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Urban

Defined as places of intense social interaction and exchange between strangers

Generally have a dense agglomeration(concentration) of people and activities

Key characteristics are density, proximity and diversity

Urbanization

Population shifting towards the urban areas

De-urbanization is the opposite (rural areas have a population growth)

Metropolitanization

Metropolitan(larger urban areas) growing faster than the smaller urban areas

Suburbanization

Suburban area population increase

Principle Methods used to measure urban places:

1) Population

2) Economic Base

3) Administrative

4) Functional

Note: Basic goods = City forming (agriculture, manufacturing)

Non-Basic goods = city serving (government services)

Urban Geography

Is about,

Understanding the distribution of towns and cities

Accounting for the similarities and differences between them

Main themes :

o System of citiesdistribution of cities & towns

o City as a systeminternal structure of a system

In Urban Geography we,

Recognize and describe the following of the urban area

o Pattern, processes

o Internal structure

Examine how people understand/react to these observed patterns/processes

Seek for how these patterns/processes originated


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Approaches to Urban Geography:

EnvironmentalismRelationship between people and their environment

o Site and situational studies

o Urban morphology

o Focuses on production, form and design of urban areas

PositivismHuman behavior is influenced by scientific/universal laws and therefore this

produces observable patterns of urban activity

o 2 main approaches

EcologicalHuman behavior is based on ecological principles.

The most powerful groups get the most advantageous place in a given

space

Example : Burgess Concentric Zone Model

The idea behind this model is that the city grows outward from a central area in a

series of rings. The size of the rings may vary, but the order always remains the same.

This model suggests that the social structure extends outwards from the central

business district, meaning that the lower classes live closer to the city center, while

the upper classes live farther from the city center because they can afford the

commute. Also, as you get further away from the city density decreases. The rent

tends to increase as you get further away from the CBD and residents are more likely

to rent near the center. As you get further away from the CBD it is more likely that

you will find condominiums. However, this model has its weaknesses. It does not take


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into account any physical barriers and it does not take into account gentrification-

which may occur in these cities.

Neo-ClassicalDriving force is rationality (or rather, the economic rationality of

humans). Cost-minimization or benefits maximization.

Behavioral and Humanistic

o The difference

BehavioralFocused on decision making, on human behaviour, but seeks

generalizations(for a model-like way)

HumanisticDeeply subjective and complex relations exist between individuals

and groups

StructuralismImportance of social, economic and political structures in society.

o Derived from the work of Karl Marx

o Criticized due to the classes too limiting

Postmodernism Emphasizes that multiple perspectives help understand the urban area better

than having 1 perspective have the say.

o Visible impact seen in Chicago, Toronto and Berlin

o Criticized since there can be endless interpretations for a city

Scale of Analysis of urban geography

Neighbourhood City Region National City System World system of Cities


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The Origin and Growth of Cities

Why did non-agricultural settlements arise?

Why did they get so geographically concentrated?

Why do some of the urban settlements grow to become larger than other urban settlements?

REASON: Agglomeration Economies

economic benefits due to the concentration of activities in the given space

2 types of Agglomeration Economies

Localization

- Closer to similar firms

- Advantages are : benefit of labor pooling, development of

industries, relative ease of communication and exchange of

supplies, laborers and innovative ideas

Urbanization

- Locating in an urban environment

- (Infrastructure, Information, Economies of scale)

NOTE : Agglomeration Diseconomies

The term 'diseconomies of agglomeration' refers to the opposite case. Additional competition drives

downpricingpower. For example, spatially concentrated growth in automobile-oriented fields may

create problems of crowding and traffic congestion. It is this tension between economies and

diseconomies that allows cities to grow while keeping them from becoming too large.

2 concepts important to understand the development of cities

1) Social SurplusProduction of more basic (city forming) goods than needed for subsistence

2) AgglomerationConcentration of activities/people/networks of relationships in space

A surplus trade and specialization B

Reasons for a social surplus

New technology

Environmental change

Changes in social organization
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricing


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Early Urban Development

Largest city was Rome

Urbanism spread from Greece

Planned Greece cities had a gridlock pattern

Roman cities had the pattern too, in addition to,

Square/rectangular town perimeter

2 main cross-streets

E-W Decamanus

N-S Cardo

Middle period Urban Development

Slowly growing European cities due to decrease in spatial interaction

Commerce expanded function of cityMercantilism

Cities became industrial centres

Industrial and Post-Industrial Urbanization

Cities became places of population concentration

Cities became more specialized

North American Urbanization

4 phases to the urban development over time

Stage 1: Frontier merchanitilism

Stage 2: Early industrial capitalism (internal structures of cities changed)

Stage 3: National Industrial Capitalism (Central business district in highest cost area)

Stage 4: Mature Industrial Capitalism (Megalopolis emergence)

Main megalopoliss: BosWash

San San (San Diego to San Francisco) & ChiPitts (Chicago to Pittsburgh)


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National Urban Systems

Allen Pred - Classified according to interdependence and closure

Settlement patternsoften reflect urban function

Linear Patterntends to follow roads, railroads (easy access to transport themselves, goods)

Clustering Patternemerges from smaller settlements around a central focal point (a resource)

IMPROVES EFFICIENCY!

Uniform/Hierarchical patternmegalopolisa chain of metropolitan areas

City-Size DistributionDistribution of urban regions by population

Has association with: Density of population/activity

Land value/house value

Traffic

Level of social diversity and diversity in services

2 Types of City-Size Distribution

1) ContinuousClear pattern between city size and rank within the urban system

2) DiscontinuousLittle relationship between city size and rank. (maybe due to improper scaling)

Rank-Size Distribution

City Size and Rank are directly linked (in reality many cities dont conform to this, although they are

close)


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Types of City-Size Distributions

1) Perfect Rank-Size Distribution

2) Primate City Distribution


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3) Intermediate or Smaller CityDominant Distribution

Uses of Rank-Size Analysis

1) Analysis of Temporal shifts in the urbanization process2) Comparison of different urban systems

3) Forecasting or planning

CITIES AS CENTRES OF PRODUCTION

In trying to understand the role of cities as centres of production, three questions / issues can be

highlighted:

Why is there a functional specialization among cities (in terms of manufacturing activity)?

Why are larger cities more economically diversified than smaller cities?

Why do some cities have concentrations of corporate headquarters while others do not?

ANSWER: comes from an understanding of how manufacturing (and services) growth is linked to the

growth of cities and the functions performed by them

1) Cities as centres of manufacturing and service delivery

One of the most important components of urban growth

Classifying Manufacturing places:

Components or types of goods: durable, non-durable

Value-added: High-value added (technology), low value added(textiles)

Stage of the manufacturing process: processing raw material, fabrication, assembly


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Manufacturing Location

Alfred Webers location Theory least-cost theory of manufacturing location

Firms would locate closer to input market (market oriented)

Firms dependent on specific materials would locate closer to it (materials oriented)

Basically, least cost

Model too simple, idealistic!

Why does manufacturing locate in particular areas?

Needs to be addressed with reference to a broader change in the global economic system


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Manufacturing location change after post-Fordism

Production linkages underwent technological and organizational changes

This affected the patterns of production linkages in and between urban systems

Major changes:emergence of flexible production systems

Specialized Industrial Networks

Just-In-Time delivery systems

R&D and HQ favour large, metropolitan areas (skilled labour, network development)

Political changes also affected some changes

Vertical Disintegration: After postFordism, a production process has been broken into several

companies, each doing a limited subset of activities required to produce final product.

Vertical DisintegrationInter-firm linkages

Manual labour (Blue Collar) will be contracted out

Labour Demand and Supply

Labour demand arises due to: Globalization

Industrial restructuring

Technological Change

Labour supply as given by: Population growth and dynamics

Education and Training

Hours of work

Labour market Imbalances

Labour shortage results in: delays in completing projects

Reduced ability to attract investment

Labour surplus results in: underemployment

Underutilization of skills

Involuntary contract/ part-time work


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Intra-Urban Employment

Decentralization and clustering of activity/employment

Decentralization:

Major industrial concentrations only appear after major transportation infrastructure

Lower-cost bordering (peripheral) sites are more appealing than central more expensive locations

Home-work becoming more popular

Low-density industrial parks are favoured

ALL LEAD TO PEOPLE MOVING AWAY FROM CITY CORE

Clustering:

Occurs due to intensification of ties between firms

Most seen in central city and older suburbs

Appeals to ventures that can operate in sub-divided/multi storeyed premises

For examplemedia and culture industries in Toronto are suited for this. Also close to the creative

workers

Informal Economy

Underground/Black market

Can distort true market functioning

Many forms

Global Cities

Main sites for capital and investments. Immigrant location. Location of highest-order functions/markets

Globalization = highest-order functions concentrate in only a few key cities. (Leads to international

integration)

Those are GLOBAL CITIES

Command and control centres of the world!


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Hierarchy of Global Cities

1) First TierNew York, London, Tokyoconc of highest order

2) Second TierToronto, Sydney , Chicago, berlin national and regional HQs, high tech

manufacturing

Additional notes :

Gentrificationis a shift in an urban community toward wealthier residents and/or businesses and

increasing property values,[1]

sometimes to the detrimentof the poorer residents of the community.

Gentrification is typically the result of investment in a community by local government, communityactivists, or business groups, and can often spur economic development, attract business, lower crime

rates, and have other benefits to a community. Despite these potential benefits, urban gentrification is

perceived to result inpopulation migration,with poorer residents displaced by wealthier newcomers.

Often old industrial buildings are converted to residences and shops. New businesses, which can afford

increased commercial rent, cater to a more affluent base of consumersfurther increasing the appeal to

higher income migrants and decreasing the accessibility to the poor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentrification#cite_note-Lees-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentrification#cite_note-Lees-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentrification#cite_note-Lees-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_mobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_mobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_mobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_mobilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentrification#cite_note-Lees-1

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