to use the tests during pregnancies to detect and eli minate ever increasing numbers of detectable disabling conditions. The presumption that h positive test result will inevitably be fo llowed by qn abortion, which according to Hume. (and I agree with her) is disrespectful to people with disabilities. This sends a message to

disabled people that it is not acceptable for many parents to have a disabled baby; and also to women that 'for a woman to give birth to anything less than a perfect baby is not only socially and economically undesirable but also irresponsible. ,,Js

If a woman with disability is also colored ( in the case of White dominated West) or of ethnic minority (applicable to most countries), they are at an even further disadvantage. Participation would then seem virtually impossible, making them at a high risk of economic dependency. Ayesha Vernon notes how gender, color and disability - all together can make participation in society extremely difficult even in a welfare state I ike the

34. Spicer, Cathy. 1999. Sterilization of Women and Girls with Disabilities- A Literature Review. http://www. wwda.org.au/steri I. html

35. Hume. J. 1996. Disability, Feminism and Eugenics: Who has the right to decide who should or should not inhabit this world? http://www.wwda.org.au/ eugen.html

72

UK36. She records the experiences

marginalization (in a combination ableism. and sexism) of women with from different minority groups in the UK. and stories narrate how people, society, and the through different discriminatory pohcie welfare services view them, and how each to push real hard to make some space closed doors of education, employment and acceptance.

Two most important areas that enable parttctpate in society employment. Those with barriers in access ing a fair and good education. Having a disability often mean time is needed, whether it is for study itself, personal care, travel, and maintenance of health in order to study. As well as this. money is needed to cover the cost of equipment (if those equipmentls arc available, for example in country like This makes it difficult to reach higher education. But more than these, Vernon it is the attitude of people. even by those who supposed to be working with welfare trained to provide special care, can have effect on the education as well as the of the student (and especially if she is Moreover, a focus on trying to get children to do what is considered to be can get in the way of education. Her shows that most women who went to schools felt that their education was of quality than it should have been. Segregated white schools with their restricted choice of didn't allow many of these women to their potential. The ones who attended mainstream schools felt that the barners that experienced there actually sprang from that children with disabilities would not he 'cope· and should be sent to special schools. black and ethnic minority children, Vernon racism can sometimes get in the way of abilities are assessed. The risk lies in all that often disabled people too, can ptck stereotypes about themselves, and becomes in-built in them. Therefore, the does not help to empower people with as it is itself very unhealthy a system.

36. Vernon, 1996. A Stranger in Many Morris, J eds., Encounters With Strangers: and Disability. The Women's Press, pp.54-68

opportunity to work helps women to the low se lf-esteem created by disability 's attitudes to it, and it gives them a

to gain more self-respect and confidence. many work is the only thing that stops

from being virtually prisoners in their own 'Work gives people a place in the world, a the society. It defines who we are. This is in the fact that 'what do you do' is the first question that people ask when chatting with a stranger ... this question what is your position in the society? Tlze

seems immediately to give people an idea person's standard of living, intellectual

educational level, and social standing '37.

lies in the painful fact that even they (the few lucky ones to get the chance

educated to whatever extent, especially in countries) spend considerable number of of their lives in education, but people with

are not generally expected to work, as ts a general assumption that they are not

of working.

well known fact that women are, in general, economic disadvantage, so it is more than

that women with disabilities are more at of economically disadvantaged which

them from living independent lives . The of concepts like 'dependence' and

' has re-defined by the disability

of 'independent living' is a broad means the right to have personal

to be a parent, the right to equal to education, training, employment, and activities, and the right to participate in of the community'38

• Morris admits that non-disabled women experience a lack of over their lives because of their economic

and sexism.

are many women with disabilities: who are be it marriage or partnership (as

But often state can adopt a role when it comes to married

women , for example in the USA, where

pp.54 i Jenny. 1995. Creating a Space For Absent

Disabled women's experience of recoiving with daily li ving activities ', Feminist

. No 51, pp.75-76

73

Gendcrcd Marginali..-:ation of Disabled Bodies

people with disabilities who marry are seemingly penalized by the government39

. Funding for essentials like health coverage. adaptive equipment, and personal assistance is reduced. thereby putting the economic responsibility onto the partner. For women with disability, this can be of a particular disadvantage. leaving them vulnerable to abusive relationships because not only they may become dependent on their partner for personal assistance. but also may turn to them for economic support.

On the other hand, reliance on welfare services does not generally enable these women to participate in personal relationships or engage in work or social activities outside their homes in a way that they would choose. Morris' research shows that if a woman has the resources to purchase assistance in a way that she wants, then it enables her to play an equal part in the household in which she lives and also in personal relationships. Moreover. the control that comes from purchasing assistance can be crucial to a woman's feeling about herself. because that gives her the chance to become a caregiver. As being in a society that is tied up with the image of women as care giving, the ability to use ass istance in this way is very important for many disabled women. Caring fo r others, in the sense of giv,ing emotional and physical support, is part of 'every human relationship. but unfortunately, disab led \.voinen are often prevented from participating in such relationships because they do not receive appropriate/favorable environment.

SECTION 5: WOMEN WITH DISABUJTIES IN BANGLADESH

Bangladesh is a developing country having more than 130 million population with a di sability prevalence rate of 8.8% 40of which about 6.9 million are women 41

• According to the I

constitution of Bangladesh, there are equal rights for men and women, and therefom, '-~\'Omen with disabilities are not out of those rights. But the reality is that while these women need specia l

39. Lee & White, 200 I. Economic Sufficiency of Women with Disability

40. Francis, Julian, 1995, Review of the Position of People with Disability in Bangladesh, submitted to

AMOD. British High Commission. Dhaka 41. SDNP Bangladesh. International Women's Day

2004, http://www.sdnpbd.org/sdi/international day/ women_day/2004/women_disability.html

--

attention from each and every platform, they are neglected from families as well as from the society. According to SDNP report, even Human Rights Commission does not report the issue in the country. Bangladesh has almost 20 years history/experience on women's movement, but like many other early feminist movements of the west, women with disabilities still haven't found any strong inclusion in the movements. Post Beijing ( 1995), Bangladesh government formulated a national work ' plan that considered 12 issues concerning women/human rights. but women with

I I

disabilities issue was not included.

It has been oft'en said that to be a woman and to have a disability is to have a double disadvantage, and if the woman live in a developing country like Bangladesh, then she is trebly disabled. In a study it has been observed that 92% of the women with disabilities are socially or sexually abused within the age 6f 18. Only 23% women with disabilities

. know t~at they have some rights while other's

. have no knowledge about their human rights or equal rights .. In case of education, facilities are very limited and there are only a small number of women ~with disabilities are getting education through specia;l education, vocational training and home-based ecjucation. In terms of economic opportunity, it will be better understood if we take a look at the development budget for the women and compare with the same for women with disabilities: 42

Fiscal Year No.of Projects for Project have projects taken women inlluence on

by Govt. development women with disabtlities

1999-2000 1379 170 (13%) 00

2000-200 I 1299 246 (15%) 00

Gender health especially reproductive health has been a focusing issue in Bangladesh but there is no separate initiative for women with disabilities . But the truth is that a woman with di abilities needs special attention during pregnancy or illness. In Bangladesh where gender disparity is a major problem, and an issue that is constantly challenged by social and religious norms, it is anyone's guess what future a woman with disability has here!

42. SDNP Bangladesh. International Women's Day 2004, http://www.sdnpbd .o rg/sdi/international day/ women_day/2004/women_disabi I i ty. html

74

CONCLUSION

In conclusion. I would like to go hack to for her explanation of 'opprmton 'domination':

"Oppression consists Ill

institutional processes which prevertl people from learning and using

and expansive skills in socially settings, or institutionalized social which inhabit people's ability to communicate with others or to expre feelings and perspective on socin/ contexts where others can listen. consists in institutional conditions, inhabit or prevent people f rom in determining their actions or the

of their action. '"'3

If we take people with disabilities as a group, and look at the definitions quoted then it will be evident that this particular definitely oppressed, dominated, and Tom Shakespeare ( 1994) argues that impairment are disabled not just hy discrimination, but also by prejudices. prejudice is not just interpersonal but implicit in cultural representation, in in socialization.44 He quotes Morris:

want to think that this is something could happen to them. So we separated from common humanity, fundamentally different and alien. put up clear barriers between us non-disabled people further hide and discomfort by turning us into pity, comforting themselves by kindness and generosity.'..~5

43. Young. 1990. pp.37-38 44. Shakespeare. Tom, 1994, Cultural

Disabled: dustbins for disavowal, in Barton eds., 1997, Disability Studies: Past Prcsenl Leeds: The Disability Press

45. Morris. J. 1991. as cited in Shakespeare. Cultural Representation of Disabled: disavowal. in Barton & Oliver eds. 1997. Studies: Past Present Future, Leed!>: The Press

more in depth analysis of this particular group that there li ves another sub-group or

i , i.e. women with disabilities who are oppressed than the men. This is mainly

women are in double disadvantage of their gender and disability, and often of color. The essay made an attempt to

that 'women ' with disabilities' as a group the fact that marginalization is perhaps

most dangerous form of oppression as it all forms in itself - they are exploited, lized, face cultural imperialism to the

level (as being the ultimate 'other' from the 'normal'), are more vulnerable

and thus making them powerless in the · institutional exclusion process .

not undermine the fact that disabled men are in an enviable better position, but it cannot be

that women with disabilities do face more stigma, oppression and exclusion from Women with disabilities are at a defi nite

ll>flv::m"'"p with barriers such as negat ive impact self-identity, lack of independence,

·minatory attitudes towards rehabi I itation, opportunities to participate in education

employment etc. to cross. Without the ity for full participation, women with

'lity will never be able to be economically which will lead to extreme poverty,

dependence, and the inability to leave relationships. Therefore, it is clear that

the marinalized group of 'people with women form another sub-group and

of their gender experience a multiplici ty resulting from one or more combination

di ablism, racism and sexism. As one in Vernon's research put it, 'It

singularly, plurally, and multiply, and it totality that counts at the end of the day.

are thought of as completely inferior because are all three things"46

• No other form of therefore, could be more dangerous

highly gendered than marginalization .

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