gilman falls site: implications for the early and middle archaic of the maritime peninsula

GILMAN FALLS SITE: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE EARLY AND MIDDLE ARCHAIC OF THEMARITIME PENINSULAAuthor(s): David SangerSource: Canadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d’Archéologie, Vol. 20 (1996), pp.7-28Published by: Canadian Archaeological AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41102595 .

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GILMAN FALLS SITE: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE EARLY AND MIDDLE

ARCHAIC OF THE MARITIME PENINSULA David Sänger

ABSTRACT Between 1985 and 1993 a great deal of new data on the Early and Middle Archaic of Maine has been published. The information has implications for the Maritime Peninsula region as a whole. One of the recently analyzed sites is the Gilman Falls site, located on the Stillwater River, Maine. Zone 3 at the site is a Middle Archaic quarry and workshop that features the extraction of local metamorphic bedrock and its manufacture into numerous rods and other artifacts. Unlike some other sites of comparable age, Gilman Falls Zone 3 has an artifact assemblage that permits better use of negative evidence and the recognition of artifact classes that might go unnoticed in smaller collections. The demise of the low population model for the Early and Middle Archaic, and the recognition of a distinctive lithic technology, requires a re-examination of existing Archaic culture types for the Maritime Peninsula region.

RESUME Beaucoup de nouvelles données portant sur V Archaïque ancien et moyen de l'état du Maine ont été publiées entre 1985 et 1993. Ces données s'appliquent également à l'ensemble de la Péninsule maritime. Le site Gilman Falls, situé sur la rivière Stillwater au Maine, fut récemment analysé. La Zone 3 de ce site représente une carrière et un atelier de taille de la période Archaïque moyenne. Elle atteste de l'extraction d'une pierre métamorphique locale et de sa transformation en barres et autres types d'objets. Contrairement à d'autres sites d'âge comparable, la Zone 3 du site Gilman Falls contient un assemblage qui rend plus facile l'utilisation de preuves négatives. Aussi, ce type d'assemblage rend propice la reconnaissance de classes d'objets qui passent souvent inaperçues dans les petites collections. La remise en question du modèle de faible densité de population pour les périodes ancienne et moyenne de l'Archaïque, ainsi que l'identification d'une technologie lithique distincte, exigent la réé- valuation des types culturels en usage pour la région de la Péninsule Maritime.

INTRODUCTION decade of research along the Penobscot River and its tributaries in central Maine

has produced valuable insights into the regional prehistory, especially for the little-known early and middle Holocene (Robinson and Petersen 1993). The work reported here supports the revamped models of culture history for Maine, and quite possibly the entire Maritime Peninsula. One of the newly excavated sites, the Gilman Falls site in central Maine, also sheds light on previously unknown Middle Archaic lithic quarry and manufacturing activities.

Until quite recently, little was known of the Early and Middle Archaic of the Maritime Peninsula, defined here as central and northern Maine, the Maritime Provinces, and portions of eastern Québec. Culture historical recon-

structions depended heavily on extra-regional research. In the absence of local sequences, this might be considered inevitable. But by 1984 research in the Northeast had begun to dispel the notion that no one lived here during the Early and Middle Archaic. As Robinson and Petersen (1992:1) noted in the Introduction to the volume, Early Holocene Occupation in Northern New England, the "low population model" had to be reconsid- ered in light of a number of sites that proved the presence of people in the period 10,000 to 5000 years ago. Not only did the notion of few or no people have to be revisited, but the types of cultures resident required reanalysis (Robinson and Petersen 1993).

North of the Maritime Peninsula, a long history of occupation in the Strait of Belle Isle

Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 20, 1996 7



ARTICLE had been posited (McGhee and Tuck 1975; Tuck 1975). On the uplifted beaches the authors located sites of varying ages spanning the Holocene. Tuck (1971) named the culture the "Maritime Archaic tradition", a whole cultural tradition thought to illustrate 8000 years of cultural continuity (Tuck 1975). On the basis of similarities in burial and artifact forms with the later manifestations of this tradition, Tuck suggested that the Maritime Archaic tradition united Maine and the Atlantic

Provinces. The excavation and subsequent description

of the Neville site in New Hampshire raised serious doubts about the proposed absence of people during the Early and Middle Archaic. Dincauze (1976) argued that the close formal analogues between biface forms from eastern Florida to New Hampshire suggested a technological continuum along the Atlantic seaboard.

Although no intact site deposits had been located, a review of collections from Maine

Figure 1: Map of the Penobscot River valley showing location of Gilman Falls and other archaeological sites.

8 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 20, 1996

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indicated that some of the diagnostic bifaces from Neville and sites further south resembled those from western Maine (Sänger 1977; Spiess et al. 1983a). However, within the Penobscot drainage, and throughout the Maritime Peninsula, comparable forms were scarce. Thus, by 1980, reconstructions of the early and mid-Holocene culture history of the Maritime Peninsula depended almost entirely on extension of culture types defined outside

ARTICLE the region, consequence of a view which relegated the Maritime Peninsula to a culturally marginal position (Robinson and Petersen 1993).

In 1984, the Piscataquis Archaeological Project (PAP) was initiated. Focusing on the confluence of the Sebee and Piscataquis rivers, researchers led by James B. Petersen discov- ered and tested deeply stratified sites that demonstrated beyond any shadow of doubt the

Figure 2: Map of the Gilman Falls site

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ARTICLE

Plate 1: Stillwater River looking north. Pushaw Stream enters from the left, just above the bridge. Gilman Falls Island is on the south side of the confluence.

presence of people in this part of Maine throughout the Holocene (Petersen 1991; Petersen and Putnam 1992; Petersen et al. 1986). By the end of the decade, cultural resource management-driven archaeology had located well over a dozen unequivocal Early and Middle Archaic sites in the Penobscot, Kennebec, and Androscoggin drainages. Petersen and Putnam (1992:26) listed over 50 radiocarbon dates older than 5000 B.P. from a total of 22 sites. Further, the new data illus- trated clearly the inadequacy of the imported culture type approach.

Simultaneous with the PAP project men- tioned above, research began in the Penobscot River valley between Bangor and Old Town (Figure 1). Mandated by CRM concerns, several years of survey and testing disclosed a great many new sites, including stratified Early and Middle Archaic stations. One of these, the Blackman Stream site, yielded a Late Paleoindian, parallel-flaked point at a depth of 2.7 m below ground surface, and 1 m

beneath a buried forest soil with cultural features dated to around 8000 B.P (Sanger et al. 1992). Nearby, a 1988 survey located the Gilman Falls site, the focus of this article.

THE GILMAN FALLS SITE The Gilman Falls site is located on the

north end of a small bedrock-controlled island situated at the confluence of the Stillwater River and Pushaw Stream (Figure 2; Plate 1). From the bedrock sill which comprises Gilman Falls, the Stillwater continues 9 km where it rejoins the Penobscot River at Orono. Pushaw Stream is a slow, meandering watercourse that drains Pushaw Lake and a large tract of wetlands on either side. The Hirundo- Young archaeological locality (Borstel 1982; Sänger et al. 1977) is located 18 km upstream from Stillwater River (Figure 1). As part of their Milford Reservoir, the Bangor Hydro-Electric Company maintains a dam erected on Gilman Falls. Through contracts with the University of Maine, Bangor Hydro-Electric sponsored the archaeological investigations in order to




ARTICLE obtain a new operating license (Sanger et al. 1994).

Research at Gilman Falls and other nearby sites constitutes an integrated whole. It involves a number of sites designed to explore as many periods of occupation as possible. It also supports a significant paleo-ecological program, including bedrock and surficial geol- ogy, paleo-botany, wetland reconstruction, and regional hydrology through the Holocene. While this article focuses on the archaeological component at Gilman Falls, some other aspects of the overall project are still in progress. A supporting pollen diagram prepared by Almquist-Jacobson will soon be available (Almquist-Jacobson and Sanger, in press), as will a discussion of local wetlands evolution.

The bedrock of the island underlying the Gilman Falls site is part of the Vassalboro Formation (Osberg et al. 1985), composed of metamorphic rocks of varying degrees of metamorphism. During the Pleistocene, glaciation resulted in draped unconsolidated deposits ranging from till to eskers. Late in

the Pleistocene, shortly after déglaciation, there was a marine transgression of the still depressed landscape. By about 13,000 B.P. thick glacio-marine silts and clays mantled the area to an elevation of 100 m above current sea level (Thompson and Borns 1985). Where post-glacial downcutting by water courses exposed bedrock, waterfalls and rapids developed. Fluvial sediment accumulated behind the bedrock sills.

Site survival in an environment as dynam- ic as the Penobscot River depends on a combi- nation of events that provides living surfaces combined with long term preservation. The various bedrock sills form natural dams that pond high water events, such as spring run-off. In the ponds the slowed water drops some of its sediment load, leading to an aggrading system directly behind the dam. When the sill is lower than the surrounding landscape, the river tends to be channeled by the bedrock, which limits the river's ability to meander and erode unconsolidated sediments. The combi- nation of deposition and protection results in flood plains that aggrade with high flood

Plate 2: Excavation in Block 2 at the Gilman Falls site. Bedrock has been reached in the foreground of the Block.

Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 20, 1996 1 1



ARTICLE events and provide level surfaces for human occupation.

The flood deposits that accumulated at the Gilman Falls site are mostly fine-grained, silty sand with clay. During periods of stability, vegetation developed, leaving in the record superimposed remnant soils, recognized by oxidized B -Horizons with elevated phosphate levels. Radiocarbon dates on cultural features in the sediment provide estimates of accumulation rates and schedule.

Excavation from 1990 to 1992 followed test pits that established site dimensions. Located on the northern end of Gilman Falls

Island, the site measures about 1400 m^ and ranges to over 1 m in depth. Erosion around the peripheries has reduced the overall dimensions, while dammed ice in 1987 scoured the sediments to bedrock on the southern end (Figure 2). No evidence exists for ploughing or other major cultural alteration, although trees have been cut.

After the initial test pits, trenches dug by hand exposed lengthy profiles, up to 10 m. From then on, a block excavation technique followed (Plate 2). The block method was developed for local sites with complex stratig- raphy. Operating from a vertical face, the excavator removed two units, each 50 cm to a side, paying particular attention to stratigraph- ie breaks, features, and disturbances. At Gilman Falls, where strata breaks appeared too gross to maintain useful provenance, 10 cm levels within the 50 cm excavation units provided context for lithic debitage, faunal

remains, etc. Sediment was either dry or wet field-screened through 6 mm and/or 3 mm mesh, while feature fill was either floated and/or washed through 1 mm screening. Geologic samples, collected and analyzed by project sedimentologist Alice Kelley, were taken from exposed profiles. A total of 145 m , 1,184 artifacts, and 91 features was excavated over the three field seasons.

Three-dimensional control in large blocks is problematic with traditional stake and string methodology. At Gilman Falls, a Topcon Total Station (Laser Transit) with an on-site computer (MC-II) substituted for the traditional grid system. Using the MCamp program, a single sighting on a target placed anywhere on the site provides X,Y and Z coordinates. Artifact class, associations, strata, etc. entered with the record can create an instant catalogue. Each day the MC-II was downloaded into a desktop computer for further manipulation in a variety of CAD and database management programs. The block methodology, when combined with the Total Station approach, proves to be much faster, more accurate, and produces better overall results than the top- down method commonly used in the region. Although the block method was developed in response to the challenge of untangling coa- lesced features, it also helped to distinguish between cultural activity areas (features), living floors, and dark-coloured, non-cultural sediments, such as buried A and B soil horizons.

Combinations of sediment texture and

Figure 3: Gilman Falls site profile west walls from North 121.50 to North 125.50

1 2 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 20, 1 996



ARTICLE colour led to the definition of depositional strata, within which remnant soil horizons were identified. Levels are the arbitrary 10 cm excavation units which, in this instance, initi- ate from a site datum level. Zones refer to cultural occupations, which may or may not be closely associated with particular strata or soil horizons (Figure 3). Analysis of the stratigra- phy, geochemistry, radiocarbon chronology and artifact associations led to the definition of three cultural Zones. The use of Zone paral- lels that of Gasche and Tunca (1983:332).

The uppermost portion the site is quite badly bioturbated by tree roots, tree throws, some rodent digging, and cultural activities, such as the creation of hearths and other features. As might be anticipated given the clear evidence for disturbances, not all artifacts could be assigned with confidence to a particular zone. About a third of the specimens, 369 out of a total 1,184, were not assigned a zone because of the disturbed sections. A number of the artifacts in the unassigned category appear to be identical to some from Zone 3; however, unless they occurred in definite Zone 3 associated sediment they were relegated to the unassigned group.

Zone I is the Ceramic (Woodland) Period, about 3000 to 350 B.P. Cultural activity was limited, although 18 features occur. Eighty artifacts, plus a minimum of 8 ceramic vessel lots, were associated with Zone 1. Ceramic vessels range from CP 2 to 6, for an expected age range of about 2100 B.P. to 450 B.P. (Petersen and Sänger 1991). Seven of the 8 vessel lots come from the earlier centuries of this range.

Zone 2 contains specimens related to Late Archaic culture types, especially the Maine variant of the Laurentian tradition (Ritchie 1965). Slightly more productive of artifacts than Zone 1, Zone 2 produced 129 specimens. Seventeen features, mostly hearths, occurred in Zone 2, which averaged about 20 cm in thickness. Five radiocarbon dates ranging from 3600 to 4500 B.P. (Table 1) pertain to this zone.

The break between Zone 2 and Zone 3 is reasonably clear in excavation Block Two, although there is no intervening stratum

devoid of artifacts and other cultural indica- tors. Zone 3 is associated with a well-defined, buried soil horizon, recognized by a red-to- brown stain, inflated phosphorus levels, and a dramatic increase in artifacts and lithic debitage. Excavation level 13 (130 cm below datum), associated with the major buried soil horizon, initiates Zone 3. At the northern end of Block 2 the buried soil rises to less than 120 cm bd as it conforms to the underlying bedrock configuration (Figure 3). Within Block Two, level 13 produced over 4,000 flakes: level 12 (in Zone 2) yielded only 466 flakes, nearly an order of magnitude less for the same volume of sediment.

Zone 3 is a Middle Archaic occupation and the main topic of this paper. Although Zone 3 occupation undoubtedly extended into other areas of the site, it is only in Block Two, an area of 80 m , that we have full confidence in the associations. Zone 3 occurs through approximately 30 cm of deposit and rests on bedrock. Forty features and 606 artifacts were documented. Total phosphate analysis from column and "grab" sediment samples yielded levels many times higher than the more sparsely utilized upper portions of the site. For example, the mean of 7 total phosphorus assays from Zone 3 was 515 ppm, with a high value of 777 ppm. By contrast, mean values from higher strata never average more than 376 ppm and range to a mean low of 166 ppm.

Fortunately, deposition above Zone 3 was rapid and the deposits were partially shielded from the disturbances so obvious in Zone 1, and to some extent in Zone 2. Some features that originated in the upper zones did penetrate Zone 3, which accounts for some radiocarbon dates that did not match expectations given their depth in the site.

Chronology for Zone 3 depends on 6 radiocarbon dates (Table 1). With the selec- tion of numerous samples from various features and charcoal concentrations we hoped to establish a fine-grain chronology for the component. The first results from the University of Arizona facility had relatively low standard deviations, ranging from 50 radiocarbon years to 80 radiocarbon years (samples A-6696, 6380, and 6698). Another suite of charcoal




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TABLE 1

RADIOCARBON DATES FROM THE GILMAN FALLS SITE

Sample Number 14C Years Feature Stratum Cultural Zone

A-7042 3590+150 22 lib Zone 1/2

A-7041 4140 + 130 12 III unassi

B-38499 4160+70 14 III Zone 2

A-7043 4180+80 lia unassi

A-7044 4425 + 125 19 III unassi

A-7045 5950+165 grav lens HI Zone 2/3

A-7046 6290+160 60 III Zone 3

A-6696* 6840+50 III Zone 3

A-7151 6920+250 66 III Zone 3

A-6697* 6380+65 27 III Zone 3

A-6698* 7285+80 III Zone 3

A-7049 7670+240 71 III Zone 3 *= preferred Zone 3 dates (see text)

samples, assayed the following year, returned standard deviations of up to 250 radiocarbon years on samples that were equivalent in size to the initial batch. Under the circumstances, the first samples, those with the lower standard deviations are likely to be more reliable than the second batch (Stuiver, personal communication, 1994). Therefore, Zone 3 is assigned an age range of about a millennium - 6300 B.P. to 7300 B.P. (uncalibrated).

The forty features consist mainly of charcoal stains associated with artifacts, river bank cobbles, and slabs of local bedrock. No defin- itive post molds could be discerned nor any other evidence for shelters. Some red ochre occurred but nothing was suggestive of a human burial. Very low fire-cracked rock counts typify this zone.

The artifacts associated with Zone 3 consist of classes well known in the Archaic of the Northeast in addition to those which lack traditional class names. Tempting though it

may be to dump these unprepossessing tools into the catch-all category "expediency tools", closer examination reveals variability, some of which may be significant. In order to arrange the apparently continuous variable artifacts, analysis emphasized technology and character of what appears to be the working portions of the specimens. The low degree of morpholog- ical variability stems from the extensive utilization of low grade metamorphic rocks, such as phyllite and granofels, which comprise the bulk of the assemblage. Despite the tendency to over-differentiate, a substantial number of pieces (n=174) is relegated to "flaked phyllite", defined as artifacts that exhibit minimal shaping. If found in later contexts, many specimens in this class might well be discarded as being non-artifactual.

It seems likely that the presence of identical rocks under the north end of Gilman Falls Island provided a major incentive for Middle Archaic people to select the island as a site.




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Plate 3: Phyllite choppers from Zone 3, Gilman Falls site. These metamorphic rocks feature very thin bedding planes with cleavage commonly 55 to 60 degrees to the bedding planes. According to project bedrock geologist, Henry Berry IV (1994:241), "The correspondence between artifact lithology and bedrock lithology... includes similarity of all characteristics such as color on fresh and weathered surfaces, mineralogy, metamorphic grade, grain size, bedding style and thickness, soft- sediment deformational features, cleavage, fold, fractures, and veins."

Choppers, made from slabs of the local rock, are large, heavy, crudely-worked pieces effecting a steep edge angle, often unif acial but sometimes bifacial (Plate 3). The 34 spec-

imens represent 80% of those recovered from the site, which clearly emphasizes their Zone 3 affiliation.

Only one chipped biface vaguely resembling a projectile point was recovered, and it too is a phyllite specimen. There are no stemmed bifaces made of cryptocrystalline rocks, such as the Neville and Stark points identified for southern New England (Dincauze 1976). Thus, Gilman Falls joins with other central Maine sites in the apparent paucity, or even absence, of a chipped projectile point tradition during part of the Middle Archaic. Upstream at the Hirundo site, however, several Neville-like and one Stark-like points have been recovered (Sanger et al.




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Plate 4: Plyllite "slate" points from Zone 3, Gilman Falls site.




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Plate 5: Gouges and a celt (lower left) from Zone 3, Gilman Falls site.

1977). Unfortunately, the context is not dated. There are two other possibilities for pro-

jectile heads at Gilman Falls. One is that they

were made of organic substances, and as such have not survived the acidic environment. The other is a small collection of 10 small (up to




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Plate 6: Rods (left) and rod preforms made of of granofels and phyllite from Zone 3, Gilman Falls site.




ARTICLE 70 mm), thin, phyllite points (Plate 4), which exhibit only minimal edge shaping by chip- ping and finished by grinding. From a preform of naturally thin phyllite, a little unifacial flaking formed the stem. Blade retouch, when present, is restricted to minimal edge modifi- cation. Limited grinding of the blade edge, and sometimes the surface at the tip, com- pletes the point. In addition, there are 3 examples of larger phyllite point stems (Plate 4, right) which conform to the usual "ground slate" category in the area.

Tools usually assigned to wood working, such as gouges and celts are present (Plate 5). The former are full-length grooved, as opposed to some Late Archaic forms which frequently exhibit shortened grooves. One specimen has a flaring bit. The celts are not noteworthy and apparently indistinguishable from Late Archaic forms.

An artifact frequently associated with Early and Middle Archaic assemblages in the area is the quartz uniface or scraper (e.g., Robinson et al. 1992). While these occur throughout the cultural record in limited numbers, they may greatly exceed scrapers made of other lithologies during the earlier times. Quartz scrapers are not particularly prevalent at Gilman Falls. Only 8 milky and 2 crystal quartz scrapers were recovered. Although the low number of scrapers assigned to all zones (n=16) cautions against placing too much emphasis on this class, the fact that 10 of the 16 are quartz tend to reinforce the general observation. It may be that by 7300 B.P. the incidence of quartz scrapers in local sites is diminished. Indeed, at the nearby Beaver site, another station at the outlet of Pushaw Stream still under investigation, a Zone radiocarbon dated to around 8,000 B.P. yielded proportion- ately more quartz scrapers.

The most common artifact at Gilman Falls is the rod, defined as elongate objects, with round to oval sections (Plate 6). Of a total of 147 specimens, 112 came from Zone 3 in excavation Block 2. Most of the remaining examples derived from unclear associations and have not been assigned to zone. Some of the rods are quite small, made from naturally elongate pebbles, a few of which are of non-

local lithology. The vast majority, however, represent on-site quarry and manufacture activity.

Among the rods and fragments there are examples of all stages of manufacture, ranging from near-blank form (Plate 6, center), to specimens broken in the manufacturing process (Plate 6, right), to finished pieces (Plate 6, left). Significantly, most of the rods are manufactured from rock that is lithologi- cally identical with that which outcrops at the northern end of the island, right under the site. Their presence in Zone 3 indicates a quarry and workshop operation in which suitable pieces of raw material was extracted from the bedrock and reduced on site. This rock, a foli- ated quartz-muscovite granofels and/or phyllite, commonly occurs in thin, tabular pieces.

Manufacture of tools from the local bedrock is the subject of ongoing experimenta- tion. Attempts to treat the phyllite like the locally available cryptocrystallines, such as felsite, fail due to the very thinly-bedded nature of the bedrock. Establishing a suitable bifacial edge is very difficult. However, this rock can be shaped by unifacially flaking along one edge. The blank is then turned over and reduced unifacially along the second long edge, a technique which produces a bevelled cross-section. Evidence from a number of broken and discarded pieces suggests that once narrowed, the preform was pecked into near final form. Comparison of preform and finished rod thicknesses indicates that the great- est reduction was in width. Limited grinding completed the manufacture. Gilman Falls examples range up to 200 mm in length and less than 20 mm in width. This alternate edge, unifacial reduction strategy, which has not been described in the regional literature, may prove to be a highly diagnostic technological pattern.

Extensive utilization of phyllite and related metamorphic forms is associated with a spe- cialized hammer stone technology. Zone 3 deposits contain 33 examples of a class known as "battered nodules", a term applied to flaked felsite cobbles or chunks with indications of extreme battering along one or more arrises created by intersecting flake scars (Plates 7,8)




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Plate 7: Battered nodules of felsite from Zone 3, Gilman Falls site. Working edge is up.




ARTICLE Often, these artifacts also exhibit a flat area opposite a battered edge, suggestive of a handgrip. Initial replication suggests that the angled edge can be used to flake the phyllite with greater control than that afforded by the traditional hammer stone. While some of these artifacts could have functioned as cores, the method of manufacture and use suggests otherwise for the majority of specimens.

Rounded river pebbles, showing damage on one or both ends, occur commonly (n=53) in Zone 3. These are the traditional pebble hammer stones. Although these are often part of a tool kit associated with the production of chipped projectile points, the absence of the latter requires an alternative functional expla- nation. In Zone 3, 29,998 pieces of debitage were recovered, weighing 76 kilos. About 55%, both by weight and count, is felsite. Samples from the 6 mm and 3 mm screens were examined for evidence of a bifacial thinning technique such as that associated with the production of projectile points. Flake and striking platform attrib- utes do not match biface production flake expectations in terms of flake shape and striking platform characteristics.

The only felsite artifacts of any quantity are the battered nodules made from locally available felsite cobbles found eroded from the nearby ice-contact geomorphic features. The morphology of the felsite flakes, plus some flakes with extensively battered platforms, suggests that many, if not most, of the felsite flakes derived from the production of the felsite battered nodules. Ongoing replication uti- lizing bedrock from Gilman Falls Island and local felsite cobbles is anticipated to verify or modify the hypothesis.

To return to the rods, the question of func- tion emerges. Although some could have functioned as abrasive stones, especially to sharpen the deeply-grooved gouges, the production at Gilman Falls appears excessive for that purpose. Indeed, some finished specimens show no signs of use. Robinson (1992) has noted that the few apparently Middle Archaic cemeteries known from the New

England area feature large numbers of rods, many of a length that would appear to pre- clude use as sharpening stones. It may be that some rods are part of the suite of specially prepared grave items designed as inclusions in Middle Archaic graves. If so, the Middle Archaic red ochre cemeteries may be an earlier manifestation of the Moorehead burial tradition, defined for the Late Archaic, which also features objects made expressly for the grave (Sänger 1973). The presence of the numerous rods at Gilman Falls during Middle Archaic times lends credence to Robinson's (1992) suspicion that several currently undated cemeteries in northern New England are of Middle Archaic age.

Several classes of implements are absent from Zone 3: their absence is significant for the goal of establishing a local culture historical sequence. The absence of a chipped stone biface tradition has been noted. One of the most prominent artifacts of the Late Archaic in central Maine is the plummet. None of the 5 plummets at Gilman Falls derives from Zone 3. They probably entered the local scene after 6000 B.P., as they did in the nearby Sharrow

Plate 8: Close-up of battered arris on a battered nodule, Zone 3, Gilman Falls site.




ARTICLE site (Petersen 1991). Another class missing from Zone 3 is the ground slate knife or ulu. Fragments of at least 2 came from other portions of the site.

Although ground slate points occur in Zone 3, they are far more common in Zone 2 (Late Archaic) despite the much smaller overall assemblage. None of the Gilman Falls specimens matches the long, slender, sometimes embellished, hexagonal-sectioned "bay- onets" of the Late Archaic red ochre cemeteries such as Cow Point in New Brunswick (Sänger 1973). Further, none of the slate points matches the short, excurvate bodied slate points of the Laurentian Tradition of the Champlain Lowlands (Ritchie 1965). Not all the differences rest with traditional artifact classes.

It is not unusual in central Maine sites to find a sharp increase in chert and other aphanitic rocks during the Ceramic (Woodland) Period (Borstel 1982:45). This pattern is reproduced at the Gilman Falls site. In Zone 3 the incidence of chert is 0.3% of the total debitage, whereas in Zone 1 the percent- age rises to just under 10%. The shift from low grade metamorphic and felsite in the Archaic to much more chert in the Ceramic Period may be a pattern that is quite wide- spread in the Maritime Peninsula.

Finally, there is a marked increase in the generation of fire-cracked rocks through time. From a low of 428 kilos in Zone 3, the numbers rise to 1753 kilos in Zone 1, despite the evidence for far less cultural activity. For example, stone flake debitage counts from Zone 3 are 10 times those of Zone 1. Evidence from other sites in the area indicates that these shifts in proportion of fire-cracked rocks and chert flakes is not unique to Gilman Falls (e.g., Borstel 1982). Extensive fire- cracked rock beds appear to represent a change in cooking and/or food drying prac- tices associated with the Late Archaic and Ceramic periods.

Faunal and floral specimens from Zone 3 are few in number and generally small in size. Despite extensive use of screen sizes to about 1 mm, only 2,648 bits of calcined bone, weighing 214 grams, were recovered (Sänger

et al. 1994). Preservation of bone in interior Maritime Peninsula sites is highly variable. In the case of Zone 3 at Gilman Falls, the millennium or longer of active forest soil, with low pH, freeze-thaw cycles and biological activity, must have greatly reduced the specimen count. By contrast, at the Sharrow site where the comparable Middle Archaic levels were undergoing rapid sediment accumulation (Petersen 1991; Petersen and Putnam 1992; Putnam 1994; Spiess 1992), the opportunities for preservation were enhanced because the bones were more insulated from the destruc- tive influences rampant in interior forest soils.

The meagre faunal list from Gilman Falls adds relatively little to our knowledge of interior food procurement patterns, which has been reviewed by Spiess (1992). An early presence of fish, followed in Late Archaic times by more beaver, may reflect a significant regional trend, perhaps related to changing vegetation patterns after 5,000 B.P., when more hardwoods, preferred species for beaver, become prevalent (Almquist-Jacobson and Sanger, in press). In addition, the increase in open water created by beaver dams may have resulted in an increase in muskrat habitat, a species whose bone remains also increase with the Late Archaic.

Floral remains were scarce despite floata- tion of feature fill and washing of sediment through 1 mm mesh. Two species, pin cherry {Prunus pennsylvanica) and staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), potentially used for food and a tea, respectively, suggest a warm season occupation for the site.

DISCUSSION Gilman Falls joins with a number of

newly-recognized sites that help to define the Early and Middle Archaic in northern New England. Robinson et al. (1992) provide the best single overview for supporting evidence. In Maine, the outpouring of new data derives from cultural resource management and scopes of work that are generously supported. Once the spectre of little or no human habita- tion is put to rest, other issues can be tackled.

Robinson (1992) has developed a cultural model that has definite appeal in a region where emphasis rests on stone tools due to




ARTICLE scant preservation of organic specimens. The Gulf of Maine Archaic tradition, which Robinson explicitly states is a technological pattern and not a substitute for a whole cultural tradition, emphasizes exactly the tool kit described above for the Gilman Falls site, with its absence of chipped stone projectile points and the emphasis on use of low grade metamorphic rocks for tools instead of the cryptocrystalline suite so commonly used further to the south and west.

An additional contribution of considerable significance has been the recognition that the red ochre mortuary pattern, so well known from the Late Archaic of the region, has earlier roots, perhaps extending back to over 8000 B.P., and thus paralleling the antiquity of the red ochre burial from L'Anse Amour, Labrador (McGhee and Tuck 1975; Robinson 1992; Belcher et al. 1994). Of particular interest is the large number of rods and full length grooved gouges reported from the Early and/or Middle Archaic cemeteries (Robinson 1992). These are currently unknown from the classic Late Archaic Moorehead burial tradition cemeteries (Belcher et al. 1994; Sanger 1973). Rods, of course, represent the major formed tool class at Gilman Falls, and their potential significance for mortuary ceremonialism has already been noted.

It is particularly important in this context to note that the practice of including in burials apparently non-utilitarian and infrequently used specimens may have a very long history in the Maritime Peninsula. The ideology behind the mortuary ceremony may link large portions of the Northeast in a manner not obvious from a purview of artifact classes alone, because these may have a local flavour. In other words, areal distribution of some aspects of the burial complex need not necessarily be coincident with lithic forms or other cultural manifestations, such as subsistence patterns. If so, this might help reconcile competing culture types which tend to focus on key index fossils, such as projectile points (e.g., large side-notched points and the Laurentian Tradition), or ceremonial features (e.g., red ochre burials and the Maritime Archaic).

The Gulf of Maine drainage, as a general-

ized geographical area, includes much of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Research in these areas lags behind that of Maine for a number of reasons, most of which revolve around personnel shortages, cultural resource management policies and lack of financial support (see Deal and Blair 1991 for an overview). In the absence of excavated sites like those in Maine, we have to rely on collections from the surface or those amassed in some fashion by avocational archaeologists. It might be wise to explore the possibility of a Gulf of Maine technological tradition (Robinson 1992) in the Maritime Provinces. Full-length grooved gouges certainly occur, as do ground slate points in various forms. Buried sites may be present also.

From a site high on the banks of the St. John River, opposite the modern town of Meductic, New Brunswick, limited excavation by Sanger in 1967, just ahead of rising water from the Meductic Reservoir, uncovered mate- rials that could well be of Middle Archaic age. Two large phyllite choppers, resembling ulu preforms, and other poorly-formed tools are reminiscent of artifacts common in deeply- buried sites in the Penobscot Valley and its tributaries in Maine. The St. John Valley specimens appeared to be buried beneath fluvial deposits, and below the ploughzone, whereas demonstrably later specimens on the same terrace and in lower ones, were in the ploughzone. Unfortunately, a single radiocarbon date on charcoal in association returned a modern age. It seems highly probable that other sites of this kind exist. If this assessment is accurate, the "great hiatus" of the Maritimes may go the way of its discredited sibling model in Maine.

The recent research into the Early and Middle Archaic sheds some light on the rela- tionship between the parallel-flaked point techology of the Late Paleoindian and subsequent culture types. For some time now archaeologists working in the Maritime Peninsula region of eastern Québec, the Maritimes and Maine, have been aware of a scattered presence of parallel-flaked points reminiscent of the Piano technology, which has been termed Late Paleoindian (Benmoyal




ARTICLE 1987; Chapdelaine 1994; Davis and Christianson 1989; Doyle et al. 1985; Sanger et al. 1992). Until recently, the chronology has been unclear. If it is assumed that a general level of cultural synchroneity exists within the Maritime Peninsula, the ̂C date of about 6000 B.P. from Ste. Anne-des-Monts (Benmoyal 1987:107) is too recent. The Rimouski site 14C date of about 8100 B.P. (Chapdelaine 1994) may be closer, although it too seems young based on evidence from sites in Maine.

At the Blackman Stream site on the Penobscot River a single parallel-flaked point fragment occurred 1 m below a buried soil with 3 14C dates ranging between 7400+/-40 to 8360+/-50 B.P. (Sanger et al. 1992). Given the potential for rapid deposition in the river- bank sites, an age of greater than 8400 B.P. seems the only estimate warranted for this locality. From the recently excavated Varney site in the Androscoggin River system, Petersen (personal communication, 1995) reports a date of about 9500 B.P. associated with parallel-flaked points. Finally, radiocarbon dated assemblages from the Sharrow site on the Piscataquis River (Petersen 1991) indi- cate that by 9500 B.P. the parallel-flaked point technology had already given way to the very different Early Archaic technology in the Penobscot Valley. In conclusion, the evidence from central Maine suggests that there is no technological continuum between the Late Paleoindian parallel-flaked points, and atten- dant forms such as large scrapers and drills (Chapdelaine 1994), and the low grade metamorphic-based lithic technology (Gulf of Maine technological tradition [Robinson 1992]) of the Early and Middle Archaic in the region.

No discussion of the Archaic in this part of eastern North America can ignore culture types defined for neighbouring regions and their applicability for the Maritime Peninsula. As pointed out by Robinson and Petersen (1993), for too long northern New England lay under the tyranny of cultural reconstructions developed outside the area. The lengthy labours of William Ritchie (1965), which cul-

minated in his highly influential summary of New York State pre-European archaeology, could not be ignored. Byers' (1959) Boreal Archaic concept found less favour among local specialists, although as has been noted (Dincauze 1993), his viewpoint of cultural continuity was close to the mark despite lack of supporting data. A problem with these early statements, in addition to the slimness of the evidence, was a view of an archaeological culture which paralleled in many ways an ethnographic culture, despite being based almost entirely on artifact morphology, and only a few "diagnostic" classes at that. In the 1970's, a heavy dependence on ecosystems as the bases for culture types redirected the emphasis away from artifact morphology to cultural adaptation. Terms such as Maritime Archaic (Tuck 1971), Lake Forest adaptation, and Mast Forest adaptation (Snow 1980) replaced earlier nomenclature, with the asser- tion that terms such as Laurentian were overused and overextended to such an extent that they had lost any utility they might have originally possessed (Funk 1988; Snow 1980; Tuck 1991).

The Laurentian tradition, especially the Vergennes phase, which was defined on the basis of mixed component sites in the Lake Champlain lowlands of Vermont and New York (Ritchie 1965, 1968), continues to find acceptance in the Maritime Peninsula (e.g., Cox 1991; Spiess 1990). Many sites in Maine, and to a lesser extent in the Maritime Provinces, have artifacts similar to those reported from KI and other Laurentian sites. However, if the large side-notched points (Otter Creek) are removed, the resulting assemblage is highly reminiscent of Middle Archaic assemblages in Maine (Cox 1991; Petersen and Putnam 1992). Writing on the Laurentian from a New York regional perspec- tive, Funk (1988) warned against claiming the presence of the Laurentian tradition only on the basis of the Otter Creek points.

The Laurentian tradition's chief competitor for an over-arching culture type in the Maritime Peninsula has been the Maritime Archaic tradition (Tuck 1971). Spiess et al. (1983b) questioned the utility of the Maritime




ARTICLE Archaic tradition for the Gulf of Maine region, echoing concerns expressed earlier by Sänger (1973, 1975), although for other reasons.

After a lengthy Procrustean struggle to adapt non-local culture types to the Maritime Peninsula, the time has come for a declaration of independence founded on the principle of local research. Clearly, we need units of cultural integration that afford flexibility, compa- rability and communication. The rush of new data from controlled excavation in deep fluvial sediments highlights the problem and, at the same time, provides archaeologists with the information needed to develop superior models. It would be unfortunate, however, simply to replace unwieldy concepts like the Laurentian or Maritime Archaic with locally named but similarly constituted constructs. In this respect, the technological tradition that Robinson (1992) proposes - the Gulf of Maine tradition - is a worthy successor, at least until we have more than lithic technology and a few burials on which to base our conclusions.

CONCLUSION Recent excavations at the stratified Gilman

Falls site in central Maine have produced a Middle Archaic component dated to between 6300 and 7300 B.P. (uncalibrated). Called Zone 3 at the site, the assemblage features the lack of chipped biface projectile points but a great many artifacts made from locally available low grade metamorphic rocks. The lithic assemblage fits comfortably in the recently defined Gulf of Maine [technological] tradition (Robinson 1992). Even as it helps to con- firm the demise of the "low population" model for the Middle Archaic in the Maritime Peninsula, it also raises questions regarding the origins of the Archaic and the cultural rela- tionships of the Maritime Peninsula to surrounding areas.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Gilman Falls site, as part of ongoing research in the Penobscot Valley, was excavated over a period of three summers by crews sponsored by the University of Maine, under contract with Bangor Hydro- Electric Company. I am grateful to all those who worked on the project, especially crew chiefs William Belcher, James Fenton and Maureen Sweeney. They also performed many of the tedious tasks associated with analysis and description. The figures and photographs represent the work of Stephen A. Bicknell of the University of Maine. Also much appreciated is the interest and meticulous research of colleagues in geolo- gy, Alice Kelley and Henry (Spike) Berry and paleo-botanist Heather Almquist- Jacobson. The observations and helpful




ARTICLE comments of two reviewers are also much appreciated. Most projects have their rough times and the three seasons at Gilman Falls were no exception. On occasion, high reservoir levels meant that field crews were standing knee deep in cold water as they excavated against the vertical faces of the blocks. To these and all those associated go my heart-felt thanks. They are, of course, not responsible for conclusions drawn from the research data.

David Sänger Department of Anthropology and the Institute for Quaternary Studies University of Maine Orono, Maine, 04469.




gilman falls site: implications for the early and middle archaic of the maritime peninsula

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