General Psychology

Scripture• James 3:1

My brethren, let not many of you become teachers, knowing that we shall receive a stricter judgment.

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Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Each dwarf has a distinct personality.

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Psychoanalytic Perspective

In his clinical practice, Freud encountered

patients suffering from nervous

disorders. Their complaints could not be explained in terms of purely physical causes.

Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)

Culver Pictures

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Psychodynamic Perspective

Freud’s clinical experience led him

to develop the first comprehensive

theory of personality, which

included the unconscious mind,

psychosexual stages, and

defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)

Culver Pictures

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Exploring the Unconscious

A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Freud asked patients to say

whatever came to their minds (free association) in order to tap the

unconscious.

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Dream Analysis

Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.

The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

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Psychoanalysis

The process of free association (chain of thoughts) leads to

painful, embarrassing unconscious memories. Once these memories are retrieved and

released (treatment: psychoanalysis) the patient feels better.

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Model of MindThe mind is like an iceberg. It is

mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious stores temporary

memories.

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Personality Structure

Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our

biological impulses (id) and social restraints (superego).

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Id, Ego and SuperegoThe Id unconsciously strives to satisfy

basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the

id and superego.

The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for

future aspirations.

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Personality Development

Freud believed that personality formed during the first few years of life

divided into psychosexual stages. During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking

energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.

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Psychosexual Stages

Freud divided the development of personality into five psychosexual

stages.

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Oedipus Complex

A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex.

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Identification

Children cope with threatening feelings by

repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent.

Through this process of

identification, their superego

gains strength that incorporates their parents’ values.

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Defense Mechanisms

The ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

2. Regression leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.

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Defense Mechanisms

3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.4. Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

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Defense Mechanisms

5. Rationalization offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions.

6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

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The Neo-Freudians

Jung believed in the collective

unconscious, which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our

species’ past. This is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother being a

symbol of nurturance.Carl Jung (1875-1961)

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Assessing Unconscious Processes

Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a

psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden

unconscious mind.

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Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)

Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express

their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous

scenes.

Lew

Merrim

/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner

feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Lew

Merrim

/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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Projective Tests: Criticisms

Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of

results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to).

1. When evaluating the same patient, even trained raters come up with different interpretations (reliability).

2. Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity).

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Humanistic Perspective

By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and

the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.

Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)

Carl Rogers(1902-1987)

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Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we

try to reach the state of self-actualization—fulfilling our potential.

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Ted P

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Person-Centered Perspective

Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others

despite their failings.

Michael R

ougier/ Life Magazine ©

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Assessing the Self

All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-

Concept.

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe

themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are

(real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive

self-concept.

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Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management with its emphasis on a positive self-concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve.

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The Trait Perspective

An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her

personality.

Examples of Traits

HonestDependable

MoodyImpulsive

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Factor AnalysisHans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-

introversion and emotional stability-instability.

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MMPI

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely

researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally

developed to identify emotional disorders.

The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items

and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic

groups.

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The Big Five Factors

Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait dimensions, such as Eysencks’

personality dimensions, fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five factors) of

traits does a better job of assessment.

Conscientiousness

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Openness

Extraversion

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Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting

behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.

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The Person-Situation Controversy

Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation may be different, but average

behavior remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.

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Personal Control

External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our

fate.

Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control

our own fate.

Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment

controls us.

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Learned Helplessness

When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns

helplessness.

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Optimism vs. Pessimism

An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of

explaining positive or negative events.

Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and

communities to thrive.

Exploring the Self, Viewing the Self

• Research in personality includes the topic of a person’s sense of self.

• Topics of research include self-talk, self-esteem, self-awareness, self-monitoring, self-control.

• The field has refined a definition of “self” as the core of personality, the organizer and reservoir of our thoughts, feelings, actions, choices, attitudes.

Topics for our study of people’s sense of self:

•The Spotlight Effect (self-consciousness)•Self-esteem, low and high, benefits and risks•Self-Serving Bias•Narcissism•Self-disparagement•Secure self-esteem

Self-Consciousness: The Spotlight EffectExperiment: Students put on Barry Manilow T-shirts before entering a room with other students. (Manilow was not even cool “back in the day.”) Result: The students thought others would notice the T-shirt, assumed people were looking at them, when this was not the case; they greatly overestimated the extent to which the spotlight was on them.

The spotlight effect: assuming that people are have attention focused on you when they actually may not be noticing you.

Lesson: People don’t notice our errors, quirks, features, and shirts as much as we think they do.

Self-Esteem: High and Low, Good and Bad People who have normal

or high self-esteem, feeling confident and valuable, get some benefits:

Increased resistance to conformity pressure

Decreased harm from bullying

Increased resilience and efforts to improve their own mood

But maybe this “high” self-esteem is really realistic, and is a result, not a cause, of these successes.

Low self-esteem, even temporarily lowered by insults, leads to problems: prejudice, being critical of others

Self-Serving Bias

We all generally tend to think we are above average.

This bias can help defend our self-esteem, as it does for the people in this wheel.

Self-Focus and Narcissism Since 1980, song lyrics have become more focused on the self, both

gratification and self-praise. Empathy scores and skills are decreasing, being lost; people

increasingly don’t bother trying to see things from the perspective of others.

There is a rise in narcissism (self-absorption, self-gratification, inflated but fragile self-worth).

Narcissists see themselves as having a special place in the world. Danger, especially in narcissism: When self-esteem is threatened, it

can trigger defensive aggression. Preventing this aggressive defense of self-esteem: not raising self-

esteem, but reinforcing it, having people state their own values and qualities

Left behind in the supposed increase in egotism: those who feel worthless, unlovable.

Some people have a habit of self-disparaging self-talk: “I’m no good. I’m going to fail.”

Sometimes such remarks are a sign of depression or at least feeling inferior.

Sometimes such remarks may elicit pity, or prepare us for possible bad events, or help us learn from mistakes (people are more critical of their past selves).

Moving from defensive to secure self-esteem requires realistic expectations and self-acceptance.

Self-Disparagement, Self-Acceptance

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PICTURE ONECarefree Playful Cheerful                         

You love a free and spontaneous life. And you attempt to enjoy it to the fullest, in accordance with the motto: "You only live once."

You are very curious and open about everything new; you thrive on change. Nothing is worse than when you feel tied down. You experience your environment as being versatile and always good for a surprise.

PICTURE TWOIndependent Unconventional Unfettered

You demand a free and unattached life for yourself that allows you to determine your own course. You have an artistic bent in your work or leisure activities. Your urge for freedom sometimes causes you to do exactly the opposite of what expected of you.

Your lifestyle is highly individualistic. You would never blindly imitate what is "in"; on the contrary, you seek to live according to your own ideas and convictions, even if this means swimming against the tide.

PICTURE THREEIntrospective Sensitive Reflective

                         

You come to grips more frequently and thoroughly with yourself and your environment than do most people. You detest superficiality; you'd rather be alone than have to suffer through small talk. But your relationships with your friends are highly intensive, which gives you the inner tranquility and harmony that you need in order to feel good. You do not mind being alone for extended periods of time; you rarely become bored.

PICTURE FOURDown to Earth Well-Balanced Harmonious        

You value a natural style and love that which is uncomplicated. People admire you because you have both feet planted firmly on the ground and they can depend on you. You give those who are close to you security and space. You are perceived as being warm and human. You reject everything that is garish and trite. You tend to be skeptical toward the whims of fashion trends. For you, clothing has to be practical and unobtrusively elegant.

PICTURE FIVEProfessional Pragmatic Self-Assured

You take charge of your life, and place less faith in your luck and more in your own deeds. You solve problems in a practical, uncomplicated manner. You take a realistic

view of the things in your daily life and tackle them without wavering. You are given a great deal of responsibility at work, because people know that you can be depended upon.

Your pronounced strength of will projects your self-assurance to others. You are never fully satisfied until you have accomplished your ideas.

PICTURE SIX

Peaceful Discreet Non-Aggressive

You are easy-going yet discreet. You make friends effortlessly, yet enjoy your privacy and independence. You like to get away from it all and be alone from time to time to contemplate the meaning of life and enjoy yourself. You need space, so you escape to beautiful hideaways, but you are not a loner. You are at peace with yourself and the

world, and you appreciate life and what this world has to offer.

PICTURE SEVEN

Analytical Trustworthy Self-Assured

Your momentary sensitivity represents that which is of high quality and durable. Consequently, you like to surround yourself with little "gems," which you discover

wherever they are overlooked by others.

Thus, culture plays a special role in your life. You have found your own personal style, which is elegant and exclusive, free from the whims of fashion. Your ideal, upon which

you base your life, is cultured pleasure. You value a certain level of culture on the part of the people with whom you associate.

PICTURE EIGHT

Romantic Dreamy Emotional

You are a very sensitive person. You refuse to view things only from a sober, rational standpoint. What your feelings tell you is just as important to you. In fact, you feel it is

important to have dreams in life, too.

You reject people who scorn romanticism and are guided only by rationality. You refuse to let anything confine the rich variety of your moods and emotions.

PICTURE NINE

Dynamic Active Extroverted

You are quite willing to accept certain risks and to make a strong committment in exchange for interesting and varied work. Routine, in contrast, tends to have a paralyzing

effect on you.

What you like most is to be able to play an active role in events. In doing so, your initiative is highly pronounced.