gjrmi - volume 2, issue 4, april 2013
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Global JOurnal of Research on medicinal plants & Indigenous medicine's - April 2013 issueTRANSCRIPT
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INDEX – GJRMI, Vol.2, Iss. 4, April 2013
MEDICINAL PLANTS RESEARCH
Laboratory Sciences & Ethno-Botany SCREENING FOR ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF SOME PLANTS FROM SAUDI FOLK
MEDICINE
Abdallah Emad M, El-Ghazali Gamal E 189–197
Botany DIVERSITY AND AVAILABILITY STATUS OF ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS IN THE LOHBA
RANGE OF KEDARNATH FOREST DIVISION (KFD), GARHWAL HIMALAYA
Ballabha Radha, Singh Dinesh, Tiwari J K, Tiwari P 198–212
Ophthalmology & Pharmacology
ANTICATARACT ACTIVITY OF ERVATAMIA CORONARIA LEAF EXTRACT ON
CHEMICALLY INDUCED CATARACTOGENESIS IN RATS
Rathnakumar K, Jaikumar S, Duraisami R, Sengottuvelu S 213–218
Ethno-Botany STUDIES ON TRADITIONAL HERBAL PEDIATRICS PRACTICES IN JAISINGHPUR, DISTRICT
KANGRA (HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA)
Rawat Dhiraj S, Kharwal Anjna D 219–230
Bio-Chemistry
LIVER ENZYMES AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH AGE AND SEX IN SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
PATIENTS AND HAEMOGLOBIN S TRAIT CARRIES.
Chuku L C, Chinaka N C 231–237
Life Sciences CHELIDONIUM MAJUS L. - A REVIEW ON PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES AND
CLINICAL EFFECTS
Biswas Surjyo Jyoti 238–245
INDIGENOUS MEDICINE
Ayurveda – Dravya Guna A DETAILED PHARMACOGNOSTICAL EVALUATION ON LEAF OF OLAX SCANDENS ROXB.
Naik Raghavendra, Borkar Sneha D, Harisha C R, Acharya R N 246–253
Ayurveda – Rachana Sharira
A CLINICAL EVALUATION ON RUJAKARA MARMA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PAIN
THRESHOLD
Benjwal Shobha 254–258
Ayurveda – Dravya Guna
PHARMACOGNOSTICAL AND PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON
DIFFERENT PARTS OF BULBOPHYLLUM NEILGHERRENSE WIGHT. -AN ORCHID USED IN
FOLK MEDICINE.
Kumari Harshitha, Nishteswar K, Harisha C R 259–269
Ayurveda – Dravya Guna
A COMPARATIVE ACUTE TOXICITY EVALUATION OF ASHOKA KSHEERAPAKA PREPARED
FROM TWO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SARACA (S. ASOCA & S. THAIPINGENSIS)
Chavan S S, Gamit R V, Ashok B K, Shukla V J, Das P, Ravishankar B 270–277
COVER PAGE PHOTOGRAPHY: DR. HARI VENKATESH K R, PLANT ID – BRANCH OF KEBUKA [CHEILOCOSTUS SPECIOSUS (J.
KONIG) C. SPECHT], OF THE FAMILY COSTACEAE PLACE – KOPPA, CHIKKAMAGALUR DISTRICT, KARNATAKA, INDIA
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
SCREENING FOR ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF SOME PLANTS FROM
SAUDI FOLK MEDICINE
Abdallah Emad M1*, El-Ghazali Gamal E
2
1, 2
Department of Laboratory Sciences, College of Science and Arts, Al-Rass, P.O. Box 53, Qassim University,
Saudi Arabia.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Received: 24/02/2013; Revised: 28/03/2013; Accepted: 31/03/ 2013
ABSTRACT
Methanolic extract of nine medicinal plants from Saudi folk medicine (Tamarix aphylla,
Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Francoeuria crispa, Rhazya stricta, Trichodesma africanum, Haloxylon
salicornicum, Echinops spinosissimus, Zygophyllum simplex and Blepharis ciliaris) were examined
for their phytochemical compounds and antimicrobial potential against seven standard bacteria
(Proteus vulgaris NCTC 8196, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Bacillus cereus NCTC 8236,
Salmonella typhi NCTC 0650, Klebsiella pneumonia ATCC 53651, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC
27853 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923) and one standard fungus (Candida albicans ATCC
7596). The phytochemical analysis showed presence of some active principles which correlates with
the antimicrobial activity of some plant extracts. Most plants showed some degree of antimicrobial
activity. However, the methanol extracts of Rhazya stricta, Francoeuria crispa and Blepharis ciliaris
respectively, recorded the maximum antimicrobial activities compared to Chloramphenicol as
antibacterial and Clotrimazole as antifungal antibiotic. The results of this investigation support the
use of these plants in Saudi folk medicine for treatment of ailments caused by microorganisms.
KEYWORDS: Medicinal plants, folk medicine, phytochemical, antimicrobial
Research article
Cite this article:
Abdallah Emad M, El-Ghazali Gamal E (2013), SCREENING FOR ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF
SOME PLANTS FROM SAUDI FOLK MEDICINE, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume
2(4): 189–197
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
No doubt that what we called it folk,
traditional or alternative medicine was the main
source for remedies since antiquity. On the
other side, what we called modern medicine is
now facing challenge due to its failure to
convoy the development of diseases.
Accordingly, there is a serious need to go back
to the Mother Nature and its rich sources of
natural remedies. It is well known that, man has
been employing natural products as remedies
since times immemorial, this knowledge
accumulated and passed from generation to
generation. Thus, the ethno-botanical
knowledge about drugs considered as a basic
source for new therapeutics.
Recently, the misuse of synthetic antibiotics
has promoted the emergence of antibiotic-
resistant pathogens, including multidrug
resistant strains (Kumar and Schweizer, 2005).
This predicament, impose to search for other
alternatives that are not centered upon standard
antibiotics therapy, or we risk the possibility of
eventually having no defense against these
antibiotic-resistant pathogens (Treadway,
1998). Medicinal plants, particularly those
employed in folk medicine could be a
promising alternative, as it could gives a new
source of antimicrobial agents with possibly
novel mechanisms of action (Runyoro et al.,
2006). The first step towards discovering novel
antimicrobials is the screening of such plants.
Saudi Arabia has a hot desert climate and
rainfall is scarce in most parts of the country.
The flora of Saudi Arabia as well as the other
countries in the peninsula has been neglected
for a long time due to its arid climate. The first
attempt to cover the flora of Saudi Arabia was
in 1974 (Alfarhan et al., 1998). However, folk
medicine, including medicinal herbs, occupies
a significant part of Saudi Arabia’s heritage and
it is widely practiced until now (Al-Essa et al.,
1998). Although, the growing development in
healthcare in Saudi Arabia which based on the
western modern medicine decreases the public
interest in the traditional medicine, particularly
in towns.
Tamarix aphylla, Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Francoeuria crispa, Rhazya stricta,
Trichodesma africanum, Haloxylon
salicornicum, Echinops spinosissimus,
Zygophyllum simplex and Blepharis ciliaris are
chosen to study because they are already being
utilized in folk medicine as antimicrobials (in
treating wounds, sores, inflammations, cough
and cold, etc.) by native inhabitants and
Bedouin at Al-Rass province, Qassim district,
Saudi Arabia (El-Ghazali et al., 2010.) In the
present study, the antimicrobial activities
beside the preliminary phytochemical
investigation of the above mentioned plants
were evaluated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant material
Plants were collected based on information
of previous ethnobotanical survey on medicinal
plants used by native nomadic people (El-
Ghazali et al., 2010). In this study, nine
selected plants claimed to be used as
antimicrobials in folk medicine (Antidiarrheal,
antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cold and
cough, and in wound treatment) were collected
from Al-Rass province, Qassim district, Saudi
Arabia. All plants were identified by Gamal E.
El-Ghazali (Taxonomist). Information
regarding these plants is shown in Table 1.
Microbial strains
All microbial strains, 7 reference bacterial
strains representing the gram negatives
(Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Klebsiella
pneumonia ATCC 53651, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Proteus vulgaris
NCTC 8196, Salmonella typhi NCTC 0650)
and gram positives (Bacillus cereus NCTC
8236, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923),
and one reference fungal strain (Candida
albicans ATCC 7596) were obtained from the
stock culture of the microbiology laboratory,
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research
Institute, Khartoum, Sudan.
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Inoculum preparation
Active cultures were prepared by
inoculating the stock culture into sterile bottles
containing Nutrient broth (MAST Laboratories
LTD, UK) for bacteria and Malt extract broth
(OXOID, UK) for fungus and incubated for 24
h at 37°C and 72 h at 25°C respectively. The
turbidity of actively growing bacterial
suspension was adjusted to match the turbidity
standard of 0.5 McFarland. This turbidity is
equivalent to approximately 1–2 × 108 CFU/ml
for bacteria and about 2.0 × 105
spore/ml for
fungi. This suspension was used for the
antimicrobial examination.
Plant extracts
Plant parts (leaves or whole plant) were
washed with distilled water and air dried in
shade inside the laboratory for about 2–3 weeks
until totally dried and grounded with a grinder
machine. 50 g of each ground material was
soaked in 500 ml of methanol, for at least 72 h
with frequent shakings. The samples were
filtered using Whattman No.1 filter paper
(Whatman limited, UK). The filtrate was
evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure
at 40 o
C. All the extracts (in powder form) were
kept in refrigerator in dark bottles until used
(Samie et al., 2005).
Phytochemical screening
Screening for some active phytochemical
principles claimed having antimicrobial activity
were undertaken as described by Edeoga et al.,
(2005), Krishnaiah et al., (2009) and Abdallah
et al., (2009) for detection of tannins, saponins,
flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds,
alkaloids and anthraquinones.
Antimicrobial assay
The antimicrobial activity of the methanol
extract of the nominated plant extracts were
evaluated using agar-well diffusion method as
mentioned by Abdallah et al., (2012), with
minor modifications. The dry methanolic
extracts of plants under study were re-
constructed with 70% methanol to make a final
concentration 100 mg/ml and filtered using
0.22 μm pore-size black polycarbonate filters
(Millipore). To a sterile Petri-dish (Size
100 mm), 25 ml of molten Nutrient Agar
(MAST Laboratories Ltd, UK) or Potato
Dextrose agar (Oxoid Ltd, UK) was poured and
left to solidify. Fresh working cell suspensions
(Bacteria or fungus) were prepared and
adjusted to 0.5 McFarland's standard. Then
from each microorganism, 100 μl was spread
onto the surface of the plates of Nutrient Agar
for bacteria or Potatoes Dextrose Agar for
fungi. After about 15 min., 6 mm wells were
punched into the agar using a sterile cork borer.
Afterwards, 100 μl (10000 μg/wells) from each
concentration was loaded into the wells of the
previously prepared plates and incubated for 24
h at 37°C for bacterial strains and 72 h at 25°C
for fungus. Chloramphenicol 5 mg/ml
(50 μg/wells) (Riyadh Pharma. Co. Ltd, SA)
and Clotrimazole 10 mg/ml (100 μg/wells)
(Pharco Pharmaceuticals, Egypt) were
employed as antibacterial and antifungal
positive controls, respectively. 70% methanol
was employed as a negative control. Each test
was repeated twice and the mean zone of
inhibition was recorded.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Nowadays, the natural products and
medicinal plants are a subject of great global
interest for the discovery of new antimicrobial
agents (Sashikala et al., 2009). This could be
related to the recent failure of antibiotics
against the dramatic emerging of the multidrug
resistant pathogens in addition to the rapid
spread of the new infections (Abdallah, 2011).
The ethnobotanical information of the studied
plants and their usage in the folk medicine at
Al-Rass province, Saudi Arabia are
summarized in Table 1. The ethnobotanical
approach has advantages over the random
screening, as this approach depends on the
human experience with diseases through
generations.
The results of the phytochemical screening
of the nominated plant extracts (Methanol
extracts) showed that, all the methanolic
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
extracts of the plants exhibited presence of at
least two or more of these phytochemical
compounds (Table 2). The phytochemical
compounds studied in this investigation having
antimicrobial potency, as reported by many
researchers such as Watt and Pretorius (2001)
for tannin and phenolic compounds, Deeni and
Sadiq (2002) and Rohit et al. (2012) for
anthraquinones and saponins, Rίos and Recio
(2005) for alkaloids, flavonoids and terpenoids.
It is known that the phytochemical compounds,
which are secondary metabolic products in
plants, produce some biological activities in
human and animal and responsible for their use
as a drug (Sofowora, 1984).
Table 1: Ethnobotanical information of some selected medicinal plants from Al- Rass
province
*NA: Not available.
Scientific name Family Common
names
Part tested Traditional uses
Tamarix aphylla
(L.) Karsten.
Tamaricaceae Taramisk,
Atheltrep, Salt
cedar, Athel,
Athel pine
Leaves Anti-inflammatory and
in treating wounds
Dactyloctenium
aegyptium
(L.) Willd.
Poaceae
(Graminae)
Crowfoot
grass, Star
grass, Beach
wire grass,
Button grass,
Buck grass
Whole plant In treating wounds
Francoeuria crispa
(Forssk.) Cass.
Asteraceae
(Compositae)
Francoeuria Whole plant Its smoke breathed to
treat the upper thorax
inflammations
Rhazya stricta
Decne.
Apocynaceae Harmal,
Senhwar,
Dogbane.
Leaves Dried leaves used in
healing wounds
Trichodesma
africanum
(L.) Lehm.
Boraginaceae NA* Whole plant Anti-cold
Haloxylon
salicornicum
(Moq.) Boiss.
Chenopodiaceae NA* Whole plant Its smoke breathed to
treat cold
Echinops
spinosissimus
Turra.
Asteraceae NA* Leaves In treating the upper
thorax infections.
Zygophyllum simplex
L.
Zygophyllaceae NA* Whole plant In treating ophthalmia
Blepharis ciliaris
(L.)B.L. Burtt.
Acanthaceae NA* Whole
plant
In treating wounds and
in renal disorder.
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Table 2: Qualitative analysis of the phytochemicals of the medicinal plants
Plant Phytochemical compounds*
Tan Sap Fla Ter Phen Alk Anth
Tamarix aphylla ‒ + ‒ + + ± ‒
Dactyloctenium
aegyptium
‒ ± ‒ ‒ + + ‒
Francoeuria crispa + ‒ + + + + +
Rhazya stricta ‒ ‒ ‒ + + + +
Trichodesma africanum + + ± + ± ‒ ‒
Haloxylon salicornicum ‒ + ‒ + + + ‒
Echinops spinosissimus ± ‒ + + + ± ‒
Zygophyllum simplex + + + + + ± ±
Blepharis ciliaris + + + + + ‒ +
Negative control (D.W.) ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒ ‒
* Tan= Tannins, Sap= Saponins, Fla= Flavonoids, Ter= Terpenoids, Phen= Phenolic compounds,
Alk= Alkaloids, Anth= Anthraquinones.
+ = Presence, − = Absence, ± = Weak reaction, D.W. = Distilled water.
Table 3: Screening of the methanol extracts of some plant species for antimicrobial activity of
Gram-negative bacteria
Tested*
Mean zone of inhibition (mm) of microorganisms
(Mean±SEM)**
Pr Ec Kp Ps Sa
Tamarix aphylla 11.0± 2.0 9.0 ± 1.0 8.5 ± 0.5 10.5 ± 1.5 15.5 ± 0.5
Dactyloctenium aegyptium 12.5 ± 0.5 8.0 ± 0.0 12.0 ± 1.0 11.5 ± 1.5 13.0 ± 0.0
Francoeuria crispa 18.0 ± 1.0 19.0 ± 1.0 15.0 ± 0.0 15.5 ± 0.5 16.0 ± 0.0
Rhazya stricta 20.5 ± 0.5 19.5 ± 0.5 20.0 ± 2.0 24.0 ± 1.0 9.5 ± 0.5
Trichodesma africanum 9.5 ± 0.5 10.5 ± 0.5 12.5 ± 0.5 10.5 ± 0.5 14.0 ± 0.0
Haloxylon salicornicum 11.5 ± 1.5 13.0 ± 0.0 12.0 ± 2.0 12.0 ± 0.0 15.5 ± 0.5
Echinps spinosissimus 12.5 ± 1.5 12.0 ± 0.0 12.0 ± 1.5 10.5 ± 0.5 13.0 ± 0.0
Zygophyllum simplex 14.5 ± 0.5 10.0 ± 1.0 8.5 ± 0.5 9.5 ± 0.5 13.0 ± 0.0
Blepharis ciliaris 18.5 ± 0.5 14.5 ± 0.5 16.0 ± 0.0 15.0 ± 2.0 14.5 ± 1.5
Chloramphenicol 5 mg/ml 26.0 ± 1.0 13.7 ± 1.05 22.0 ± 0.2 24.0 ± 1.0 16.5 ± 1.5
* Plants tested are as methanol extracts at 100mg/ml, Chloramphenicol as antibacterial at 5 mg/ml.
**Mean ± Standard error of means (SEM ), mm=millimeter;
Microorganisms: Pr = Proteus vulgaris NCTC 8196, Ec = Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Kp = Klebsiella
pneumonia ATCC 53651, Ps = Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Sa = Staphylococcus aureus ATCC
25923.
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Table 4: Screening of the methanol extracts of some plant species for antimicrobial activity of
Gram-positive bacteria and fungus
Tested*
Mean zone of inhibition (mm) of microorganisms
(Mean±SEM)**
Bs Sal Cand
Tamarix aphylla 12.0 ± 2.0 11.0 ±0.0 6.5 ± 0.5
Dactyloctenium aegyptium 11.0 ± 2.0 9.5 ± 0.5 11.5 ± 0.5
Francoeuria crispa 11.5 ±1.5 10.5 ± 0.5 18.0 ± 1.0
Rhazya stricta 10.0 ± 1.0 19.0 ± 0.5 14.0 ± 1.0
Trichodesma africanum 13.5 ± 1.5 11.5 ± 1.5 17.5 ± 0.5
Haloxylon salicornicum 12.5 ± 1.5 12.5 ± 2.5 14.5 ± 0.5
Echinps spinosissimus 13.0 ± 0.0 13.5 ± 0.5 15.0 ± 0.0
Zygophyllum simplex 9.5 ± 0.5 13.0 ± 2.0 13.5 ± 0.5
Blepharis ciliaris 11.5 ± 0.5 14.5 ± 0.5 18.0 ± 1.0
Chloramphenicol 5 mg/ml 21.0 ± 1.0 13.0 ± 1.0 ‒
Clotrimazole 10 mg/ml ‒ ‒ 13.0 ± 1.0
* Plants tested are as methanol extracts at 100 mg/ml, Chloramphenicol as antibacterial at 5 mg/ml and
Clotrimazole as antifungal at 10 mg/ml, ‒ = Not tested.
**Mean ± Standard error of means (SEM), mm=millimeter;
Microorganisms: Bs = Bacillus cereus NCTC 8236, Sal = Salmonella typhi NCTC 0650, Cand = Candida
albicans ATCC 7596.
The antibacterial and antifungal activities of
the methanolic plant’s extracts are shown in
Tables 3 and 4. Methanol as a solvent is the
most commonly used solvents for preliminary
studies of antimicrobial activities in plants (Das
et al., 2010). In general, most plants showed
some degree of antimicrobial activity against
tested microorganisms. However, Rhazya
stricta, Francoeuria crispa and Blepharis
ciliaris respectively, recorded the highest
antimicrobial activity among other plants, even
higher than that was recorded by the
commercial antibiotic itself (Tables 3 and 4). E.
coli was much susceptible to Rhazya stricta
(19.5 ± 0.5), Francoeuria crispa
(19.5 ± 0.5 mm) and Blepharis ciliaris
(14.5 ± 0.5 mm) when compared to
Chloramphenicol (13.7 ± 1.05 mm). Similarly,
Salmonella typhi was highly susceptible to
Rhazya stricta (19.0 ± 0.5 mm) and Blepharis
ciliaris (14.5 ± 0.5 mm), compared to
Chloramphenicol (13.0 ± 1.0 mm). Also, the
susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to
the methanol extract of Rhazya stricta was
similar to that of Chloramphenicol
(24.0 ± 1.0 mm). Our results regarding the
antibacterial potential of the methanol extract
of Rhazya stricta are in harmony with Ahmad
et al., (2004) who mentioned that the crude
ethanolic extract of Rhazya stricta exhibited a
considerable antibacterial activity against a
wide range of gram-positive and gram negative
bacteria, the susceptibility of some of these
bacteria to this plant extract were higher than
that of the antibiotic Co-trimoxazole. Same
result recorded by Staphylococcus aureus
where the inhibition zones with the methanol
extract of Francoeuria crispa almost equal to
its inhibition zone with Chloramphenicol
(Tables 3 and 4). Similarly, the results of this
study regarding the methanol extract of
Francoeuria crispa (Tables 3 and 4) are in
agreement with the findings of El-Kamali and
Mahjoub (2009) there were found that the most
susceptible bacteria were E. coli and P.
vulgaris and Staphylococcus aureus and the
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 189–197
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
least susceptible were Salmonella para typhi
and B. subtillis. Also, Blepharis ciliaris was
reported in literature as a plant of antimicrobial
properties (El-Shanawany et al., 2012) agrees
with the findings of this investigation. The
antibiotic Chloramphenicol became available
commercially in 1948 and it was active against
all gram-positive and many gram-negative
bacteria at that time. However, within a few
years bacterial resistance to Chloramphenicol
was recorded (Shaw, 1984). Since Rhazya
stricta, Francoeuria crispa and Blepharis
ciliaris exhibited maximum antibacterial
activities higher than the Chloramphenicol
against some bacteria, it is believed that these
plants when extracted and purified may lead to
new effective antibacterial drugs.
As shown in Tables 3 and 4, the results of
the antifungal activities showed that, most plant
extracts exhibited antifungal activity higher
than the antifungal agent (Clotrimazole
10 mg/ml). The methanol extract of
Francoeuria crispa and Blepharis ciliaris
(18.0 ± 1.0 mm), besides Tricodesma
africanum (17.5 ± 0.5) revealed the maximum
antifungal activity against Candida albicans
compared to Clotrimazole (13.0 ± 1.0 mm).
Data regarding the antifungal activity of the
above mentioned plants are scanty. However,
these results are promising in order to introduce
new antifungal agents. Undoubtedly, the
antimicrobial agents derived from such plants
may eradicate bacteria or fungi by a mechanism
different than that occurred by the synthetic or
semi-synthetic antibiotics (Eloff, 1997), which
could be much effective with less side effects.
CONCLUSION
The results of the present study provide
support to the claim on these plants in Saudi
folk medicine against some of the mentioned
disorders and diseases. Plants of interest are
those which exhibited antimicrobial activity
higher than the antibiotics tested. These plants
(Rhazya stricta, Francoeuria crispa and
Blepharis ciliaris) should be subjected to
intensive studies such as fractionation, isolation
of the active constituents, toxicity against
animal and human cells and so forth.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Deanship
of scientific research, Qassim University, Saudi
Arabia, grant No. SR-D-1105. Authors are
greatly thankful for this support.
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Source of Support: Qassim University,
Saudi Arabia
Conflict of Interest: None Declared
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ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
DIVERSITY AND AVAILABILITY STATUS OF ETHNO-MEDICINAL
PLANTS IN THE LOHBA RANGE OF KEDARNATH FOREST DIVISION
(KFD), GARHWAL HIMALAYA
Ballabha Radha1*, Singh Dinesh
2, Tiwari J K
3, Tiwari P
4
1, 2, 3, 4Department of Botany and Microbiology, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal-246 174,
Uttarakhand, India
*Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 20/02/2013; Revised: 25/02/2013; Accepted: 27/03/2013
ABSTRACT
The present study has been carried out in the Lohba range of the Kedarnath Forest Division,
Garhwal Himalaya to document the diversity, ethno-medicinal uses and availability status of
medicinal plants. The inhabitants of the region are dependent up to a large extent on wild resources
for their therapeutic needs. The region is rich in ethnomedicinal plant diversity. A total of 140
species belonging to 126 genera and 64 families were recorded from the study area. Out of the
documented species 69 were herbs, 37 shrubs, 23 trees and the rest 11 were climbers. Out of the
recorded plant species, 17 were abundant, 83 common and 40 uncommon to this area. Plant parts are
used to cure cold, cough, fever, stomach disorders, joints pain, eye diseases, healing of cuts and
wounds, toothache, etc. This study will be helpful in developing a comprehensive data base on the
medicinal plant resources to strengthen the health care system in the area and in conserving the
traditional knowledge for the prosperity of the remote village areas.
KEYWORDS: Ethnomedicinal plants, availability status, Kedarnath Forest Division, Garhwal
Himalaya.
Research article
Cite this article:
Ballabha R, Singh D, Tiwari J K, Tiwari P (2013), DIVERSITY AND AVAILABILITY STATUS OF
ETHNO-MEDICINAL PLANTS IN THE LOHBA RANGE OF KEDARNATH FOREST DIVISION
(KFD), GARHWAL HIMALAYA, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 198–212
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 198–212
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
Ethnobotanical studies typically focus on
recording the knowledge of traditional societies
in remote places (Hodges and Bennett, 2006).
In the remote areas traditional customs and
beliefs are still maintained and modern trends
are yet to reach, which provide interesting
scope of ethnobotanical studies (Tiwari et al.,
2010a). Indigenous people of different parts of
the world have a vast knowledge of, and
capacity for, developing innovative practices
and products from their environment.
Indigenous knowledge grows from close
interdependence between knowledge, land,
environment and other aspects of culture in
indigenous societies, and the oral transmission
of knowledge in accordance with well
understood cultural principles and rules
regarding secrecy and sacredness that govern
the management of knowledge (Tripathi et al.,
2000). According to WHO approximately 80%
of world population in developing countries
depends on traditional medicines for primary
healthcare (WHO, 2002) and in modern
medicine too, nearly 25% are based on plant
derived drugs (Tripathi, 2002).
Garhwal Himalaya occupies an important
place in Indian subcontinent and has its
peculiar topography, vegetation, people and
traditions. About 80% of the total population is
rural and the inhabitants are called the
Garhwalis or Paharis. They have their own
cultures, medicines, foods, etc. and are well
versed with valuable knowledge accumulated
through a long period of experience. Even now
they are dependent on the natural resources
from the forests for their sustenance and for the
treatment of various ailments (Tiwari et al.,
2010a).
The plants are still serving as remedies for
various ailments in crude form, as modern
medicine has not adequately armed the
therapeutic arsenal of the natives of remote
areas. The literature abounds in investigations
on folk medicines in different parts of Garhwal
Himalaya (Gaur et al., 1984, 1985, 1987;
Tiwari, 1986; Negi et al., 1993; Maikhuri et al.,
1998; Gaur, 1999; Badoni and Badoni, 2001;
Negi et al., 2002; Semwal et al., 2010; Tiwari
et al., 2010b) but little attention has been paid
on plants used in ethonomedicine from the
Lohba range of the Kedarnath Forest Division
(KFD). Documentation of such practices is
required in view of gradual disappearance of
this knowledge in new generations. Therefore,
an attempt has been made to record the
diversity and indigenous uses of plants in
ethnomedicine in the Lohba range of KFD.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
KFD is situated in the north-west part of the
Himalaya and well known for its rich
biodiversity. The inhabitants of the area largely
depend on plants for food, fodder, medicine,
timber, fuel-wood, dye, beverage, and various
religious and cultural needs. Geographically,
the area stretches between 29° 57' 33" to 30°
06' 05" N latitudes and 79°11' 33" to 79° 20'
33" E longitudes with the altitude ranging from
1268 m to 3067 m asl (Fig. 1). The total
geographical area of region is about 16387.40
ha which represents 26.76 % of the Division.
Western Ramganga is the main river of this
area, which originates from the lesser
Himalayan mountain range (Dhudhatauli) and
enters into Corbett National Park after flowing
100 km with its tributaries. Besides providing
perennial water source it provides habitat to
many plant and animal communities.
The mountainous tract of the whole region
is varying in altitude which contributes
variation in the climatic conditions to play an
important role in the distribution of the
vegetation in the area. Summer, rainy and
winter seasons are well marked due to
fluctuating precipitation, temperature, light,
wind, humidity and even day- length. The
maximum temperature was recorded during the
months of May and June (25–30°C), whereas
minimum in the months of December and
January (10–20°C). Rainfall, snowfall,
hailstorm, dew, frost, etc, are the main form of
precipitation and the average annual rainfall
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Number of species
was 110 mm in the region. The average annual
relative humidity was 42% which decreases
with increase in temperature and altitude in
study area. The maximum humidity reaches
near to 80–92% during July and August,
whereas the minimum humidity (25–38%) was
recorded in the months of January and
December.
The vegetation of the Lohba Range is
characterized by sub montane and montane
zone types. The area is represented by Pine-
mixed forest (1200–1500 m), Oak forest
(1800–2000 m), Oak-mixed forest (1500–
2500 m) and Oak-Abies mixed forest (2700–
3114 m) however, some patches are occupied
by pine and scrub forest along with grassy
slopes.
Fig. 1 Map showing the study area.
Fig. 2 Plant parts being preferred for medicine by local inhabitants.
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Methodology
Extensive field surveys were made in the
study area during the years 2009–2011 for the
survey of the vegetation and ethno-medicinal
uses. A structured questionnaire was used to
collect data on local name of plants, uses, parts
used and mode of application. Ethno-medicinal
information on plants was collected through
interviewing local communities. The
informants were medicine-men (Vaidhyas),
peasants, shepherds, priests and village
headmen. To determine the authenticity of
information collected during field work,
repeated verification of data from different
informants was done. Thus, only the specific
and reliable information, cross-checked with
informants has been incorporated in the present
study. Recorded plant species were identified
with the help of Garhwal University Herbarium
(GUH), Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of
India, Northern Circle, Dehradun (BSD) and
regional Floras (Duthie, 1906; Osmaston, 1927;
Rau, 1961; Naithani, 1984-85; Gaur, 1999).
The availability status of plants such as
abundant, common and uncommon was given
based on their occurrence in the study area.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study revealed 140 medicinal plant
species belonging to 64 families in the Lohba
range of the Kedarnath Forest Division,
Garhwal Himalaya. The availability status and
ethno-medicinal uses of the plant species are
presented in Table 1. The recorded species
diversity represents trees (23 species), shrubs
(37), herbs (69) and climbers (11).
The families, Asteraceae (15 species),
Lamiaceae (10), Rosaceae (10), Solanaceae (5),
Liliaceae (4), Orchidaceae (4), Ranunculaceae
(4), Rutaceae (4), Acanthaceae (3), Apiaceae
(3), Caesalpiniaceae (3), Cucurbitaceae (3),
Euphorbiaceae (3), Rubiaceae (3) and
Zingiberaceae (3) were major representations,
whereas Artemisia (3 species), Cassia (3),
Anaphalis (3), Asparagus (2), Berberis (2),
Ficus (2), Geranium (2), Mentha (2),
Polygonatum (2), Rumex (2), Salvia (2) and
Swertia (2) were the genera with more than one
species being used (Table 1). As per the plant
parts, root/rhizome of 54 species was used to
cure different ailments (Fig. 2), followed by
leaves (53 species) and whole plant (30
species). Plant parts are being used to cure
cold, cough, fever, stomach disorders, joints
pain, eye diseases, healing of cuts and wounds,
toothache etc.
Table 1. Diversity, availability status and ethno-medicinal uses of plant species in the Lohba
range of Kedarnath Forest Division (KFD), Garhwal Himalaya.
S.
No.
Botanical
Name
Local
Name
Family
Elevation (m
asl)
Life
Form1 Availability
Status2 Ethnomedicinal uses
1 Abies pindrow
Royle
Raisul Pinaceae 2500–3000 T + Bark extract is given in
cough and bronchitis.
2 Achyranthes
aspera L.
Lich
kura
Amaranthaceae 1300–2300 S ++ Root infusion is given in
fever. Leaf extract is given to
women to facilitate delivery.
Plant decoction is given in
dropsy and bronchitis.
3 Aconitum
balfourii Staf
Meetha
jari
Ranunculaceae 2900–3000 H + Root paste is used in snake-
bite and also applied over
chest in chest pain.
4 Acorus
calamus L.
Bauj Araceae 1600–2200 H ++ Extract of rhizome is given in
gastric troubles.
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5 Adhatoda
zeylanica
Medikus
Basinga Acanthaceae 1200–1400 S + Root bark is given in fever.
Young twigs used for cough
and cold. Leaf juice with
honey is given in cough and
fever.
6 Aesculus
indica (Colebr.
ex Cambess)
Hook.
Pangar Hippocastanaceae 2000–2500 T + Root juice is given in bowl
complaints.
7 Ageratum
conyzoides L.
Gunrya Asteraceae 1300–2000 H ++ Root paste is applied on
sores, cuts and various skin
diseases.
8 Agrimonia
pilosa
Ledebour
Kuriya Rosaceae 1200–2500 H ++ Plant decoction is given in
cough and diarrhea.
9 Ajuga
bracteosa
Wallich ex
Benth.
Neelkanthi Lamiaceae 1200–1500 H ++ Leaf extract is given in fever.
Plant extract used as a tonic.
10 Anagallis
arvensis L.
Jonkmari Primulaceae 1200–2500 H ++ Externally applied in dropsy.
11 Anaphalis
adnata
Wallich ex
DC.
Kabash,
Bugla
Asteraceae 1300–2500 H ++ Leaf paste is applied on cuts
and wounds.
12 Anaphalis
busua (Buch.-
Ham. ex
D.Don) DC.
Bugla,
Buglya
Asteraceae 1600–2200 H ++ Leaf juice is applied on
bruises, wounds and cuts.
13 Angelica
glauca Edgev.
Choru Apiaceae 2900–3000 H + Root is given with tea in
cough and cold.
14 Arisaema
tortuosum
(Wallich)
Schott.
Bag-
mungari
Araceae 1600–2200 H ++ Paste of tuber is applied on
the burns and cuts.
15 Artemisia
capillaris
Thunb.
Jhirun Asteraceae 1300–2300 H ++ Stem and leaf juice is given
in fever and constipation.
Root power used in
stomachache
16 Artemisia
nilagrica
(Clarke) Pamp.
Kurnja Asteraceae 1600–2200 S ++ Plant juice is given in
intestinal worms and
externally applied on cuts
and wounds.
17 Artemisia
roxburghiana
Wallich ex
Besser
Kurnja Asteraceae 1600–2200 S + Plant extract is given in fever
and also used in skin
diseases.
18 Asclepias
curassavica L.
---- Asclepiadaceae 1300–1500 S ++ Latex applied on cuts and
wounds.
19 Asparagus
adscendens
Buch.-Ham. ex
Roxb.
Jhirni Liliaceae 1500–2200 S ++ Tuberous roots with honey
are used in dysentery.
20 Asparagus
racemosus
Willd
Jhirni Liliaceae 1300–1500 S ++ Roots extract is given in
fever.
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21 Barleria
cristata L.
Kala-
bansa
Acanthaceae 1200–2300 S ++ Leaves are crushed, mixed
with seeds of black pepper
and given orally in dyspepsia.
22 Berberis
aristata DC.
Kirmor Berberidaceae 1700–3000 S +++ Stem and root juice is applies
in ophthalmic infections.
23 Berberis
asiatica Roxb.
ex DC.
Kirmor Berberidaceae 1200–2500 S ++ Stem bark and root juice used
in eye afflictions. Infusion of
root given in fever.
24 Bergenia
ciliata
(Haworth)
Sternberg
Silpari Saxifragaceae 2200–2400 H +++ Root paste is given in fever,
urinary and renal troubles.
25 Bidens pilosa
L.
Kumra Asteraceae 1300–2700 H ++ Vegetable of the plant useful
in skin ailments.
26 Boehmeria
regulosa
Wedd.
Genthi Urticaceae 1200–1400 T + Paste of bark is applied on
the bone fracture.
27 Boennighause
nia albiflora
(Hook.)
Reichb ex
Meisn.
Upaniy
a-Ghas
Rutaceae 1200–1700 H ++ Leaf paste is applied on cuts
and wounds.
28 Boerhavia
diffusa L.
Pundera Nyctaginaceae 1200–1700 H + Roots chewed as tonic. Leaf
extract used in eye diseases.
Plant infusion is given in
asthma and bronchitis.
29 Brugmansia
suaveolens
(Humb. &
Bonpl. ex
Willd.)
Berchtold & J.
S. Presl
Dhatura Solanaceae 1200–1400 S + Leaf, flower and seed paste is
applied on joints pain.
30 Buddleja
asiatica Lour.
---- Buddlejaceae 1300–1600 S + Leaf juice is applied on skin
eruption.
31 Callicarpa
macrophylla
Vahl.
Daiya Verbenaceae 1200–1500 S ++ Stem bark is used in skin
ailments.
32 Cannabis
sativa L.
Bhang Cannabaceae 1300–2100 S +++ Leaves boiled with butter are
taken in vomiting. Leaf juice
poured in ear in ear pain.
Leaves are used as an
intoxicating agent.
33 Cassia
occidentalis L.
Taror Caesalpiniaceae 1200–1400 S + Leaves used in skin disease.
Decoction of roots is given in
dropsy. Leaf and root paste
useful in piles and
ringworms.
34 Cassia tora L. Chakuda Caesalpiniaceae 1200–1400 S + Leaves and seeds are used in
skin diseases, cuts, wounds
and bone fracture.
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35 Cassia fistula
L.
Amaltas Caesalpiniaceae 1200–1400 T + Fruits are given to women to
expel the placenta. Fruit pulp
is given in asthma, bronchitis
and skin diseases.
36 Cedrus
deodara
(Roxb. ex
D.Don) G.Don
Deodar Pinaceae 1400–2200 T ++ Paste of bark is externally
applied on piles and arthritis.
37 Centella
asiatica (L.)
Urban
Brahmi Apiaceae 1400–2400 H + Leaves paste is applied
externally in skin diseases.
38 Cinnamomum
tamala (Buch.-
Ham.) Nees &
Ebermaeir
Dalchini Lauraceae 1300–1700 T ++ Leaves paste is used in throat
irritation.
39 Cissampelos
pareira L.
Parha Menispermaceae 1200–3000 Cl ++ Root juice is given to
children in dyspepsia,
diarrhea, stomach ache and
colic.
40 Citrus
aurantifolia
(Christmann)
Swingle
Kagzi-
nimbu
Rutaceae 1300–2200 S ++ Leaf decoction inhaled in
headache, cold and fever.
41 Clematis
buchananiana
DC.
Laguliya Ranunculaceae 1200–3000 Cl ++ Decoction of leaves and roots
is applied in scabies.
42 Coccinia
grandis (L.)
Voigt
Kandaroi Cucurbitaceae 1200–2000 Cl ++ Root paste is applied on the
pelvic region in suppressed
urination.
43 Colebrookia
oppositifolia
J.E. Smith
Binda Lamiaceae 1300–2000 S ++ Leaf paste applied on cuts
and wounds.
44 Cotoneaster
microphyllus
Wallich ex
Lindley
Bani Rosaceae 1300–2800 S ++ Root paste is applied on cuts
and wounds.
45 Curcuma
longa L.
Haldi Zingiberaceae 1400–2100 H ++ Rhizome paste is applied on
cuts and wounds. It is also
used as antiseptics.
46 Cuscuta
europaea L.
Akas-
laguli
Cuscutaceae 1600–2300 Cl +++ Plant extract used in skin
diseases.
47 Cynodon
dactylon (L.)
Persoon
Doob Poaceae 1300–3000 H ++ Roots are taken in fever and
internal injury.
48 Cynoglossum
glochidiatom
Wallich ex
Benth.
Likh-
kura
Boraginaceae 1500–2000 H +++ Root paste is applied on
sores.
49 Datura metel
L.
Dhatura Solanaceae 1200–1400 H ++ Leaf and Seed paste is
applied on sores and used as
a massage in arthritis.
50 Desmodiun
elegans DC.
Chamliya Fabaceae 1500–2700 S ++ Root decoction is given in
renal disorder.
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51 Dicliptera
roxburghiana
Nees
Kuthi Acanthaceae 1300–2600 S +++ Leaf paste applied on
wounds, check bleeding.
52 Dioscorea
bulbifera L.
Geithi Dioscoreaceae 1400–1900 Cl ++ Root and fruit paste is
applied on burns and
wounds.
53 Duchesnea
indica
(Andrews)
Focke
Kaphliya Rosaceae 1400–2200 H ++ Leaf juice is given in
diarrhea.
54 Echinops
cornigerus
DC.
Kandara Asteraceae 1200–2000 H ++ Root juice is taken in urinary
trouble and fever.
55 Eupatorium
adenophorum
Sprengel
Guyajhar Asteraceae 1300–3000 H ++ Crushed leaves applied on
cuts and wounds.
56 Euphorbia
royleana
Boissier
Sulla Euphorbiaceae 1800–2000 S ++ Latex is used as an antiseptic
on cuts and wounds.
57 Ficus palmata
Forsk.
Bedu Moraceae 1300–2000 T ++ Fruits are used in digestive
disorders. Latex is applied on
the pimples.
58 Ficus religiosa
L.
Peepal Moraceae 1300–1500 T ++ Root bark, young shoots and
fruit decoction is given in
sexual weakness in men.
Infusion of bark is given in
constipation.
59 Foeniculum
vulgare (L.)
Miller
Saup Apiaceae 1700–2000 H + Seed paste is applied on
mouth during the teething of
child.
60 Fumaria
indica
(Haussknecht)
Pugsley
Kherua Fumariaceae 1300–2200 H ++ Plant decoction is given in
fever and suppressed
urination.
61 Geranium
nepalense
Sweet
---- Geraniaceae 1600–2200 H + Roots are used as an
antiseptic. Root extract is
given in lever troubles and
fever.
62 Geranium
wallichianum
D. Don ex
Sweet
Ratanjot Geraniaceae 2200–3000 H + Root paste is applied on
wounds and cuts.
63 Girardinia
diversifolia
(Link.) Friis.
Bhaiska
nali
Urticaceae 1500–3000 H ++ Leaf juice is given in
gonorrhea.
64 Gnaphalium
hypoleucum
DC.
Bukhil Asteraceae 1300–2500 H ++ Juice of stems and leaves is
given in bruises and cuts.
65 Hedychium
spicatum
Buch.-Ham. ex
J. E. Smith
Ban-
haldi
Zingiberaceae 2000–2300 H ++ Rhizome powder is used in
asthma.
66 Holoptelea
integrifolia
(Roxb.)
Planchon
Papri Ulmaceae 1700–1900 T ++ Bark decoction is used in
rheumatic pain.
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67 Hypericum
oblongifolium
Choisy
Phioli Hypericaceae 1500–2000 S ++ Plant juice is given in
diarrhea and intestinal
worms.
68 Inula
cuspidata
(DC.) C.B.
Clarke
---- Asteraceae 1300–2500 S ++ Root juice is given in urinary
trouble.
69 Ipomoea nil
(L.) Roth
Sulkairi Convolvulaceae 1300–2300 Cl ++ Decoction of seed is given in
fever and constipation. Seed
paste is applied in urticaria.
70 Jasminum
humile L.
---- Oleaceae 1200–2500 S ++ Root juice is given to
children in stomach troubles.
71 Juglans regia
L.
Akhor Juglandaceae 1300–2300 T ++ Leaves used as fungicide and
insecticide and bark used in
bone fractures.
72 Leucas lanata
Benth.
Niras Lamiaceae 1300–2600 H ++ Plant extract is given in
cough.
73 Lyonia
ovalifolia
(Wallich)
Drude
Anyar Ericaceae 1400–3000 T +++ Leaves juice is applied in
eczema.
74 Mallotus
philippensis
(Lam.) Muell.-
Arg.
Ruina Euphorbiaceae 1200–1300 T ++ Bark juice is given to
children in diarrhea and
dysentery. Paste of fruit
powder is applied externally
on cuts, wounds. Root and
seed paste is applied on sores
and skin eruptions.
75 Malva
verticillata L.
---- Malvaceae 1400–2000 H + Root paste is given in
whooping cough.
76 Martynia
annua L.
Bichu Martyniaceae 1200–1800 S + Fruit powder is given in cold
and cough.
77 Melia
azedarach L.
---- Meliaceae 1200–1400 T + Decoction of bark used in
gonorrhea, bark paste is
applied on skin eruptions.
Infusion of heart wood is
given in asthma. Leaves,
fruits and seeds are useful in
skin diseases
78 Mentha
arvensis L.
Paudina Lamiaceae 1200–2300 H ++ Plant extract used in
vomiting and indigestion.
79 Mentha
piperita L.
Pepermint Lamiaceae 1200–2300 H ++ Plant extract used in
indigestion.
80 Micromeria
biflora Buch.-
Ham. ex
D.Don
Ban
ajwain
Lamiaceae 1300–3200 H +++ Crushed leaves inhaled in
cold and sinusitis. Leaf
extract with milk is given in
gastroenteritis.
81 Mukia
maderaspatan
a (L.) M.
Roemer
Guliya-
Kakri
Cucurbitaceae 1300–2100 Cl ++ Fruit paste is used in urinary
disorder and vomiting.
82 Murraya
koenigii (L.)
Sprengel
Karipatta Rutaceae 1200–1400 S + Bark, leaves and roots are
used as insecticide.
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83 Nasturtium
officinale
R.Br.
---- Brassicaceae 1200–2500 H ++ Plant juice is given in
diarrhea.
84 Nicotiana
plumbaginifoli
a Viviani
Bantamb
aku
Solanaceae 1200–1400 H + Leaf juice is applied on sores.
85 Nicotiana
rustica L.
Tambaku Solanaceae 2000–3000 H ++ Leaves juice is applied on
cuts and wounds.
86 Oberonia
falconeri
Hook.f.
---- Orchidaceae 2000–2300 H + Plant extract is given in
diarrhea and bronchitis.
87 Ocimum
tenuiflorum L.
Tulsi Lamiaceae 1200–1600 H + Plant used in fever, cold,
cough, colitis, urinary
troubles and vomiting.
88 Papaver
somniferum L.
Post Papaveraceae 2900–3000 H + Milky juice obtained from
immature capsules is given to
children in fever, dysentery
and cholera.
89 Parnassia
nubicola
Wallich ex
Royle
Phutkya Saxifragaceae 2200–2400 H ++ Plant extract is used to
stimulate vomiting.
90 Peperomia
tetraphylla
(Forster f.)
Hook. & Arn.
Tirpirya Piperaceae 1500–3000 H +++ Leaf paste is applied on
wounds and burns.
91 Perilla
frutescens (L.)
Britton
Bhangje
era
Lamiaceae 1500–2100 H + Plant extract or power of
dried plant parts used for
cold, cough, bronchitis and
uterine ailments; leaf paste
applied on arthritis.
92 Phoebe
lanceolata
(Nees) Nees
Kaula Lauraceae 1400–1700 T ++ Fruits paste is used against
wounds and sores.
93 Pholidota
articulata
Lindley
Jewanti Orchidaceae 2000–2300 H + Plant extract is used as tonic.
94 Phyallanthus
emblica L.
Aola Euphorbiaceae 1200–1400 T + Fruits are used in digestive
disorders and fruit juice
useful in leucorrhoea. Fruit
powder is given in fever
95 Polygonatum
multiflorum
(L.) Allioni
---- Liliaceae 1200–1400 H + Decoction of rhizome is
given in urinal disorders
96 Polygonatum
verticillatum
(L.) Allioni
---- Liliaceae 1400–2300 H + Root paste is applied on
wounds.
97 Populus ciliata
Wallich ex
Royle
Pupular Salicaceae 1300–2600 T ++ Leaf juice is used as blood
purifier and stimulant.
98 Potentilla
fulgens
Wallich ex
Hook.
Bajrdanti Rosaceae 2300–3000 H ++ Plant juice is applied on
mouth in tooth ache.
99 Prinsepia
utilis Royle
Bhainkal Rosaceae 1300–3000 S +++ Seed oil is applied in joint
pain and arthritis.
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100 Prunus
cornuta
(Wallich ex
Royle) Steudel
Jamnoi Rosaceae 2400–3000 T ++ Bark decoction is given in
diarrhea.
101 Punica
granatum L.
Darim Punicaceae 1300–1700 T + Fruit juice is used in cough
and diarrhea.
102 Pyrus pashia
Buch.-Ham. ex
D.Don
Melu Rosaceae 1200–2900 T +++ Ripened fruits are used in
digestive disorders. The fruit
is crushed with teeth and
juice is forced into the eyes
of cattle in cataract and
injuries.
103 Ranunculus
arvensis L.
Chambul Ranunculaceae 1200–3000 H +++ Leaves paste is applied in
skin diseases.
104 Raphanus
sativus L.
Muli Brassicaceae 1200–2500 H ++ Cooked leave and leave juice
is given in jaundice.
105 Reinwardtia
indica
Dumortier
Phuenli Linaceae 1200–2200 S ++ Leaf juice is applied on cuts
and wounds.
106 Rhododendron
arboreum
Smith
Burans Ericaceae 1200–3000 T +++ Flower juice is given in hart
troubles and diseases. Young
shoot poisonous to cattle.
107 Rosa brunonii
Lindley
Kunja Rosaceae 1400–2000 S ++ Leaf juice used in cuts,
wounds. Dried flower
powder used in diarrhea
108 Rosa sericea
Lindley
Dhurku
nja
Rosaceae 2700–3000 S + Flower juice is applied
externally in eye diseases.
109 Rubia manjith
Roxb. ex
Fleming
Majeithi Rubiaceae 1300–3000 Cl +++ Stem used as an antidote to
snake bite; roots are used as a
tonic; flower extract used in
bacillary dysentery.
110 Rubus niveus
Thunb.
Kali
Hinsar
Rosaceae 1200–2200 S ++ Root decoction is given in
diarrhea. Juice of young
shoots and roots is given in
stomachache.
111 Rumex
hastatus
D.Don
Almor Polygonaceae 1300–2300 H +++ Leaf extract applied on cuts
and wounds to check
bleeding.
112 Rumex
nepalensis
Sprengel
Khoya Polygonaceae 1300–3000 H ++ Leaf juice is given in
digestive disorders.
113 Salvia lanata
Roxb.
Pakhuliya Lamiaceae 1300–3000 H ++ Flower paste is given in cold
and cough.
114 Salvia
nubicola
Wallich ex
Sweet
Ganiya Lamiaceae 2500–2700 H ++ Root paste is given in cold
and cough.
115 Sarcococca
saligna
(D.Don)
Muell.-Arg.
Peruli Buxaceae 1300–3000 S ++ Leaf paste is applied on joint
pain.
116 Satyrium
nepalens
D.Don
---- Orchidaceae 1600–2100 H + Plant extract is used in
diarrhea.
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117 Sida
rhombifolia L.
Bhiunli Malvaceae 1200–2100 S + Leaves and root bark used in
gonorrhea.
118 Smilax aspera
L.
Kukrdar Smilacaceae 1400–2400 Cl +++ Root paste mixed with
mustard oil is applied in
arthritis and joint pain.
119 Solanum
nigrum L.
Makoi Solanaceae 1200–2300 H ++ Plant extract is given in liver
trouble, piles and dysentery.
Fruits are useful in diarrhea.
120 Solidago
virgaurea L.
---- Asteraceae 1800–3000 H ++ Plant juice is applied on cuts
and in scabies.
121 Sonchus asper
(L.) Hill
Dudhi Asteraceae 1300–2200 H ++ Plant juice is used as blood
purifier.
122 Spermadictyon
sauveolens
Roxb.
Padera Rubiaceae 1400–2600 S +++ Leaf juice is applied on cuts,
wounds and sores.
123 Stellaria
media (L.)
Villars
Badyalu Caryophyllaceae 1200–1700 H ++ Plant paste is externally
applied on burns, wounds
and boils.
124 Stephania
glabra (Roxb.)
Miers
Gindaru Menispermaceae 2000–2500 Cl + Root juice is given in fever
and dysentery.
125 Swertia
angustifolia
Buch.-Ham. ex
D.Don
Chirota Gentianaceae 2100–3000 H ++ Seed powder is given in
cough and asthma.
126 Swertia
chirayita
(Roxb. ex
Fleming)
Karsten
Chirota Gentianaceae 2100–3000 H + Seed powder is given in
cough and asthma.
127 Symplocos
paniculata
(Thunb.) Miq.
Lodh Symplocaceae 1500–2500 T +++ Decoction of bark is given in
diarrhea.
128 Tanacetum
dolichophyllu
m (Kitamura)
Kitamura
Dhoop Asteraceae 2800–3000 H ++ Plant juice is given to
children to expel intestinal
worms.
129 Taraxacum
officinale
Weber
Kanphu
liya
Asteraceae 1300–2000 H ++ Latex is applied over corns
and warts.
130 Taxus baccata
L.
Thuner Taxaceae 2500–3000 T + Bark paste is applied in
headache and bone fracture.
131 Thalictrum
foliolosum DC.
Mamira Ranunculaceae 1200–2200 H ++ Root powder mixed with
honey is given in fever,
dyspepsia and piles.
132 Trichosanthus
tricuspidata
Lour.
Indraiyan Cucurbitaceae 1400–2300 Cl ++ Root juice is given as emetic.
133 Valeriana
wallichii DC.
Sumaya Valerianaceae 1400–2600 H ++ Root paste is applied in
muscular pain.
134 Vanda cristata
Lindley
---- Orchidaceae 1600–2100 H + Plant paste is applied in bone
fractures.
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135 Verbascum
thapsus L.
---- Scrophulariaceae 1200–2500 H ++ Plant extract used in
bronchitis and asthma. Seeds
are used as sedative.
136 Viburnum
grandiflorum
Wallich ex
DC.
Ghenu Caprifoliaceae 2800–3000 T ++ Bark decoction is used in
hepatic trouble.
137 Viola pilosa
Blume.
Kaura Violaceae 1200–2100 H ++ Decoction of plant useful in
fever and bronchitis. Root is
used as an emetic. Leaf juice
is applied on cuts and
wounds.
138 Vitex negundo
L.
Siwain Verbenaceae 1300–1800 S + Leaves, roots and fruits
pastes are applied in arthritis.
139 Zanthoxylum
armatum DC.
Timru Rutaceae 1400–1800 S ++ Leaves and fruits chewed for
mouth wash and tooth care.
Seed paste is applied on teeth
in toothache.
140 Zingiber
officinale
Roscoe
Adu Zingiberaceae 1300–1900 H ++ Used in cold, cough and
stomach troubles.
Abbreviations used: 1. H = herb, S = shrub, T = tree, Cl = climber, 2. +++ = Abundant, ++ =
Common, + = Uncommon
The present study indicates that the area
harbors a high diversity of medicinal plants.
Out of 140 plant species, 17 were abundant, 83
common and 40 uncommon to this area.
Species like Abies pindrow, Aconitum balfourii,
Adhatoda zeylanica, Aesculus indica, Angelica
glauca, Artemisia roxburghiana, Boehmeria
regulosa, Boerhavia diffusa, Brugmansia
suaveolens, Buddleja asiatica, Centella
asiatica, Foeniculum vulgare, Geranium
nepalense, Geranium wallichiana, Malva
verticillata, Martynia annua, Melia azedarach,
Murraya koenigii, Nicotiana plumbaginifolia,
Oberonia falconeri, Ocimum tenuiflorum,
Perilla frutescens, Pholidota articulata,
Polygonatum multiflorum, Polygonatum
verticillatum, Punica granatum, Rosa sericea,
Satyrium nepalens, Sida rhombifolia,
Stephania glabra, Swertia chirayita, Taxus
baccata, Vanda cristata, Vitex negundo etc. are
uncommon to this area and being threatened
due to unplanned exploitation. The inhabitants
revealed abundance of many of these species in
the past, which has got restricted now to certain
patches. If immediate steps for their sustainable
utilization and conservation are not taken, these
species may reach to the status of threatened in
the area.
CONCLUSION
It is evident from the investigation that the
local people have great familiarity with the
plants of their ambient environment which has
immense importance in advancement of
modern sustainable technology. The occurrence
of a number of economically important
medicinal plant species demands the
conservation of these species as the day-to-day
need of forest resources particularly for
medicine has increased the pressure in the area
and may lead to reduction of these species.
Therefore, there is a need to develop adequate
strategy and action plan for the conservation
and management of habitats and species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the inhabitants
of the Lohba range of the Kedarnath Forest
Division (KFD) for providing the information
about the ethno-medicinal uses of the plant
resources.
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Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
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ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
ANTICATARACT ACTIVITY OF ERVATAMIA CORONARIA LEAF
EXTRACT ON CHEMICALLY INDUCED CATARACTOGENESIS IN RATS
Rathnakumar K
1*, Jaikumar S
2, Duraisami R
3, Sengottuvelu S
4
1, 2
Department of Ophthalmology, Sri Lakshminarayana Institute of Medical Sciences, Pondicherry, India 3, 4
Department of Pharmacology, Nandha College of Pharmacy and Research Institute, Erode- 638052
*Corresponding Author: Email: [email protected]
Received: 20/02/2013; Revised: 25/02/2013; Accepted: 27/03/2013
ABSTRACT
The anticataract activity of the Ervatamia coronaria leaf extract was evaluated against
naphthalene induced cataract in Wistar albino rats. Thirty rats in five groups were used for the study.
Ervatamia coronaria leaf extract at dose levels (200 and 400 mg/kg) respectively and Vitamin E
(50 mg/kg) were used as standard drugs while liquid paraffin was used for control. The test drugs
were administered simultaneously with naphthalenefor 25 days. Naphthalene (0.5 g/kg for first 3
days and 1 g/kg thereafter for a period of 25 days) was used to induce cataract. The percentage of
cataract incidence and opacity index were examined using ophthalmoscope. Naphthalene produced a
marked mature cataract and an increase in the opacity index at various stages. The extract treated
animals showed decrease in the onset and maturation of cataract against naphthalene challenge. From
the results it was concluded that Ervatamia coronaria leaf extract protected the cataract maturation
induced by naphthalene and it exhibited anticataract activity.
KEYWORDS: Ervatamia coronaria, Cataract, Naphthalene
Research article
Cite this article: Rathnakumar K, Jaikumar S, Duraisami R and Sengottuvelu S (2013), ANTICATARACT ACTIVITY
OF ERVATAMIA CORONARIA LEAF EXTRACT ON CHEMICALLY INDUCED
CATARACTOGENESIS IN RATS, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 213–218
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 213–218
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
Cataract is opacity of the lens that
interferes with vision, and is the most frequent
cause of visual impairment worldwide,
especially for the elderly, because the incidence
of cataracts increases with increasing age. It is
the leading cause of blindness and contributes
to 50% of blindness worldwide (Haque and
Gilani, 2005). The only present remedy for
cataract is surgery. The opacity of lens occurs
as a result of oxidation which is augmented by
the free radical generation. The intensity of
opacification of lens can be reduced by the
antioxidants which scavenge the generation of
free radicals. Previous studies confirmed that
diet rich in vitamins, carotenoids and
flavonoids may reduce the cataract intensity
(Bunce et al., 1990). Normal levels of the anti-
oxidant’s defense mechanism are not sufficient
for the eradication of free radical induced
injury. Therefore, the administration of
antioxidants from a natural origin has a
promising role to play. Several antioxidants of
plant materials have been experimentally
proven and widely used as more effective
agents against oxidative stress.
Ervatamia coronaria Stapf Local name :
Adukkunandiyavattai (In Thamizh Language)
(Synonym: Tabernaemontana divaricata)
belongs to the family Apocynaceae, is a
glabrous, evergreen tree indigenous to India
and is cultivated in gardens for its ornamental
and fragrant flowers.
This species has been extensively
investigated and a number of chemical
constituents such as alkaloids (Pawelka and
Stoeckigt., 1983), triterpenoids, steroids
(Sharma and Cordell., 1988), flavonoids
(Daniel and Sabnis., 1978) and phenolic acids
(Henriques et al., 1996) were isolated from
leaves, roots and stems of the plant.
In Indian traditional system of medicine the
plant material is widely used as a purgative,
tonic to the brain, spleen and the liver (Kirtikar
and Basu., 1975). Also used in the treatment of
cancer, wounds and inflammations (Kirtikar
and Basu., 1975). The plant extract was also
found to possess analgesic, antipyretic,
vasodilator and CNS depressant effects
(Taesotikul., 1989), antispasmodic, hypotensive
activity (Dhar et al., 1968), anti-inflammatory
(Henriques et al., 1996), uterine stimulant
effect (Da Sil Va et al., 1984), cytotoxic
(Yamamoto et al., 1997) and anti oxidant
activity (Malaya Gupta et al., 2004).
Traditionally the plant is also used in
ophthalmic disorders. Hence the present study
was aimed to evaluate the anti-cataract activity
of the leaf extract of E. coronaria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Drugs and chemicals
Naphthalene and vitamin E were obtained
from SD fine chemicals, Mumbai, India. All
other drugs and chemicals used in the study
were of analytical grade.
Plant material
Leaves of Ervatamia coronaria were
collected from outskirts of of Erode,
Tamilnadu. Authentication has been done by
Prof. V. S. Kumar, Scientists (F) and Head of
the Office, Tamilnadu Agriculture University,
Coimbatore (Tamilnadu).The voucher
specimen (No.: BSI/ SRC/ 5/ 23/ 12-13/ Tech.
816) has been deposited in the herbarium for
future references.
Preparation of extract
The leaves were washed with fresh water to
remove adhering dirt and foreign particles. The
leaves were shade dried, crushed and grinded to
get coarse powder. The coarse powder was then
placed with 90% ethanolic solution in a round
bottomed flask. 500 g of the coarse powder of
the leaves of Ervatamia coronaria in 1.0 liter
of 90% ethanolic solution were macerated for 7
days. The mensturm was collected,
concentrated by vacuum distillation and then
air dried in an evaporating dish till constant
weight was obtained.
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Animals
Wistar albino rats of either sex weighing
150–200 g were used for this study. The
animals were placed randomly and allocated to
treatment groups in polypropylene cages with
paddy husk as bedding. Animals were housed
at a temperature of 24 ± 2oC and relative
humidity of 30–70%. A 12:12 light: day cycle
was followed. All the animals were allowed to
free access to water and fed with standard
commercial pelleted chaw (M/s.Hindustan
Lever Ltd., Mumbai). All the experimental
procedures and protocols used in this study
were reviewed by (IAEC) Institutional Animal
Ethics Committee (932/a/06/CPCSEA) of Sri
Lakshminarayana Institute of Medical
Sciences, Pondicherry and were in accordance
with the guidelines of the IAEC.
Experimental protocol
Experimental model of cataractogenesis
was induced in rats by feeding naphthalene
(Umamaheswari et al., 2011) at a dose of
0.5 g/kg orally for the first 3 days followed by
1 g/kg thereafter for a period of 25 days.
Animals were divided into 5 groups consisting
of six animals each. Group I received liquid
paraffin (5 ml/kg b.w. orally) and served as the
solvent control. Group II received naphthalene
(0.5 g/kg b.w., orally for first 3 days and 1 g/kg
thereafter for 25 days) and served as the
cataract control. Group III received the
standard drug vitamin E at a dose of 50 mg/kg
b.w., orally along with naphthalene and served
as the positive control. Groups IV and V
received the E. coronaria leaf extract orally at a
dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w. respectively
simultaneously with naphthalene. All the test
drugs were administered for a period of 28
days.
Examination of the eyes
The eyes of the rats were examined using
an ophthalmoscope for morphological changes
in the lens. Examination was performed after
dilatation of the pupil with 1% tropicamide
solution. Cataract formation was scored
according to different stages. Stage 1: Clear
normal lens, Stage 2: Peripheral vesicles, Stage
3: Peripheral vesicles with cortical opacities,
Stage 4: Diffuse central opacities, Stage 5:
Opacity involving the entire lens (Mature
cataract). Cataract formation was considered
complete (stage 5) when the red fundus reflex
was no longer visible through any part of the
lens and the lens appeared dull white to the
naked eye. Percentage incidence of cataract
was calculated using the following formula
(Vats et al., 2004).
% Incidence = No of animals in each stage × 100
Total no. of animals
Opacity index was calculated using the following formula (Fukushi et al., 1980),
Opacity Index = No. of eyes in each stage × Stage of the eye
Total no. of eyes
RESULTS
Anticataract activity of Ervatamia
coronaria leaf extract on naphthalene induced
cataractogenesis in rats was studied and the
percentage incidences of cataract and opacity
index were observed. Effect of E. coronaria
leaf extract on % incidence of cataract on 28th
day in naphthalene induced cataract rats are
shown in table. 1.
Ophthalmic examinations of the normal
control lenses in the eyes l were normal
throughout the duration of experimental period.
The animals treated with naphthalene showed
varying degree of cataractogenic changes as
indicated by about 72.54% in stage 4 and
45.66% in stage 5 on the 28th
day of drug
treatment. At the end of drug treatment, the
animals treated with the extract at a dose of 200
mg/kg b.w. showed 50% of animals in stage 2,
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18.22% in stage 3 and 45.16% in stage 4
cataract, whereas the group treated with the
extract at a dose of 400 mg/kg b.w. showed
50% of animals in stage 2, 25.11% in stage 3
and 18.14% in stage 4 cataract. Vitamin E the
standard drug showed 18.19% of animals in
stage 1, 60.23% in stage 2 and 35.32% in stage
3. None of the animals treated with the E.
coronaria leaf extract and the standard drug
vitamin E showed stage 5 mature cataract at the
end of the experiment.
Table 1. Effect of Ervatamia coronaria leaf extract on % incidence of cataract on 28th
day in
naphthalene induced cataract rats
Drug Treatment
% Incidence of Cataract
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
Normal Control
Liquid Paraffin
(10 ml/kg)
100
0
0
0
0
Cataract Control
Naphthalene
(1 g/kg)
0
0
0
72.54
45.66
Vitamin E
(50 mg/kg)
18.19
60.23
35.32
0
0
Ervatamia
Coronaria Extract
(200 mg/kg)
0
50.00
18.12
45.16
0
Ervatamia
Coronaria Extract
(400 mg/kg)
0
50.00
25.11
18.14
0
Table 2. Effect of Ervatamia coronaria leaf extract on opacity index in naphthalene induced
cataract rats
Drug Treatment
Opacity Index
4th
day 7th
day 14th
day 21st day 28
th day
Normal Control
Liquid Paraffin
(10 ml/kg)
0
0
0
0
0
Cataract Control
Naphthalene
(1 g/kg)
0.45
0.62
2.47
3.55
4.98
Vitamin E
(50 mg/kg)
0
0
0.18
0.72
1.55
Ervatamia
Coronaria Extract
(200 mg/kg)
0
0
2.24
2.55
1.72
Ervatamia
Coronaria Extract
(400 mg/kg)
0
0
1.54
1.22
1.56
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Effect of E. coronaria leaf extract on
opacity index in naphthalene induced cataract
rats are shown in table 2. Treatment with
naphthalene showed an increase in the opacity
index from 0.45 on the 4th
day, 0.62 on the 7th
day, 2.47 on the 14th
day, and 3.55 on the 21st
day followed by complete opacification
(opacity index 4.98) on the 28th
day. The
groups treated with the E. coronaria leaf
extracts at a dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w.
showed a decrease in opacity index (1.72 and
1.56 respectively) when compared to
naphthalene control. There was a marked
reduction in opacity index (1.55) of the vitamin
E treated group when compared to the
naphthalene control.
DISCUSSION
Cataract is a visual impairment that occurs
due to the opacification of crystalline lens. It
affects around 17 billion people worldwide,
although incidence of cataracts is increasing
day by day among the elderly persons. Still
today except surgery no other effective
treatments have been successfully developed
for cataract (Piyush Patel et al., 2012). From a
public health perspective, it is important to
identify the risk factors that affect the
development and progression of cataract.
Ervatamia coronaria possess significant amount
of flavonoids and a potent antioxidant has been
studied against naphthalene induced cataract in
rats. The cataract induced by naphthalene
treatment in rats were confirmed by varying
degree of cataractogenic changes and an
increase in opacity index with complete
opacification at the end of the 4th
week. The
free radical involvements in the generation of
cataract have been evidenced (Kothadia et al.,
2011). The in vitro antioxidant and free radical
scavenging activities of E. coronaria has
already been reported (Malaya Gupta et al.,
2004). The anti cataract activity possessed by
E. coronaria leaf extract may be due to the
presence of flavonoids the well known free
radical scavengers.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the Ervatamia
coronaria leaf extract possess
anticatractogenesis activity against naphthalene
induced cataract in rats. According to the
results obtained from the study it may be
inferred that E. coronaria reversed the cataract
induced by naphthalene in rats. To the best of
our knowledge this is the first report about in
vivo activity of E. coronaria in a specific eye
disorder and seems to raise some concern about
the traditional indication of this species. A
certainly further study needs to be carried out
in order to prove its actual mechanism of
action.
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Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
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ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
STUDIES ON TRADITIONAL HERBAL PEDIATRICS PRACTICES IN
JAISINGHPUR, DISTRICT KANGRA (HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA)
Rawat Dhiraj S1, Kharwal Anjna D
2
1Department of Botany, R.K.M.V. – Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
2 Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College- Dharamshala. Himachal Pradesh, India
*Corresponding Author: Email: [email protected]
Received: 26/02/2013; Revised: 01/04/2013; Accepted: 02/04/2013
ABSTRACT
Plants are the basis of life on earth and are central to people‟s livelihood. Glimpses of our
knowledge in ethnomedicine are available in vedic texts and there is an inextricable link between
indigenous culture and biodiversity as areas of high biodiversity are often found on indigenous
community‟s lands. The local communities and rural populace of Jaisinghpur is highly dependent on
nature for meeting their healthcare needs and has a repository of accumulated experience and
knowledge of prevailing vegetation of the region. Medical ethno–botany forms a major part of
medicinal aspects of aboriginal child care. 70 % of world population uses herbal traditional remedies
in treatment of sick and injured children. Indigenous herbal practices related to child–care provide
invaluable knowledge and aid in making best use of natural resources as it is dynamic in
dissemination and scientific in indigenous experimentation. Present study includes 21 plants (15
dicots and 6 monocots) belonging to 16 families used as herbal remedies for child–care, while 2
plant spp. are used along with other plant resources in herbal preparations. Among various plants,
fruits of 7 species (32%), seeds of 6 species (29%), leaves of 5 species (24%), peduncle, bark and
rhizome of one plant (5%) each is used predominantly for child–care by the rural populace of the
study area. Mostly, the people of age groups 41–60 years (AG–3) and >60 (AG–4) years mostly
ladies, are aware of these herbal practices. Local communities not only use these plants but also care
for their conservation and protection; thus contributing towards sustainable development.
KEY–WORDS: Ethnobotany, Biodiversity, Child–care, Herbal remedies, ODA (Observed density
& availability), Phenological pattern, TIV (Total importance value), Pediatrics.
ABBREVIATIONS: (AG– Age group/s)
Research article
Cite this article:
Rawat Dhiraj S, Kharwal Anjna D (2013), STUDIES ON TRADITIONAL HERBAL PEDIATRICS
PRACTICES IN JAISINGHPUR, DISTRICT KANGRA (HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA), Global J
Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 219–230
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Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
The term “Ethno–botany” was coined by
J.W. Harshberger in 1895, meaning “the study
of plants used by primitive and aboriginal
people” (Anonymous, 1895). Since then, the
subject has been variously defined and
interpreted by different workers as its discipline
began to follow multidisciplinary approach
combining a diversity of knowledge bases and
methods through the use of anthropological
methods (Robbins et al., 1916; Schultes &
Reis, 1995). Plants are the basis of life on earth
and are central to people‟s livelihood. Glimpses
of our knowledge in ethno–medicine are
available in vedic texts (Jain, 1987).
Undeniably, there is an inextricable link
between indigenous culture and biodiversity as
areas of high biodiversity are often found on
indigenous community‟s lands and in their
water bodies (Alcorn, 1996). The 15
th session
of the General Assembly of IUCN held in
Christchurch, New Zealand, in October 1991,
recognized the importance of the cultural
heritage of mankind and the role of traditional
cultures in conservation of nature (McNeely &
Pit, 1985). Agenda 21 of the Rio Earth Summit
(1992) stated that indigenous people have a
vital role in environmental management and
development because of their knowledge and
traditional practices. Ethno–botanical
information in the form of folklore is passed
through generations in certain restricted and
remote habitations (Chauhan, 1999; Choudhary
et al., 2008; Ganesan, 2008; Saini, 1996).
“Jaisinghpur” (592m), one of the tehsils of
district Kangra in Himachal Pradesh has
common boundaries with districts Mandi and
Hamirpur (Fig. 1). The word “Jaisinghpur” is
derived from the name of a famous king Raja
Jai Singh who is believed to be a great warrior
of “Rajgir” dynasty. Still the name of the
legislative constituency is “Rajgir” (reserved
for S.C.) which comprises most of the areas of
tehsil “Jaisinghpur”. The town “Jaisighpur” is
located on the bank of river “beas” with a
population of 1,273 while the population of
tehsil is 58,623. Tehsil “Jaisinghpur” is full of
natural water resources and is a combination of
greenery and water, thus, has given the tehsil a
distinctive look, located at an altitude between
500–1800 m above MSL between
31°53′55′′N/76°35′58′′E latitudes. The area is a
combination of the plains and the hills and
blessed with remarkable natural beauty and
high ranges of Dhauladhar mountains at the
backdrop with tops remain snow covered for
most part of the year. The natives are the
Kangri people and the local language is
„Kangri‟. The majority of the people are
„Hindu‟. Traditional dresses of men are „kurta‟,
„pyjamas‟ with a woolen jacket in winter.
Women generally wear „salwaar‟, „kameez‟
along with „chunni‟ („chaddru‟ in local
language). Maize, wheat and paddy are the
main staple foods of the rural populace and the
villagers are very fond of butter, milk, curry
preparations and pickles.
The place unfolds four broad seasons with
winters spreading generally from December–
February, summers from March–June, rainy
season extending from July–September with
landscape becoming lush green, and autumns
from October–November. Agriculture is the
main stay of the inhabitants of the area. Soil
varies from sandy loams to clay. The agro–
climatic conditions favour the growth of food
crops such as wheat, paddy, maize, potatoes,
etc. Agricultural operations are carried out in
two spells. Spring crops popularly called as
Rabi („Harri‟) comprise of wheat, barley, gram
and oil seeds (linseed) whereas autumn crops
(Kharif / „Savani‟) are maize, paddy, pulses,
spices and potatoes (Balokhra, 2002). The area
on the bank of river “beas” is highly fertile and
is famous for vegetable cultivation. This area is
known as “shukdi ka bag”. The region is also
famous for its “holi” and “dussehra” festivals.
“Chaugan” of “Jaisinghpur”, “Harsi”, “Laddi”,
“Lambagaon”, “Ashapuri” temple, “Nagban”
and “Sai” are the places of interest.
The local communities and rural populace
of Jaisinghpur is highly dependent on nature for
meeting their healthcare needs. The rural
populace of the region has a repository of
accumulated experience and knowledge of
prevailing vegetation of the region. They have
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a deep belief on their nature folklore medicines
for remedies and they rely exclusively on their
herbal cure. Recently, considerable attention
has been paid to utilize eco–friendly plant
based products for the prevention and care of
different human diseases. In India over 6,000
plants are in use in traditional folk and herbal
medicine, which constitutes about 75% of the
medical needs of third world countries
(Rajshekharan, 2002). Similarly, herbal
medicines for infants and child–care are not
exceptions in the study area. The women folks
of the region play a vital role in use and
mobilization of biodiversity based knowledge
system. Medical ethnobotany forms a major
part of medicinal aspects of aboriginal child
care. 70 % of world population uses herbal
traditional remedies in treatment of sick and
injured children (Pearn, 2005).
Fig 1. Map of tehsil Jaisinghpur (district Kangra, H.P.) showing main locations visited for
survey.
There is an inextricable nexus between
aboriginal men, women and land in which they
live. Aboriginal women in traditional
communities use a sophisticated botanical
material media in the treatments of sick and
injured children. Drugs and medicaments used
in treatments are obtained from various plant
parts usually as fresh preparations in the form
of infusions, macerations, decoctions etc. and
are rarely stored (Ganesan, 2008). The
multipurpose and broad–spectrum use of plants
to treat symptoms and symptom complexes in
context of preventive medicine for child care is
the heart of discussion. Internationally, one of
the best works is that of Pearn, 2005, which
throws a light on traditional pediatric practices
in Australia and the work of Allen & Hatfield,
2004 which emphasized on ethnic studies of
Britain and Ireland and that of Salah &
Nyunda, 2012 which emphasized on pre-natal
care. The information on floristic and ethno–
botanical studies related to child–care in India
is scattered meager (Babu, 1998; Borthakur,
1993; Choudhary et al., 2008; Ganesan, 2008;
Goyal et al., 2011; Joshi, 1989; Pal et al., 2000;
Qureshi, 2007; Rajshekharan, 2002; Robbins et
al., 1916; Saini, 1996; Sen et al., 2008).
Ethnobotanical information on child care in
Himachal Pradesh (H.P.) and district Kangra is
meagre in literature (Chauhan, 1999; Dhiman,
1976). Inspite of rich floristic diversity and
cultural values, nothing is available in literature
on the floristic and ethnobotanical information
of the region (study area). Keeping this in
SIGNS
1- Lambagaon block
-Locations
Source
www.google.co.in
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mind, the present study had been undertaken
with the following objectives – (a) to collect
and identify the plant spp. used for child–care
along with their flowering and fruiting seasons
(b) to study the phonological pattern of
collected plants (c) to calculate total
importance value (TIV) and observed density
availability (ODA) of plant spp. (d) to know
about the effective age groups involved in
herbal practices.
Since time immemorial, the Himalaya has
influenced the life and culture of the diverse
ethnic communities living all along the length
of its mountainous chain. Keeping this in mind
it is pertinent to document this knowledge for
future generations.
METHODOLOGY
Intensive ethnobotanical exploration were
undertaken in the rural pockets of tehsil
Jaisinghpur, district Kangra (H.P.). The villages
selected for study are: Draman (900 m),
Dhupkyara (720 m), Laddi (1290 m), Nee
(910 m), Langa (845 m), Arth (835 m), Bhedu
(790 m), Bhaati (750 m), Jalag (840 m),
Nahlana (785 m), Saped (810 m), Nakki
(930 m), Tamru (920 m), Bhodi (890 m), Hadot
(915 m), Kosri (760 m), Ropari (750 m), Suan
(750 m), Tarapad (925 m), Tikri (620 m),
Kamanda (630 m), Dwata (980 m), Sai
(800 m), Harsi (550 m), Kathla (590 m) and
Bardama (690 m). The field tours were planned
in such a way so as to collect the
ethnobotanically interesting species used for
infants and child–care either in flowering or
fruiting stage. Herbarium of collected plants
was prepared following Jain & Rao, 1978. For
a better understanding of local beliefs, habits
and uses of plants, different categories of
people like family heads, healers, old
experienced and knowledgeable informants,
especially old ladies were repeatedly
interviewed. Specific questions based upon
Proforma designed by Jain & Rao, 1978 were
asked and the resultant information was
recorded in the ethno-botanical field notebook
along with the name of locality and local name.
Botanical identification of the selected species
was first done with the help of regional floras
(Chauhan, 1999; Chowdhery & Wadhwa,
1984; Dhiman, 1976; Hooker, 1897).
For more information three basic
approaches were adopted following Phondani
et al., 2010:
An interview based approach– Questions
from informants on infant and child–care plants
mainly from old experienced people, especially
old ladies as they were more aware of the
child–care plants.
An inventory based approach– An
inventory based approach is followed on
following questions:
Whether whole plant or plant parts are
used?
Which age group is more aware to these
herbal remedies?
The season of flowering and fruiting
TIV (Total importance value) of these
plants
The density of plants in the region
Whether the plant is used for one
disease or for more than one disease?
An interactive discussions approach with
communities–
How to use plants?
Are they better than market products or
not?
Are they used singly or in combination?
Are all the plants or plant parts
available in nature or some of them are
taken from market?
While collecting the plant specimens, their
uses related to child–care and their local names
were also ascertained and recorded carefully in
the field notebook with the assistance of local
informants. The data were verified in different
regions among the interviewers and showing
the same plant sample, and even with the same
informants on different occasions. Ethno–
botanical lore was considered valid if at least
three informants made similar comments. Four
age groups (AG) were investigated i.e. AG–1
(0–20 years), AG–2 (21–40 years), AG–3 (41–
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60years) and AG–4 (>60 years) to find out the
impact of ethno–botanical lore. Men and
women of local communities are interviewed
separately to find out the gender based herbal
knowledge.
Phenological pattern of the plants were
observed to find out the seasonal variation
while ODA (Observed density availability) was
observed according to Sood et al., 2012 in
which plants were classified into abundant,
considerable and rare extent. Nomenclature of
these taxa were confirmed from Bennet, 1986
and Wielgorskaya,1995.
Economic valuation of all the presently
recorded ethno–botanical species was also
carried out to calculate the total importance
values (TIV) on the sum basis of parameters
like life cycle strategy, periodicity of use, habit,
availability throughout year and uses as per
detailed methodology outlined by Belal &
Springuel, 1996.
OBSERVATIONS
The local communities of tehsil Jaisinghpur
of district Kangra (H.P.) use 21 plant spp. in 18
different types of herbal practices related to
child–care. These local communities are a rich
repository of traditional knowledge, so a
sincere effort has been made to get the
information on these herbal practices which
are:
Bark of Ficus religiosa is cut into pieces
and to this seeds of “puthkanda” Achyranthes
bidentata are added along with peduncles of
“challi” maize (Zea mays). The mixture is
burned to ash. Ash is mixed with borax
(Suhaga) and honey. Half teaspoon is
recommended thrice a day (one week) for
bronchitis, cough and congestion. (AG–3, 4).
1–2 small holes are created in unripe fruits
of “rada” (Randia dumetorum) with the help of
thorns of the same and these holes are filled
gently with the milk (latex) of Ficus palmata.
These fruits are sealed with kneaded “kanak”
wheat flour and finally the sealed fruits are
roasted in a fire–place “chullah”. Powder of
roasted fruits along with honey (½ teaspoon
twice a day for a week) is highly recommended
against bronchitis, cough and congestion. (AG–
3, 4).
Leaves of “Kouru” Roylea cinerea are
crushed with the help of a clean pastel and
mortar. Juice is filtered with a fine clean cloth
piece and 1–2 drops of it are used twice as
nasal drops for three consecutive days. It is
considered good for cough. (AG–3, 4).
A longitudinal fine cut is made into
“chhuara” (Fruit of Phoenix dactylifera) and
the seed is taken out. The left out cavity so
created, is filled up with powdered seeds of
“chhoti ellaichi” (Elettaria cardamomum) and
the fruit is sealed with thread. It is roasted in a
fire–place “chullah”. ½ of the fruit is taken
with milk at bed time for 1–2 months for
checking frequent urination in infants and
children. (AG–3, 4).
Rhizomes of “barain” Acorus calamus are
washed with water and its paste along with
honey is taken thrice a day for a week against
cold, cough and bronchitis. (AG–2, 3).
4–5 small stones having smooth surface are
thoroughly washed and are dumped at fire–
place “Chullah” for 20–30 min. About 100 ml
of drinking water is taken in a clean bowl and 1
tablespoon full of “ajwain” seeds
(Trachyspermum ammi) is added to it. Hot
stones are taken out from fireplace with the
help of “chimtah”– a tong like household
article and ash is removed with the help of
cotton cloth. The stones are dipped in water
taken in the bowl. The fluid in the bowl is
filtered and the filtrate so obtained is locally
known as “gitt– juanhe” as the word “gitt” is
used for stones and “juanhe” for ajwain
(Trachyspermum ammi) in local „Kangri‟
language. 2–3 teaspoons of “gitt–juanhe” is
prescribed thrice a day for 3–4 days to check
stomach ailments in infants. (AG–4).
Fruits of “jaiphal” (Myristica fragrans) are
rubbed on a clean stone with water and the
paste so obtained is prescribed for children to
check cough and congestion thrice a day for 4
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days and the same is also applied over nose for
the same. (AG–2, 3).
Decoction of “ajwain” seeds
(Trachyspermum ammi) is highly prescribed for
infants and children for stomachache. Usually
5–10 tablespoons are given to infants and
children after every 2–3 hours until relief.
(AG–1, 2, 3, 4).
Decoction of aerial parts (leaves, stem,
inflorescence and even seeds) of “tulsi”
(Ocimum sanctum) is highly prescribed for
couch and fever. (AG–2, 3, 4).
The fruits of “harad” (Terminalia chebula)
are rubbed over a clean stone or in “kundi"– a
mortar type household article and a pinch of its
paste along with lukewarm water is prescribed
thrice a day against constipation until relief.
(AG–2, 3, 4).
Decoction of “kadwi–saunf ” seeds
(Foeniculum vulgare) is prescribed for infants
and children for stomachache. Usually 1–2
tablespoons are given to infants. (AG–1, 2, 3,
4).
Decoction of “chhoti ellaichi” (Elettaria
cardamomum) along with sugar is considered
good for lung ailments. (AG–3, 4).
Fruit poultice of “dodey” (Sapindus
mukorosii) is made and a thick layer of it is
applied over a clean cotton cloth and this cloth
is tied around mumps and considered one of the
best traditional remedy against it. (AG–3, 4).
Seeds of “til” (Sesamum orientale) along
with jaggery and “soya” (Anethum graveolens
L.) are used to make traditional “laddu” which
are given to infants to check bed wetting.
Similarly ripe dried fruits of “Chhuara”
(Phoenix dactylifera) are prescribed for the
same. (AG–3, 4).
Onion “pyaz” (Allium cepa) juice is mixed
with mustard “sarson” (Brassica campestris L.)
oil. 1–2 drops thrice a day (for a week) is
recommended for ear itching. (AG–2, 3, 4).
Patients exposed to the smoke on burning
of “naule ra lingna” (aerial parts of Verbascum
thapsus) are considered to have relief from
measles. (AG–4).
Pieces of leaves of “kwarya” (Aloe vera)
are heated gently. Each piece is cut gently into
two pieces to expose the gel of leaves. Each
piece singly or in combination with “haldi” i.e.
turmeric powder (Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.)
is used against muscle pull. (AG– 1, 2, 3, 4).
“Jaiphal” Myristica fragrans” is rubbed
over a soft clean stone and the paste of it is
applied over cotton plugs. These cotton plugs
are placed in mustard (“sarson”– Brassica
campestris) oil taken in an earthen pot “diya”
and enlightened with fire. The pot is placed in
the corner of a dark room and a brass plate is
placed on it for 3–4 hours. The deposited
carbon on brass plate is collected. It is mixed
with cow‟s ghee and small quantity of
“jaiphal” paste. The obtained product is locally
called as “kajjal” which is applied in eyes to
check any infection. It is also used for healthy
and beautiful eyes. (AG– 3, 4).
RESULTS & DISCUSSION:
The study of ethno–medical systems and
herbal medicines as therapeutic agents of a
paramount importance in addressing health
problems of traditional communities and third
world countries as well as industrialized
societies (Rajshekharan, 2002; Saini, 1996).
The present study yielded interesting data
which provides information of the 21 plants
used for child–care in tehsil Jaisinghpur of
district Kangra (Himachal Pradesh). The plants
are used in 18 different herbal practices of the
region in which these plants are used either
singly or in combination. These plants are
arranged in alphabetical order; with their local
name, flowering and fruiting seasons, ODA
(Observed density & availability) and part /
parts used as in table 1.
Present study includes 21 plants (16 dicots
and 5 monocots) (Table 1), used as herbal
remedies for child–care belonging to 16
families. The predominant families are
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 219–230
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Liliaceae with 3 spp, Moraceae, Apiaceae and
Poaceae with 2 spp each. Ficus with 2 spp is
the dominant genus. Among various plants,
fruits of 7spp (32%), seeds of 6 spp (29%),
leaves of 5 spp (24%), peduncle, bark and
rhizome of one plant (5%) each is used
predominantly for child–care by the rural
populace of the study area (Figure 2). 12 plant
spp are used singly while 5 plant spp. are used
in combination. One plant i.e. Ellettaria
cardamomum is used along with sugar for lung
ailments.
ODA (Observed Density Availability)
reveals that 8 plant spp are in abundant extent
while 9 spp. are in considerable extent. One
cultivated plant (Gossypium arboreum) is in
rare extent and the cotton (seed surface hairs)
of this can be purchased from the market so
that the plant resource can be used in a
sustainable manner in the study area.
Phenological pattern of plants suggest that most
of the plants are in flowering and fruiting stage
during rainy, summer and spring seasons (Fig.
3).
Fig.2. Various plant parts used in herbal remedies in tehsil Jaisinghpur of district Kangra
(H.P.).
Fig. 3. Phenological pattern of ethnobotanical plants in tehsil Jaisinghpur of district Kangra
(H.P.).
Table 1
Plant parts in herbal remedies
Fruits
Seeds
Leaves
Bark
Rhizome
Peduncle
29%
24%
5% 5%5%
32%
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Winter Spring Summer Rainy
No
. o
f p
lan
ts
Seasons
Phenological pattern
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Table -1 List Of Plants Used as Herbal Remedies for Child–Care in Tehsil Jaisinghpur of District Kangra
(Himachal Pradesh)
ODA – Observed Density Availability
+ + + – Abundant
+ + – Considerable extent
+ – Rare extent
S.N. Botanical Names and Family Local Names Flowering & Fruiting
Seasons
ODA Part/s
Used
1. Achyranthes bidentata Blume (Amaranthaceae) Puthkanda Mar.–Oct. + + + Seeds
2. Acorus calamus L. (Liliaceae) Barain June–July + + Rhizome
3. Allium cepa L. (Liliaceae) Pyaz Dec.–Mar. + + Scales
4. Aloe vera (L.) Webb. & Berthel. (Liliaceae) Kwarya Throughout year + + Leaves
5. Brassica campestris L. (Brassicaceae) Sarson Oct.–Mar. + + + Seeds
6. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae) Kadwi Saunf Oct.–Mar. ++ Seeds
7. Ficus palmata Forsk. (Moraceae) Dhuda, Phegda April–Sept. + + + Latex
8. Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae) Peepal Mar.–Oct. + + + Bark
9. Gossypium arboreum L. (Malvaceae) Kapaa Jul.–Sept. + Seed–hairs
10. Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae) Tulsi Aug.–Sept. + + + Aerial Parts
11. Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Lam. (Rubiaceae) Rada April–Sept. + + Fruits
12.
Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baill. (Verbenaceae) Kouru Mar.–Nov. + + Leaves
13.
Sapindus mukorosii Gaertn. (Sapindaceae) Dodan, Reetha April–Sept. + + + Fruits
14. Sesamum orientale L. (Pedaliaceae) Til July–Sept. + + Seeds
15. Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae) Harad April–June + + + Fruits
16. Trachyspermum ammi Sprague (Apiaceae) Ajwain Oct.–Mar. + + Seeds
17. Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophularaceae) Naule ra
leengna
Jan.–April + + Aerial parts
18. Zea mays L. (Poaceae) Challi June–Sept. + + + Peduncle
19. Phoenix dactyllifera L. (Arecaceae) Khajur From market Fruits
20. Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae) Jaiphal From market Fruits
21. Elettaria cardamomum (L) Maton
(Zingiberaceae)
Chhoti–ellaichi From market Fruits
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Table 2 - Total importance value (TIV) of ethnobotanical plants in tehsil Jaisinghpur of District Kangra
(Himachal Pradesh)
S.N. Botanical Names and Family Life
cycle
strategy
Periodicity
of use
Habit Availability
throughout
year
Uses TIV
(%)
1. Achyranthes bidentata Blume
(Amaranthaceae)
2 2 2 3 2 55
2. Acorus calamus L. (Liliaceae) 2 3 2 2 4 65
3. Allium cepa L. (Liliaceae) 2 2 2 2 3 55
4. Aloe vera (L.) Webb. & Berthel.
(Liliaceae)
2 2 2 3 3 60
5. Brassica campestris L. (Brassicaceae) 2 2 2 2 2 50
6. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae) 2 3 2 3 3 70
7. Ficus palmata Forsk. (Moraceae) 4 2 4 4 2 80
8. Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae) 4 2 4 4 2 80
9. Gossypium arboreum L. (Malvaceae) 3 1 3 1 1 40
10. Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae) 3 3 2 2 3 65
11. Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Lam.
(Rubiaceae)
4 2 3 3 2 70
12. Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baill.
(Verbenaceae)
4 2 3 3 3 75
13. Sapindus mukorosii Gaertn.
(Sapindaceae)
4 2 4 2 3 75
14. Sesamum orientale L. (Pedaliaceae) 2 2 2 2 2 50
15. Terminalia chebula Retz.
(Combretaceae)
4 3 4 2 4 85
16. Trachyspermum ammi Sprague
(Apiaceae)
2 3 2 3 3 70
17. Verbascum thapsus L.
(Scrophularaceae)
2 2 2 2 2 50
18. Zea mays L. (Poaceae) 1 2 2 1 2 40
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Fig. 4. Herbal practices in different age groups in Tehsil Jaisinghpur.
Out of discussed 18 herbal practices, 3
herbal practices were known to the population
of 0–20 years i.e. age group1 (AG–1); while 9
to age group 2 of 21–40 years (AG–2). Mostly,
the people of age groups 41–60 years (AG–3)
and >60 years were aware to 17 practices while
2 practices are restricted to age group 4 (AG–4)
i.e. > 60 years (Fig. 4). From this it is crystal
clear that these practices are mostly restricted
to AG–3 and AG–4 while few of them are
restricted to old ladies i.e. this knowledge is
fast depleting in younger generations so it is
pertinent to document this invaluable eco–
friendly herbal remedies. Gender wise analysis
reveals that 14 practices (5–18) are known to
both men and women of the study area while
first 4 practices (1–4) are restricted only to
women of different communities of the region
(Fig.4).
Two plant spp. i.e. Curcuma angustifolia
roxb. (powdered rhizome) and Anethum
graveolens L. (seeds) are used with other plant
resources in some of the herbal practices. These
plants are also cultivated in the study area and
can be purchased from the market. Due to the
utmost importance of these plants in the region,
local communities not only use these plants but
also care for their conservation and protection;
thus contributing towards sustainable
development.
Statistically, the total importance value
(TIV) reveals that Terminalia chebula tops the
list with TIV of 85%. Ficus reliogosa, Ficus
palmata have 80% TIV while Roylea cinearea
and Sapindus mukorosii have TIV of 75%.
Gossypium arboretum and Zea mays have
lowest TIV of 40% with respect to medicinal
values for child–care. (Table II)
CONCLUSION
Indigenous herbal practices related to
child–care provide invaluable knowledge and
aid in making best use of natural resources as it
is dynamic in dissemination and scientific in
indigenous experimentation. In the modern
days of technological advancement, this
knowledge is falling prey to the lure of
modernization and urbanization. Negligible
efforts have been undertaken to understand the
scientific basis of the knowledge. It is
recommended that the documentation of
indigenous herbal practices should be included
in the curricula of environment and sustainable
development as a cross cutting issue.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
No. of herbal
practices
AG-1 AG-2 AG-3 AG-4 >60 only
Age groups
Herbal practices in different age groups
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Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
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ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
LIVER ENZYMES AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH AGE AND SEX IN
SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA PATIENTS AND HAEMOGLOBIN
S TRAIT CARRIERS.
Chuku L C1, Chinaka N C
2
1, 2 Department of Biochemistry, University of Port Harcourt, P.M.B. 5323, Choba, Port Harcourt, Rivers
State, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Received: 28/02/2013; Revised: 04/04/2013; Accepted: 05/04/2013
ABSTRACT
The activities of the liver enzymes, alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST)
and alkaline phosphatase were compared between males and females of various age groups (0–25+)
during sickle cell crisis and in steady state. Results show that enzyme activities increased during
painful crisis. The difference in activities of the enzymes in normal homozygous HbAA and
heterozygous (HbAS) blood was not statistically significant (p ≥ 0.05). The activities of the enzyme
increased with age in all the genotypes studied. There was no significant difference (p ≥ 0.05) in the
activities of ALT, AST and ALP between males and females for all the age groups studied.
KEY WORDS: Alanine transaminase, alkaline phospatase, anaemia, aspartate transaminase,
genotype, heterozygous, homozygous, sickle cell.
Research article
Cite this article:
Chuku L C, Chinaka N C (2013), LIVER ENZYMES AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH AGE AND SEX
IN SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA PATIENTS AND HAEMOGLOBIN S TRAIT CARRIERS., Global J
Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 231–237
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 231–237
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
Sickle cell anaemia is a form of sickle cell
disease in which both abnormal genes are for
the formation of HbS (Konotey-Ahulu, 1974).
Sickle cell haemoglobin (HbS) is the major
abnormal haemoglobin. Its solubility is
sufficiently altered to produce a serious disease
when present in the homozygotes (White, et al.,
1978). Sickle cell anaemia (SCA) has been a
great clinical problem in the history of West
Africans since the 7th
century. The disease was
first described by a Chicago physician, J.B.
Herrick (Herrick, 1910). Herrick observed
peculiar elongated and sickled-shaped red cells
in a case of severe anaemia of an ailing West
Indian student.
The term “sickle cell trait” is used to
describe a person who has inherited one normal
haemoglobin gene (A) from one parent and one
abnormal gene (S) from the other parent. Sickle
cell disease arose as a result of mutation which
caused a single amino acid substitution (valine
for glutamic acid) at the sixth position of the β-
globin chain of the haemoglobin molecule
(Acquaye, et al., 1981). This change has an
adverse effect on the haemoglobin molecule.
Hence, the research was undertaken to study
any variation that might occur in the enzymes
in normal and sickle cell subjects over a wide
age range and sexes (male and female).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials, test kits and equipments used
were of laboratory standards. Blood from
normal and heterozygous individuals was
obtained at the University of Port Harcourt
Teaching Hospital and LABMEDICA
laboratory, Port Harcourt. Samples were then
grouped according to their ages and sex.
The normal subjects (HbAA and HbAS)
were aged between 0–70 years and of both
sexes. It was not possible to obtain HbSS blood
from patients beyond 20 years of age. Blood
was also collected from HbSS patients who
were in haemolytic crisis.
Electrophoresis
In all cases, blood samples from different
individuals were genotyped. Different
molecular species of Hb were separated from
each other by electrophoresis at pH 8.4 on
cellulose acetate. The separated haemoglobin
bands were then stained by Ponceau S dye and
identified by comparison with known
haemoglobin standards separated stained in the
same manner.
Different types of Hb were separated from
one another by electrophoresis on cellulose
acetate paper. Separation was clear at the buffer
pH of 8.4. Sixty four (64) blood samples were
separated into 24 AA, 16 AS and 24 SS.
Assay of enzyme activity
Alanine transaminase (ALT) activity: By
Ratman and Frankel, (1957).
Alanine transaminase activity was
estimated by the procedure described in the
RANDOX kit for the determination of alanine
transaminase activity in serum or plasma at
546 nm. The optical density (O.D) of the
reaction mixture was taken colorimetrically at
546 nm as a measure of the enzyme activity.
Aspartate transaminase (AST) activity: By
Ratman and Frankel, (1957).
Aspartate transaminase catalyses the
reaction (transamination) between α-
ketoglutarate and L-aspartate. The oxaloacetate
formed in the reaction reacts with 2, 4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH), which in
alkaline medium gives a red-brown colour.
This is measured in a colorimeter at 546 nm.
This measures the activity of aspartate
transaminase. The enzyme activity was
measured by a procedure described in the
RANDOX GOT kit.
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity: By
Ratman and Frankel, (1957).
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) hydrolyses p-
nitrophenyl phosphate in alkaline conditions to
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 231–237
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yield phosphate and p-nitrophenol. The
nitrophenol is yellow in colour and absorbs
maximally at 405 nm. The intensity of the
colour due to p-nitrophenol during a fixed time
is measured at 405 nm colometrically and is
proportional to the ALP activity in the sample.
This was estimated by the procedure described
in the “BESSEY LOWRY” colour method kit
for the determination of ALP activity in plasma
or serum at 420 nm.
RESULTS
Enzyme Activity
The effect of age on ALT, AST and ALP
activities of HbAA, HbAS and HbSS subjects
are shown in tables 3.1 as well as their steady
and crisis state as shown in table 3.2.1, 3.2.2
and 3.2.3 respectively.
The effect of sex on ALT, AST and ALP
activities in HbAA and HbAS subjects are is
illustrated in table 3.3.1 respectively. The effect
of sex on AST and ALP activities of HbSS and
its crisis state is shown on table 3.3.2 and 3.3.3
respectively.
DISCUSSION
Alanine transaminase (ALT):
The activity of ALT of sickle cell subjects
was found to be higher than normal. There was
however no significant difference (p ≥ 0.05) in
the specific activity of ALT for normal (AA
and AS) subjects. It was also observed that the
activity of ALT did not increase steadily with
age and did not also depend on sex. Serum
ALT is highly variable in sickle cell disease.
Values obtained for subjects between 11–25
years were far lower than those obtained for
subjects between 6–10 years although higher
than the values obtained for subjects between
0–5 years. This was observed in all the
genotypes.
In crisis and steady state, ALT activity in
HbSS increased with age (11–20 years) in
steady state.
However, with the age range studied there
was no significant difference (p ≥ 0.05) in
mean enzyme activity values when compared
with normals. The pattern could change in
older subjects, but for age 0–25 years at least
hepatic dysfunction based on this enzyme alone
could not be definitely deduced (see tables 3.1,
3.2.1).
Table 3.1: Effects of age on ALT, AST, and ALP activities in HbAA, HbAS and HbSS subjects.
ALT
Activty
(µL)
AST
Activty
(µL)
ALP
Activty
(µL)
Age
(yrs)
AA AS SS AA AS SS AA AS SS
0-5
n = 5
5.3 ± 1.0 5.5 ± 1.2 30.1 ± 2.0 7.5 ± 0.2 15.75 ± 0.4 19.75 ± 0.6 137.66 ± 23.1 102.8 ± 18.2 148.75 ± 14.9
6-10
n = 5
11.7 ± 0.8 13.2 ± 0.9 36.9 ±1.8 13.33 ± 0.4 14.70 ± 0.3 10.5 ± 0.5 100.33 ± 15.2 102.8 ± 12.6 126.0 ± 8.49
11-15
n = 5
7.8 v 1.2 7.5 ± 1.0 26.8 ± 1.4 5.5 ± 0.2 11.0 ± 0.1 31.0 ± 1.9 66.75 ± 6.7 70.0 ± 5.6 88.7 ± 26.6
16-20
n = 5
7.2 ± 0.6 10.5 ± 0.8 43.5 ± 1.2 9.67 ± 0.7 14.5 ± 0.2 39.1 ± 2.0 40.8 ± 13.3 49.5 ± 0.71 72.4 ± 13.6
21-25
n = 5
8.0 ± 1.0 7.5 ± 0.9 12.0 ± 0.2 13.5 ± 0.4 31.5 ± 0.7 28.0 ± 2.8
>25
n = 5
8.0 ± 1.0 8.8 ± 1.0 10.25 ± 0.7 10.67 ± 0.5 29.8 ± 2.4 31.0 ± 16.2
n = number of samples analysed.
Values are Mean ± SD.
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Table 3.2.1: Effect of age on ALT activity in HbSS subjects (Crisis and steady state).
ALT Activity (µL)
Age (yrs) Steady state Age (yrs) Crisis
0–5
n = 5
15.3 ± 0.5 0–5
n = 3
30.0 ± 0.7
6–10
n = 4
15.3 ± 0.6 6–10
n = 3
36.8 ± 1.4
11–15
n = 4
23.7 ± 0.4 11–15
n = 3
26.8 ± 0.4
16–20
n = 5
28.4 ± 0.2 16–20
n = 3
43.5 ± 0.8
n = number of samples analysed.
Values are Mean ± SD.
Table 3.2.2: Effect of age on AST activity in HbSS subjects (Crisis and steady state).
AST Activity (µL)
Age (yrs) Steady state Crisis
0–5
n = 5
19.75 ± 0.6 30.0 ± 0.7
6–10
n = 5
10.5 ± 0.5 36.8 ± 1.4
11–15
n = 5
31.0 ± 0.4 26.8 ± 0.4
16–20
n = 5
33.2 ± 0.6 43.5 ± 0.8
n = number of samples analysed.
Values are Mean ± SD.
Table 3.2.3: Effect of age on ALP activity in HbSS subjects (Crisis and steady state).
ALP Activity (µL)
Age (yrs) Steady state Crisis
0–5
n = 5
148.75 ± 14.9 164.4 ± 4.3
6–10
n = 5
126.0 ± 8.49 155.6 ± 7.6
11–15
n = 5
88.7 ± 26.6 150.0 ± 9.9
16–20
n = 5
72.4 ± 13.6 119.0 ± 4.4
n = number of samples analysed.
Values are Mean ± SD.
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Table 3.3.1: Effect of sex on ALT, AST and ALP activities in HbAA and HbAS subjects
ALT Activity AST Activity ALP Activity
Sex AA AS Sex AA AS Sex AA AS SS
Males
n = 15
6.8 ±
0.4
7.6 ±
0.4
Males
n = 5
9.0 ±
4.7
13.0 ±
4.0
Males
n = 5
57.5 ±
3.9
68.0 ±
5.9
125.6 ±
3.8
Females
n = 9
9.0 ±
0.52
8.0 ±
0.4
Females
n = 9
10.0 ±
6.85
12.0 ±
5.6
Females
n = 9
56.8 ±
2.9
62.0 ±
4.6
121.3 ±
2.9
n = number of samples analysed.
Values are Mean ± SD.
Table 3.3.2: Effect of sex on AST and ALP activity in HbSS subjects (Crisis and steady state).
AST Activity ALP Activity
Sex Steady State Sex Crisis Sex Steady state Crisis
Males
n = 5
23.8 ±
13.54
Males
n = 8
43.88 ± 11.56 Males
n = 5
125.6 ± 3.8 144.6 ± 2.7
Females
n = 5
23.5 ±
12.18
Females
n = 7
35.14 ± 6.36 Females
n = 5
10.0 ± 6.85 157.3 ± 7.8
n = number of samples analysed.
Values are Mean ± SD.
Aspartate tarnsaminase (AST):
The level of AST activity in sickle cell
anaemia (HbSS) subjects was higher than
normal. In HbAS there was a slight decrease in
activity as age increased. For HbSS subjects,
AST activity was high at age 15. Subjects in
the age bracket 6–10 years exhibited a decrease
in AST activity when compared to those
between 0–5 years.
In steady and crisis situation, AST activity
was highest in HbSS subjects when compared
to HbAA and HbAS subjects. However, during
crisis a higher activity was observed for all age
groups studied which appears to be no age
dependent trend in AST activity for HbSS
subjects under crisis situation with mean values
for each age group increase progressively (see
table 3.2.2). AST activity in steady state
increased with age up to age 20. Subjects in
steady state between 6–10 years exhibited a
low AST activity when compared to subjects
between 0–5 years. However, there was no
significant difference (p ≥ 0.05) in AST activity
in HbSS subjects between 11–15 years and 16–
20 years (see table 3.1).
On the effect of sex, statistical analysis
showed no significant difference (p≥ 0.05)
between both sexes in AST activity for HbAA,
HbAS and HbSS (crisis and steady state)
subjects.
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP):
From table 3.1 above, ALP activity of
heterozygous (AS) is not significantly different
(p ≥ 0.05) from that of homozygous (AA)
subjects. As shown in table 3.2.3, ALP activity
increased during crisis compared to steady state
condition.
The effect of ALP activity in normal (AA)
and heterozygous (AS) subjects decreased with
age significantly (p ≤ 0.05), while a steady
decrease in ALP activity was observed with
increase in age for HbSS subjects. However,
the difference in activity between the various
age groups is statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05).
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Table 3.3.1 shows the effect of sex on ALP
activity of normal and sickle cell subjects. The
mean value for each group did not depend on
sex. There was no significant difference (p ≥
0.05) in ALP activity between both sexes.
Table 3.3.2 shows the effect of sex on ALP
activity in HbSS subjects in steady state and
painful crisis. Sex did not seem to affect the
enzyme activity whether in steady state or
crisis.
In this work, ALP had the highest levels of
activity, especially in growing children – in
both normal and sickle cell subjects. This may
be as a result of its involvement in the
calcification of bone and teeth. Also, raised
serum alkaline phosphatase accompanies
rickets of various etiologies.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the ALT and AST activities
in sickle cell disease as regards age are raised
from childhood to adolescence and that in the
steady state of sickle cell, there were elevations
which were further increased during painful
crisis. The sexes may not lead to any major
hepatic dysfunction, but should be considered
as a diagnostic parameter in sickle cell
management.
REFERENCES
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Nygren, A. (1967). SGOT in chronic
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Smith, C.H. (1972). Blood disease of infancy
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Ibadan: Spectrum books limited; pp
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Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
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ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
CHELIDONIUM MAJUS L. - A REVIEW ON PHARMACOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES AND CLINICAL EFFECTS
Biswas Surjyo Jyoti1*
1Department of Zoology, Midnapore College, Midnapore, West Bengal, India-721101
*Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 01/03/2013; Revised: 25/03/2013; Accepted: 30/03/ 2013
ABSTRACT
Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae) is a plant that has been used for centuries in treating many
diseases in European and Asian countries. Crude extracts from various parts of the plant contain
isoquinoline alkaloids. The alkaloids derived from C. majus have not yet much studied; however,
some reports are available on toxicity studies of alkaloids of this plant. In such a scenario there is
need for understanding its therapeutic potential and its toxic actions. This review summarizes
scientific findings and suggests areas where further research is needed.
KEY WORDS: Chelidonium majus, alkaloids, pharmacology, antioxidant
Review article
Cite this article:
Biswas S J (2013), CHELIDONIUM MAJUS: A REVIEW ON PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
AND CLINICAL EFFECTS., Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 238–245
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 238–245
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION:
Chelidonium majus commonly known as
swallow-wort, rock poppy or greater celandine
belongs to Family-Papaveraceae. This plant is
distributed across the globe viz. Europe, Asia,
North America and in northwest Africa,
particularly in soils rich in nitrogen. The name
‘Chelidonium’ came from Chelidon-a greek
word which means swallow bird, as the plant
begins to flower when the swallows return. The
plant is widely regarded for its therapeutic
potential in Western and Asian countries
particularly in Chinese traditional medicine and
homeopathy. Crude extracts of C. majus and
isolated compounds exhibit numerous biological
activities (Colombo and Bosisio, 1996; Gilca et
al., 2010). Though many diseased conditions
even today are being treated with C. majus both
in traditional and homeopathic medical systems
but it has some self limitations therefore, its
therapeutic efficacy needs critical evaluation.
The current review summarizes scientific
findings of other investigators on C. majus and
suggests areas where further
investigations/research is needed.
Uses in traditional medicine systems
In many European, Asian and African
countries C. majus latex was used for bile and
liver disorders, for treatment of warts, corns,
eczema and solid tumors. It has traditionally
being used to treat liver diseases, gastric ulcer,
tuberculosis, skin eruptions and oral infections.
In Chinese traditional medicine and in
homeopathy C. majus is used to treat blockage of
blood circulation, to relieve pain edema and
jaundice.
Phyto-constituents (Figure. 1)
Extracts of Chelidonium has been found to
contain three types of benzyl isoquinoline
alkaloids viz. protoberberine, protopine,
benzophenanthredine. Sanuinarine and
chelerythrine are the prominent compounds
obtained from roots while coptisine, chelidonine
and berberine are obtained from the aerial parts
(Colombo and Bosisio, 1996). Other constituents
include malic, citric, gentisic, and hydrobenzoic
acids. It also contains hydroxycinnamic acid
derivatives, sparteine, saponin, carotenoids,
chelidocystatin and flavonoids.
Figure. 1 Chemical structure of Phyto-constituents
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
Hepatoprotective effects
It has been demonstrated that Chelidonium
majus favourably modulates carbon tetrachloride
induced toxicity in rats. The treatment with C.
majus considerably reduced the number of
necrotic cells and decreased the activities of
transaminases and bilirubin (Mitra et al., 1992;
Mitra et al., 1996). Biswas et al. (2008) have
reported that ethanolic whole plant extract of
Chelidonium majus, has been tested for its
possible anti-tumor, hepato-protective and anti-
genotoxic effects in p-dimethylaminoazobenzene
(p-DAB) induced hepatocarcinogenesis in mice
through multiple assays: cytogenetical,
biochemical, histological and electron
microscopical. Data of several cytogenetical
endpoints and biochemical assay of some
toxicity marker enzymes at all fixation intervals
and histology of liver sections through ordinary,
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scanning and transmission electron microscopy
at certain fixation intervals were critically
analyzed. The results suggest anti-tumor, anti-
genotoxic and hepato-protective effects of the
plant extract, showing potentials for use in
cancer therapy. Chung et al., (2004)
demonstrated that C. majus enhances nitric oxide
and TNF-α production via NF kappa B activation
in mouse.
Effects on enzymes
Mazzanti et al., (2009) reported that there
was a significant reduction in glutathione level
and SOD activity in liver after high oral dose of
C. majus. It was reported by others that C. majus
has a strong antioxidant activity as revealed from
FRAP assay (Then et al., 2003). Biswas et al.,
(2008) also reported that LPO and transaminases
activity reduced significantly after treatment with
C. majus extract against p-DAB induced
hepatocarcinogenesis.
Antimicrobial, antiviral and antiparasitic
effects
The modulatory effect of C. majus extract
against virus was evaluated in various in vitro
and in vivo studies C. majus showed
antimicrobial effect on gram positive bacteria
and on Candida albicans (Lendfeld et al., 1981).
Crude extracts of several alkaloids extracted
from C. majus exhibited antimicrobial, antiviral
and antifungal properties (Lozyuk, 1977;
Gerencer, et al., 2006; Parvu et al., 2008; Meng
et al., 2009; Monavari et al., 2012). Growth of
Alternaria, Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans,
Rhizopus orizae and Scopulariopsis was
inhibited by berberine at 10–25 μg/ml
concentration (Mahajan et al., 1982). Ma et al.,
2000 demonstrated that chelidonine,
dihydrochelerythrine and dihydrosanguinarine
isolated from C. majus roots have activity
against Cladosporium herbarum at 4-10 μg/ml
concentration. It has been experimentally proved
that compounds (8-hydroxydihydro-
sanguinarine, dihydro-sanguinarine, dihydro-
chelerythrine, 8-hydroxydihydro-chelerythrine)
isolated from aerial parts of the plant showed
anti-bacterial effect against methicillin resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (Zuo et al., 2008).
Alkaloids extract showed antiviral efficacy
against human adenoviruses type 5 and 12,
herpes simplex virus, and RNA polio virus (Zuo
et al., 2008; Horvath et al., 1983; Kery et al.,
1987). Zhu and Ahrens (1982) investigated that
berberine successfully controlled the intestinal
secretion enhanced by E. coli enterotoxin, the
effect of which was dose dependent and it may
be due to quaternary ammonium group which is
responsible for anti-bactericidal property of
berberine and protoberberine was found active
against reverse transcriptase enzyme of RNA
tumor viruses. Chelidocystatin decreases the
activity of cysteine proteinases but further in
depth research are necessary especially in vivo
conditions.
Cardiovascular effects
Sanguinarine has been involved in
suppression of angiogenesis by inhibition of
VEGF signaling, this has been experimentally
proved in pig granulosa cells and in porcine
endothelial cells (Basini et al., 2007).
Immuno-modulatory activity
Immuno-modulatory properties of C. majus
have been investigated by Song et al., 2002,
where he obtained a protein bound to
polysaccharide from water extracts of the plant,
(CM-Ala) which showed mitogenic activity on
spleen, bone marrow cells, it also increased the
number of granulocyte macrophage colony
forming cells, further it suppressed immune
response locally by decreasing epidermal
Langerhans cells (Song et al., 2002). It has been
demonstrated that C. majus extract improved
overall humoral and cellular immunity response
and decreased incidence of recurrences of
tonsillitis in children (Khmel’nitskaia et al.,
1998).
Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic activity
Stylopine is a major component of leaf of C.
majus and it suppresses NO and PGE2 production
in macrophages by inhibiting iNOS and COX 2
expressions. It has been demonstrated that 5 and
12 lipoxygenase were inhibited by sanguinarine
and chelerythrine because these enzymes are
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involved in leukotriene B4 and 12
hydroxyeicosatetranoic acid syntheses. As
compared to chelerythrine, sanguinarine showed
higher anti-inflammatory activity due to different
oxygen electron donating constituents (Lendfeld
et al., 1981). It has been reported that C. majus
extract increases TNF α production due to NF κB
production. It has also been reported that Ukrain
induces depolarization of mitochondrial
membrane potential and activates caspase in
Jurkat T lymphoma cell model (Habermehl et al.,
2006).
Choleretic effects
Vahlensieck et al., (1995) used phenolic and
alkaloid fractions of C. majus for their choleretic
activity using perfused rat livers. He
demonstrated that total extract induced choleresis
i.e. the bile flow was significantly elevated and
the amount of the bile was more than double the
quantity. Though it was not ascertained which
fraction of the extract was responsible for the
increased bile flow.
Effects on reproductive systems
The feeding of ethanolic extract of C. majus
showed that it could combat the spermatotoxic
effects to some extent in induced p-DAB induced
carcinogenesis. As benzophenanthridine
alkaloids have marked nucleophilic properties,
they might intercept the reactive metabolites;
thereby preventing their attack on nucleophilic
sites on DNA, and hence blocking adduct
formation (Vavreckova et al., 1996 a, b). Further
it has been suggested that many enzymatic
functions are essential for the normal integrity
and function of testis i.e. synthesis, development
and maintenance of normal sperm. Therefore, the
protective role of C. majus on sperm head could
also be attributed to its regulatory effect on
protein metabolism and repair activities in the
germinal cells (Biswas and Khuda-Bukhsh,
2002).
Antihyperglycemic and Hypoglycemic activity
Berberine an isoquinoline alkaloid obtained
from C. majus is used widely in China to reduce
blood glucose, in type II diabetes. Xuan et al.,
(2011) reported that berberine inhibits
mitochondria function and decreases intracellular
ATP in streptozotocin induced diabetes in rats.
This leads to a reduction in transcription factors
such as FoxO1, SREBP1, and ChREBP. As a
result, expression of gluconeogenic genes
(PEPCK and G6Pase) and lipogenic gene (FAS)
decreases. These molecular changes represent a
signaling pathway for improvement of fasting
glucose in the berberine treated diabetic rats (Xia
et al., 2011).
Anti-cancer efficacy
The anti-leukaemic activity of protoberberine
alkaloids has been reported and Smekal et al.
(1984) demonstrated that sanguinarine
intercalates partially as well as totally into the
DNA double helix. It has been demonstrated by
circular dichroism that the spectrum of DNA is
similar to ethidium binding to DNA. C. majus
had antiproliferative effect on human
keratinocyte cell lines (Vavreckova et al., 1996a,
b). Berberine intercalation to DNA might be due
to the planes of intercalated molecules which lie
parallel to those of purine-pyrimidine pairs. An
important constituent berberine has been shown
to interact with nucleic acids by various optical
methods. It was tested that administration of
350 μg/kg of protopine intra-peritoneally
inhibited very less regression of Erlich
carcinoma and application of 50 μg/kg b.w. of
chelidonine regressed sarcoma 180 (Sokoloff,
1968). UkrainTM
an anticancer drug whose
components include most of C. majus
compounds exerts multiple effects on cancer cell
lines (Cordes et al., 2003). Several reports have
been obtained in both animal and human models
regarding anticancer efficacy of Ukrain, against
various types of induced stomach carcinogenesis,
induced hepatocarcinogenesis, in patients
suffering from pancreatic cancer, Kaposis
sarcoma (Kim et al., 1997; Biswas and Khuda-
Bukhsh, 2002; Lohninger et al., 1996; Gansauge
et al., 2002; Ernst and Schmidt, 2005).
Chelidonine inhibits telomerase in tumor cells
strongly and may provide a basis for probable
anticancer agent also this alkaloid arrest mitosis
as a result of inhibition of tubulin polymerization
and activation of SAPK/JNK pathway.
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Central Nervous system
An alkaloid obtained from C. majus,
thiophosphoric acid has been tested on rodents
regarding it action on CNS, it was found that it
depresses spontaneous motor activity; it seems to
stimulate dopaminergic system and depresses the
serotoninergic system (Kleinrok et al., 1992).
CLINICAL STUDIES:
Dysentry or gastroenteritis
Ardjah (1991) studied action of celandine on
upper abdominal symptoms in human subjects
such as cholinergic and spasmolytic effects using
panchelidon®. In case of patients with
postcholecystectomy 29 patients out of 35
showed clear improvement. A similar study
using 21 patients with dyspeptic complaints with
alcohol toxic liver parenchyma damage, 20
reported improvement after two weeks of
treatment. Limited numbers of clinical studies
have been carried out with total extracts in
patients with epigastric complications and the
sample size was small and definite conclusion
could not be ascertained from the study.
Periodontal effects
Benzophenanthridine alkaloids are routinely
used for the treatment of periodontal diseases,
Boulware et al., (1985) investigated that
sanguinaria extract was helpful in lowering of
volatile sulphur present in the oral cavity.
Southard et al., (1987) reported that
benzophenanthridine alkaloids act as an anti-
caries thereby preventing tooth decay.
Radioprotective effects
Song et al., 2003 demonstrated that extracts
of C majus have certain radioprotective effects.
Cytotoxic effects
There were spontaneous reports of adverse
drug reactions associated with C. majus
preparation. Incidences of hepatotoxicity have
been reported by several authors (Moro et al.,
2002, Kaminsky et al., 2006). It has been
reported that C. majus showed cytotoxicity
towards lymphoma cells and murine cell lines. In
some countries Complementary Evaluation
Committee recommended that products
containing alkaloids obtained from C. majus
must have a warning label and it should be
administered under medical supervision only.
CONCLUSION
We have reported hepatoprotective ability
of C. majus crude extract and various potencies
of it in induced hepatocarcinogenesis. It would
be prudent to investigate its constituents singly
and in combination, how they modulate
pathological changes and which form is more
potent or effective. Time of collection of plant
materials, place of collection, extraction
procedures, and its storage might affect its
active compounds both quantitatively and
qualitatively. The information summarizes
here concerning C. majus is intended to serve
as a reference to researchers involved in ethno-
pharmacological research.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Grateful acknowledgements are made to
Professor A. R Khuda-Bukhsh, Department of
Zoology, University of Kalyani and Dr. Prabir
De, Scientist, CCMB, Hyderabad for
encouragements.
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Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 246–253
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
A DETAILED PHARMACOGNOSTICAL EVALUATION ON LEAF OF
OLAX SCANDENS ROXB.
Naik Raghavendra1*, Borkar Sneha D
2, Harisha C R
3, Acharya R N
4
1,2P G Scholar, Department of Dravyaguna, IPGT & RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar, Gujarat,
India 3Head, Pharmacognosy Laboratory, IPGT & RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar, Gujarat, India
4Associate professor, Department of Dravyaguna, IPGT & RA, Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar,
Gujarat, India
*Corresponding Author: Email: [email protected]
Received: 11/02/2013; Revised: 22/02/2013; Accepted: 28/03/ 2013
ABSTRACT
Leaves of Olax scandens Roxb. (Olacaceae) are edible and used for cure of headache. A detailed
pharmacognostical character of its leaf is lacking. In the present study, its leaves evaluated for their
morphological, microscopical and quantitative microscopic characters following standard
procedures. The overall study showed the leaves are 3.5–9 × 2.5–3.2 cm in size, reticulate venation,
petiole 0.2–0.5 cm. Leaves showed the presence of trichomes, collenchyma, and vascular bundles.
Powder microscopy of the dried leaves shows paracytic stomata of lower epidermis, epidermal cells
of upper epidermis, and unicellular trichomes of epidermis, rosette and prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate.
KEY WORDS: Olax scandens, microscopy, quantitative methods, stomata.
Research article
Cite this article:
Naik R, Borkar S D, Harisha C R, Acharya R N (2013), A DETAILED PHARMACOGNOSTICAL
EVALUATION ON LEAF OF OLAX SCANDENS ROXB., Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med.,
Volume 2(4): 246–253
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 246–253
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
Plant and various plant products are being
used by human and animals either directly or
indirectly, since the existence of life, for food,
medicine, clothing, shelter etc. Olax scandens
Roxb. (Olacaceae), known as Badru, is a shrub
or small tree, distributed throughout tropical
India Flowers white, 6–7.5 mm long, in short
racemes; Fruit yellow, or orange fleshy,
subglobose, 0.8–1.5 cm in diameter, more than
half enclosed in accresent calyx. (Saxena H.O,
1995). Leaves of Olax scandens Roxb.
(Olacaceae) is being used by tribal people of
Odisha for medicinal and food purposes
(Tribhubana Panda et al., 2007). Decoction of
stem bark is taken internally to cure fever and
cough, (Veeramuthu et al., 2006) (Kirtikar &
Basu, 2003), boiled leaves fomentation is
applied to cure headache (Anonymous, 1990).
Review of literature reveals that its leaves have
not been studied in detail for
pharmacognostical characters, which is an
essential parameter for identification of a crude
drug (Anonymous, 1999). Hence, the present
study was undertaken to establish certain
botanical standards for identification and
standardization of O. scandens leaf.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Collection and preservation of the sample
Leaves of Olax scandens Roxb. were
collected from its natural habitat, Balangir,
Odisha, during September 2012 and identified
with the help of botanical texts and flora
(Saxena H.O, 1995). A sample specimen was
deposited to Pharmacognosy lab (SPECIMEN
NO- PHM 6062/21/09/2012) for future
references. The leaves were washed, shade
dried, powdered, sieved through 80 no. mesh
and preserved in an air-tight glass vessel. For
microscopical evaluation, fresh sample was
preserved in a solution prepared from 70%
ethyl alcohol : glacial acetic acid : formalin
(AAF) in the ratio of 90:5:5 (Johnson
Alexander Donald, 1940).
Morphological study.
The morphological study includes size,
shape, apex, margin, venation, base, petiole,
surface, color of leaves of O. scandens.
Microscopical study:
Microscopical examinations were carried
out by taking transverse section of petiole, leaf
through midrib (Khandelwal K.R et al., 1996),
type and distribution of stomata, epidermal cell
and trichomes (Anonymous, 1999) following
standard guidelines.
Quantitative microscopy:
Quantitative microscopy was carried out to
determine epidermal cell number, stomatal
number, stomatal index and size of the stomata
(Wallis, 1985).
Powder microscopy:
Dried leaf powder was studied following
standard procedures (Trease GE et al., 2002).
The micro photographs were taken by using
Carl zeiss trinocular microscope.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
Morphological study:
Macroscopic investigation showed that the
leaves are alternate, exstipulate, petiolate,
petiole 0.2–0.5 cm, somewhat twisted, base
equal, leaf measures about 3.5–9 × 2.5–3.2 cm,
dark green above, light green below, ovate to
lanceolate, margin simple, apex obtuse, strong
midrib, 6–7 pairs of nerves with reticulate
venation. (Plate A1–2).
Microscopical study:
Petiole:
The T.S of petiole is half-moon shaped in
outline. It showed, outer single layer of
epidermis with numerous simple, horn shaped
trichomes, followed by cortex, endodermis,
pericyclic fibers, phloem and centrally located
xylem. (Plate A 3–8).
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PLATE A
3. T.S through petiole
4. Rosette crystal & tannin content
5. Epidermal layer with trichomes and
rosette crystal
6. Prismatic crystals & tannin
1. Morphology of leaf
2. Measurement of leaf
7. T.S showing cortex and vascular bundle
8. Pericyclic fiber, phloem and xylem.
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Epidermis is single layered, barrel shaped,
compactly arranged cells, filled with yellow
colored material. Some of the epidermal cells
showed simple, unicellular, horn shaped
trichomes. Epidermis is covered with thick
cuticle.
Cortex is made up of 8–10 layers of loosely
arranged parenchyma cells. Lower side of the
parenchyma cells filled with rosette crystals,
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate and some
tannin contents as compared to the upper side.
Some of the cells contained oil globules.
Endodermis is Inner to the cortex, single
layered, somewhat elongated thin walled cells
forming endodermis. Around the endodermis
4–6 layers of pericyclic fibers forming a ring
like structure covering the vascular bundle.
Vascular bundles are open and bi-collateral
type. Phloem present around the xylem with
some phloem fibers and sieve elements forming
a ring like structure. The metaxylem facing
towards lower epidermis and protoxylem facing
towards upper epidermis. Xylem bundles were
separated by uniserrate medullary rays along
with xylem parenchyma and fibers.
T.S Through mid rib
The T. S of leaf showed upper and lower
epidermis with mesophyll tissue having upper
pallisade and lower spongy parenchyma cells.
Section through midrib showed centrally
located vascular bundle covered with ground
tissue. On the lower side of the transverse
section 1–3 layers of collenchymatous cells
were present. (Plate B1–4)
Epidermis was Single layered, barrel
shaped epidermal cells both on upper and lower
epidermis with unicellular trichomes.
Epidermis was covered with cuticle. Trichomes
were more in lower epidermis than upper
epidermis. Stomata found only at the lower
epidermis.
Mesophyll tissue was differentiated into
two layers. Upper 1–2 layers of compactly
arranged pallisade parenchyma with oil
globules, and rich in chloroplast pigments.
Rarely with some rosette crystals of calcium
oxalate. Lower 3–5 layers of spongy
parenchyma cells, loosely arranged with air
spaces and loaded with prismatic, rosette
crystals of calcium oxalate.
Section through mid-rib showed a large
vascular bundle located at the centre, 1–3
layers of collenchyma tissue present at the
lower epidermis surrounding the ground tissue.
Ground tissue was made up of thin walled
compactly arranged parenchyma cells heavily
loaded by rosette crystals, prismatic crystal of
calcium oxalate and some oil globules.
Inner to the ground tissue, single layered,
somewhat elongated thin walled cells forming
endodermis. Inner to the endodermis 4–5 layers
of pericyclic fibers forming a ring like structure
covering the vascular bundle.
Vascular bundle was open and bi-collateral
in type. Phloem’s present around the xylem
with some phloem fibers and sieve elements
formed a ring like structure. The metaxylem
facing towards lower epidermis and protoxylem
facing towards upper epidermis. The xylem
bundles were separated by uniserrate medullary
rays along with xylem parenchyma and fibers.
Surface study of epidermis: (Plate B5–8)
Surface study of epidermis was carried out
to determine type and distribution of stomata,
epidermal cell and trichomes.
Stomata were absent in the upper epidermis
and consists only wavy epidermal cells. Some
of the trichomes and cicatrix were also
observed.
The lower epidermis consists of numerous
stomata of paracytic type. Some of the
trichomes and cicatrix were also observed.
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 246–253
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PLATE-B
1. T.S through mid rib
2. Prismatic crystals
3. Vascular bundles with ground tissue
4. Xylem and phloem
5. Lower epidermis with 6. Stomata & cicatrix with
paracytic stomata epidermal cells
7. Upper epidermis with 8. Upper epidermis with trichome
cicatrix
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PLATE- C
1. Lower epidermis with stomata 2. Measurements of stomata
3. Simple trichome 4. Crystal fibers
5. Prismatic crystal 6. Epidermal cells
7. Paracytic stomata 8. Annular & spiral vessels
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 246–253
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TABLE 1: Quantitative microscopy of O. scandens leaf
Sr. No Parameter Result
1 Type of the stomata Paracytic
2 Length of the stomata 29.99 μm
3 Width of the stomata 22.43 μm
4 Outline of the stomata 673.19 μm2
5 Number of the stomata 12
6 Number of epidermal cells 24
7 Stomatal index 33
Quantitative microscopy: (Plate C1–2)
Quantitative microscopy of leaves was
carried out to determine epidermal cell number,
stomatal number, stomatal index and size of the
stomata.
The stomatal number, stomatal index,
stomatal size, epidermal cell size were
calculated by trial and error method (by taking
3–5 successive readings. Mean value was taken
into consideration.) Results are tabulated in
table – 1
Powder microscopy (Plate C3–8)
Powder microscopy of the dried leaf
powder was carried out following standard
guidelines. Organoleptic characters showed the
presence of greenish color with leafy odour and
bitter taste.
Microscopic characters
Diagnostic characters of powder
microscopy showed the paracytic stomata from
lower epidermis, epidermal cells of upper
epidermis, unicellular, simple horn shaped
trichomes from epidermis, rosette and prismatic
crystals of calcium oxalate from mesophyll and
ground tissue. Annular and spiral vessels from
vascular bundles, some of the brown content
(tannin) from ground tissue, crystal fibers and
lignified fibers.
CONCLUSION
Leaf of Olax scandens Roxb. (Olacaceae)
can be identified on the basis of key
microscopical characters like paracytic stomata,
unicellular, simple horn shaped trichomes,
rosette and prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate, bi collateral vascular bundles, annular
and spiral vessels, tannin, crystal fibers and
lignified fibers. The quantitative surface
microscopy study showed 24 numbers of
epidermal cells, and stomatal index 33. These
observed parameters could be useful to
establish certain botanical standards for
identification and standardization of O.
scandens leaf.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Director,
IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurved University,
Jamnagar and Department of AYUSH, for
providing financial support and other facilities
to carry out the research work. We express our
thankfulness to Mr. B. N. Hota, Rtd. DFO,
Govt. of Odisha; Mr. Pareswar Sahoo
Pharmacognosy expert; Mr. Malaya Das, Forest
Range Officer, Govt. of Odisha and other
traditional healer who helped us during drug
collection at Gandhamardan Hills, Balangir and
Bargarh, Odisha.
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 246–253
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
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Ltd., Edition 15, pp. 32, 33, 95–Johnson
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technique. New York, London,
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(1996). Practical pharmacognosy
techniques and experiments. Nirali
Prakashan, Pune, pp. 10–39.
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Plants, Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun Vol. I, pp 568.
Saxena H.O, (1995), The Flora of Orissa,
Regional Research Laboratory,
Bhubaneshwar, 1st edition, pp. 288.
Trease GE, Evans WC (2002), Trease and
Evans Pharmacognosy, Harcourt brace
& Co. 99, 512, 547.
Tribhubana Panda, Rabindra N Pandhy, (2007),
Sustainable food habits of the hill
dwelling kandha tribe in kalanandi
district of Orissa, Indian journal of
traditional maedicine, vol. 6(1), pp.
103–105.
Veeramuthu Duraipandiyan, Muniappan
Ayyanar, Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu,
(2006), Antimicrobial activity of some
ethnomedicinal plants used by Paliyar
tribe from Tamil Nadu, India, BMC
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Source of Support: Department of AYUSH,
Govt. of India
Conflict of Interest: None Declared
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 3 | March 2013 | 254–258
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
A CLINICAL EVALUATION ON RUJAKARA MARMA WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO PAIN THRESHOLD
Benjwal Shobha1*
1Asst. Prof. Rachana Sharir Dept., M.S.M. Institute of Ayurveda, Khanpur Kalan, Sonipat Haryana
*Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 10/03/2013; Revised: 18/02/2013; Accepted: 20/03/2013
ABSTRACT
Marmas are vulnerable spots, constituting the essential aspect of surgico-anatomical knowledge.
While defining the type of marmas based on the effect or prognosis of the trauma, Acharya Sushruta
has classified five types of marmas. Among them he has appreciated pain as a residual effect of
trauma in Rujakara marma. This study was planned to analyze the tissues which were responsible for
pain in Rujakara marma & to evaluate pain-threshold relation with this marma. The study involved
60 healthy individuals who volunteered. According to anatomical sites, in Group I was taken to
evaluate pain threshold at 8 (Eight) Rujakara marmas (vital spots which have pain due to trauma)
sites of body and In Group II the same 60 individuals were taken to measure pain threshold at sites
other than Rujakara marmas. The results have shown that eight sites of Rujakara marma has
different types of fibrous Scleratogenic tissues having high pain threshold noceceptive impulses,
which might be the probable reason for Rujakara marmas to have a high pain-threshold in
comparison to other sites of the body.
KEYWORDS: Ruja, Painthreshold, noceceptive impulse
Research article
Cite this article:
Benjwal S (2013), A CLINICAL EVALUATION ON RUJAKARA MARMA WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO PAIN THRESHOLD, Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med.,
Volume 2(4): 254–258
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 3 | March 2013 | 254–258
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
The Ayurvedic Science of Marma is itself a
treatise on Surgico-anatomical learning. The
concept of marma is a great contribution of
Sushruta, who mentioned 107 vital points in
various parts of the body, which should be
carefully dealt with during surgery & should
always be protected from injury, as the essence
of life (prana) rest in them (Sushruta 200 B.C).
Though general definition of Marma signifies
that every marma is the confluence of five
types of tissue, namely mamsa (muscle) Sira
(vessels), Snayu (ligaments) Asthi (bone) &
Sandhi (joints) (Charaka 200 B.C); but it is
evident from the description of injuries that the
traumatic effect or prognosis entirely depends
on the predominance of the tissue type at the
marma. Sushruta has classified Parinam
prakar marmas (residual effect of trauma) into
sadhyo pranhara (death on the spot after
trauma) Kalantara pranhara,(death occuring
after a short period post-trauma) Vishalyghana
(death occuring after removal of foreign body
from a traumatic wound) Vaikalyakara (there
will be a stable deformity in the body structure
post-trauma) & Rujakara. The vitiation of
Rujakara marma creates only the feeling of
pain and there is no condition of death or
morbidity (Sushruta 200 B.C). There are eight
points of Rujakara marma in the body out of
which Gulfa (Ankle joint) and Manibandh
(wrist joint) are sandhi & Kurchshira (brush
like structure) are of Snayu predominance. The
Rujakara marmas possess properties of Agni
(Fire) & Vayu (Air) Mahabhutas both of which
causes pain as a residual effect of trauma
(Sushruta 200 B.C). The perception of pain due
to trauma depends upon many factors like pain
receptors in the skin (mechanical, Chemical &
Thermal receptors) & rate of tissue damage
(Snell S.Richard, 1992). The differentiation
without discrimination was assessed on the
basis of gradation of pain-threshold & in the
present work this criterion was adopted for
differentiating tissues at different anatomical
sites to understand ‘Rujakara marma’ in a
better way. Hence a study was planned to
differentiate out the tissues responsible for
Rujakara marma and to study the pain
threshold at Rujakara marma sites & compare
it with pain threshold in other body parts.
MATERIALS
The research work was conducted on 60
healthy individuals selected from Indira Gandhi
Girls Hostel, P.G.Hostel of State Ayurvedic
College, Lucknow. Some of the observations
have been made by the researcher itself at the
neighbourhood. All the 60 healthy individuals
were taken in two groups:
Group I-Measurement of Pain threshold at site
of Rujakara marma sthana
Group II- Measurement of Pain threashold 5
cms proximal to the site of Rujakara marma
sthana
S.No Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
1 Individual between age of 18 – 40 years Individual below 18 or above 40 years.
2 Either Sex Pregnant women
3 Having no disease Any medical surgical co-morbidity
4 If taking any medicine
For this study a Proforma was prepared.
The information regarding name, age, sex and
occupation were noted down. The blood
pressure, temperature, respiratory rate & pulse
rate were also recorded. For the purpose of
measuring pain threshold following instruments
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were used: Sphygmomanometer, Specially
designed blunt conical wooden object, Scale,
Stethoscope, Watch. (River.J, 1999).
METHOD
Measuring of Pain Threshold:
The subjects were asked to sit on a chair in
erect posture placing forearm in supinated
position on a table. A specially designed blunt
conical wooden object with cuff of
sphygmomanometer was kept on the site of
Rujakara marma i.e. at the wrist joint (for
manibandh marma) & just medial to the
tubercle of scaphoid at the palmar surface (for
kurchashira marma) (Solanki J.C.1982).
Thereafter, cuff was wrapped & air was
gradually pumped to produce, pressure pain. As
soon as the subject complained the pain, the
pressure necessary to produce that degree of
pain was recorded in terms of mm Hg. These
readings were utilized as the parameter of pain-
threshold. For the measurement of pain
threshold in lower extremities the wooden
conical object was placed on Ankle joint (For
Gulfa marma) & at the cross of line drawn
horizontally on the planter surface by joining
the medial conversity of medial cuniform bone
and base of the 5th
metatarsal bone and
vertically following the junction of 1st and 2
nd
toe (For Kurcha Shira marma) (Solanki
J.C.1982). For accuracy three readings were
taken at the same place at a 10 min interval. For
comparative studies, measurement of pain
threshold was done on other body parts i.e. 5
cm proximal to Rujakara marma site. Average
of all these readings of pain-threshold and
observations were statistically calculated.
Table-1 Statistical analysis of Pain Threshold in Group I and Group II
S.n
o Group I Group II ‘t’
value
‘p’
value
Name of
Rujakara
marma
Mean value
of pain
threshold
S.D 5cm proximal
to Rujakara
marma
Mean
value of
pain
threshold
S.D
1. Manibandh
(Wrist joint)
132.02 ± 46.23 Manibandh
(Wrist joint)
128.99 ± 48.58 18.52 <0.001
2. Gulfa Marma
(Ankle Joint)
151.71 ± 52.07 Gulfa Marma
(Ankle Joint)
118.25 ± 49.60 13.30 <0.001
3. Kurcha shira
(Upper
extremity)
130.27 ± 48.64 Kurcha shira
(Upper
extremity)
91.78 ± 45.68 7.14 <0.001
4. Kurcha shira
(lower
extremity)
170.65 ± 68.88 Kurcha shira
(lower
extremity)
120.95 ± 60.18 9.68 <0.001
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Table-2 Comparative Assessment of Pain threshold in Group I and Group II
S.No. Name of the Site of Pain Threshold Mean value of Pain Threshold S.D
1. Rujakara marma 136 ± 6.23
2. Control site of Rujakara marma 128.99 ± 48.85
t value = 4.237
p value = <0.001
RESULTS
Table-1 indicates that the average pain
threshold at Manibandha (wrist joint) was
190.36 mm Hg with a SD of ± 56.40 and
124.22 mm Hg with a SD of ± 46.60 was found
at a site, 5 cm proximal from Manibandha
Marma (wrist joint). Comparative assessment
was statistically significant with ‘t’ value of
18.52 and p value < 0.001. The average of pain
threshold at Gulfa (ankle joint) was 151.71 mm
Hg with a S.D. of ± 52.07 and for sites other
than Gulfa (ankle joint) i.e., 5 cm proximal to
the Gulfa Marma (ankle joint) was lower with a
mean value 118.25 mm Hg with a S.D of
± 49.60. The difference observed was highly
significant, with ‘t’ value being 13.30 and p
value <0.001. The mean value of pain threshold
was 130.27 mm Hg with a S.D. of ± 48.48 and
for site other than Kurchshira Marma of Upper
extremity while it was 91.78 mm Hg with a
S.D. of ± 45.68 for the other sites on the palm
i.e. 5 cm distal from the Kurchashira Marma of
Upper extremity. The comparative assessment
shows the ‘t’ value being – 7.149 and p value <
0.001, which is highly significant. The mean
value of pain threshold at Kurchshira Marma
of lower extremity was 170.65 mm Hg with a
S.D. of ± 68.88 and other site on planter
surface 5 cm distol to Kurchshira Marma of
lower extremity while it was 120.95 mm Hg
with a S.D. of ± 60.18. The comparative
assessment shows the value were statistical
significant with a ‘t’ value of 9.685 and p
value < 0.001. In Table-2 the mean value of
pain threshold at Rujakara marma site was
136.02 mm Hg with S.D. of ± 46.23. The mean
value of pain threshold of control group of
Rujakara marma was 128.88 mm Hg with S.D
of ± 48.85. So it was observed that the average
pain – threshold of control site of Rujakara
marma was lower than the average pain
threshold at Rujakara marma sites. The
comparison between the two groups is highly
significant with a ‘t’ value of 4.237 and p value
< 0.001. The mean value of pain threshold at
Rujakara marma site was 136.02 mm Hg with
S.D. of ± 46.23. The mean value of pain
threshold of control group of Rujakara marma
was 128.88 mm Hg with S.D ± 48.85. So it was
observed that the average pain – threshold of
control site of Rujakara marma was lower than
the average pain threshold at Rujakara marma
sites. The comparison between the two groups
is highly significant with a ‘t’ value of 4.237
and p value <0.001.
DISCUSSION
Based on the result of vitiation of marma
sites, the marmas are divided into 5 types in
which the Rujakara marma belongs to least
morbidity (Sushruta, 200 B.C). Ruja (pain) is a
expression of body related to damage of tissue.
This is a psychosomatic phenomenon which is
different in every individual (www.iasp-
pain.org), which has been made the criteria in
this study to differentiate one site of tissue to
another site of tissue. This phenomenon has
been used as a basic tool by school of Sushruta
to classify Marmas (vital spot) on the basis of
result of the traumatic effect. All the tissues
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such as Mansa (Muscle) Sira (vessels) Snayu
(ligament) Asthi (bone) Sandhi (joints) carry
noceceptor a biological sensor which is related
to noxious stimuli which is cast by mechanical
(direct trauma) biological irritation & thermal
The nonceceptive receptors are specialized
nerve endings in skin and deep tissues and
unlike other sensory receptors they are
activated at high threshold by a range of
potentially damaging stimuli (Grey’s, 1980).
This reveals that school of sushruta has
concerned nonceceptive pain as a criterion for
Rajukar marma. There are eight Rajukar
marmas being comparatively high
nonceceptive pain-threshold which also
indicates that it belongs to sclerotogenous pain
rather dermatogenic pain. The sclerotogenic
pain pattern is selective of ligament, tendon,
disc, periosteum & apophysial joint (Grey’s
1980) the anatomical places of Rujakara
marma carry one or more than one type of
sclerotogenous tissue like manibandh (wrist
joint) and gulfa (ankle joint) carry abundant
ligaments and kurch shira consists largely
tendons and all these have sclerogenatic pain
receptors having high pain threshold. (Snell S
Richard 1992). This discussion lead to
Sushruta’s observation in the form of Rujakara
marma that the vital parts are precisely of
sclerotogenous type of nonceceptive pain
receptor, bearing high threshold as compared to
other places where tendon, ligament & other
fibrous structures are lesser in quantum. The
Group II are largely consisting of muscle &
vascular tissue which are definitely having
lesser pain-threshold as compared to Group I.
CONCLUSION
The classified Rujakara marmas according
to school of Sushruta anatomically placed at
eight sites carrying different fibrous
sclerotogenic tissues, have comparatively high
threshold of noceceptive impulse. This
observation further draws the attention to the
subject of inquiry that whyManibandha (wrist)
has the highest pain threshold than Kurchashira
of upper extremity. This study opens the gate of
further research to prove these specific
observations made in present study.
REFERENCES:
Charak (200B.C) Chakrapani Tika
commentary by Tripathy Brahmanand
(2002) on Charak Samhita 6th
edition,
published by Chaukhambha Subharti
Prakashan 1999, Varanasi, Vol. II
Chikitsasthan Chapter-26th
page 720–
734.
Grey Henery (1980) Grey’s Anatomy by Peter
L Williams and Roger Warwick 36th
edition, Churchill Livingstone,
Published by Jarrold and Sons Ltd.
Snell.S.Richard (1992) Clinical Anatomy for
Medical student 4th
edition Chapter-9,
page- 487–495.
Solanki J.C, A Study on Rujakara marma with
Special Reference ot their anatomical &
surgical significance. Thesis M.D
Lucknow University, 1982.
Source: //www..iasp-pain.org/. Basic concept
of Pain physiology.
Sushruta (200 B.C.) Sushruta Samhita hindi
commentary by Ghanekar B.G.(1999),
14th
edition, published by Mehar Chand
Luxmi Chand Publication, Chapter-6th
page-184–189.
River J (1999) Adolescence pain measurement,
pain threshold. Journal of paediatrics
75(4):244–248
Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
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ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
PHARMACOGNOSTICAL AND PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL
INVESTIGATIONS ON DIFFERENT PARTS OF BULBOPHYLLUM
NEILGHERRENSE WIGHT. -AN ORCHID USED IN FOLK MEDICINE.
Kumari Harshitha1*
, Nishteswar K2, Harisha C R
3
1Ph D Scholar, Department of Dravyaguna, IPGT&RA, GAU, Jamnagar.Gujarat, India
2Professor and HOD, Department of Dravyaguna, IPGT&RA, GAU, Jamnagar. Gujarat, India
3Head, Pharmacognosy, IPGT&RA, GAU, Jamnagar. Gujarat, India
*Corresponding author: [email protected], Ph: 8460832302.
Received: 11/02/2013; Revised: 22/02/2013; Accepted: 28/03/2013
ABSTRACT
Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wight. is an epiphyte belonging to the family Orchidaceae found
growing on medium to large sized host trees endemic to the forests of Western ghats which is yet to
be scientifically explored. A few published reports are available with regards to its medicinal uses
and scientific studies. In the present study, systematic pharmacognostic evaluation of leaf, stem and
root of the plant were carried out with respect to macroscopy, microscopy and preliminary
phytochemical screening. Macroscopic study detailed the structure of leaf, stem and root.
Microscopic study demonstrated the presence of mucilage cells and calcium oxalate crystals in leaf;
oil globules, tannin and mucilage cells in stem; velamen tissue, passage cells and lignified
parenchyma cells in root. Qualitative phytochemical investigations showed the presence of alkaloids,
tannin and phenol in methanol extract of stem and root whereas in leaf, constituents like alkaloids,
saponin glycosides, tannin, phenols and reducing sugar were observed. The morphological,
histological and phytochemical investigations reported in the paper may become supportive to
establish the authenticity of the plant simultaneously giving a wide scope for further pharmacological
and clinical researches.
KEY WORDS: Bulbophyllum neilgherrense, leaf, stem, root, pharmacognosy, phytochemical
studies.
Research article
Cite this article:
Kumari H, Nishteswar K, Harisha C R (2013), PHARMACOGNOSTICAL AND PRELIMINARY
PHYTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON DIFFERENT PARTS OF BULBOPHYLLUM
NEILGHERRENSE WIGHT. - AN ORCHID USED IN FOLK MEDICINE.,
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 259–269
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 259–269
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
Bulbophyllum neilgherrens Wight.
belonging to Orchidaceae family, commonly
known as Pottlekai in Kannada (Bhat
Gopalkrishna, 2003), Kalmel pullurvi in
Malayalam is abundantly available in Western
ghats (Rajendran A et al., 1997) and sparsely
distributed in Eastern ghats (Jadhav S N, 2003).
Forests of Karnataka, mainly Udupi (Bhat
Gopalkrishna, 2003), Belgaum (Gamble J.S,
2011), Malabar (Hooker J D, 1885) are the
places from where the species can be traced.
The plant is endemic to South India, which
occurs in plains and in higher elevations up to
900 m (Abraham and Vatsala, 1981).
The special characteristic of the plant is the
presence of pseudobulb for the preservation of
water and nutrients. Pseudobulbs are 3–3.5 cm
long and 2 cm across, smooth, green, four
angled. Progressing yellowing of pseudobulbs
is observed on ageing. Leaves 10–15cm long,
2–3 cm broad, coriaceous, elliptic to broadly
oblong, obtuse at apex, base narrowed tapering
into short petiole attached to the pseudobulb
(Bhat Gopalkrishna, 2003, Abraham and
Vatsala, 1981). Scape stout, from the base of
the pseudobulb, sheathed at the base, jointed
and with bract-like sheaths at the joints.
Flowers in racemes, petals small, pale yellow,
lip purple (Theodore cooke, 2006).
Karyomorphological study of this orchid
species has shown the chromosomal number to
be 19 (Abraham and Vatsala, 1981). The plant
is used by the folk people for restoration of
adolescence and as tonic in the form of juice
extracted from pseudobulb (Hossain MM,
2011). The paste prepared from pseudobulb and
leaf is consumed along with cow’s milk to treat
leucoderma (Rajendran A et al., 1997). In
certain regions of Karnataka, various parts of
this orchid are used by the villagers in the
management of heart diseases (Kumari
Harshitha, 2011).
Scarce information is available regarding
the phytochemical and pharmacological
profiles of this drug. The methanolic extract of
leaf showed the presence of flavonoids and
cyanogenic glycosides (Maridass M et al.,
2008). In vitro study of ethanol extract of leaf
and pseudobulb showed pronounced
antibacterial effect as compared to the effect
produced by chloroform and aqueous extracts
(Priya K et al., 2005).
No information is available regarding the
microscopical characters of the plant. In this
regard, pharmacognosy including transverse
section, powder microscopy, histochemical
tests of leaf, stem and roots with their
preliminary phytochemical investigations were
carried out with a view to establish purity and
standard of the sample.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Plant material
Whole plant was collected from its natural
habitat in Puttur TQ, Karnataka, India during
the month of April 2012. The botanical identity
was confirmed by the botanist Dr. K.
Gopalakrishna Bhat, Professor of Botany
(Rtd.), Poorna prajna college, Udupi, India. A
herbarium specimen was preserved in the
Pharmacognosy lab, IPGT&RA, Gujarat
Ayurved University, Jamnagar with voucher
specimen number 6025\2012.
Macroscopical evaluation (Kokate et al.
2005):
The sample was cleaned and macroscopic
evaluation of whole plant was carried out. The
leaf, stem and root were then separated and
individual macroscopic characters like size,
shape, texture were noted in detail.
Microscopical evaluation (Trease and Evans
2009, Wallis 1985):
Free hand sections of leaf, stem and root
were taken and washed with chloral hydrate
solution. Sections were first observed in
distilled water then stained with phloroglucinol
and conc. HCl. Powder microscopy of shade-
dried powder was also carried out.
Photomicrographs were taken by Carl zeiss
trinocular microscope.
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Histochemical tests (Krishnamurty 1988):
Thick sections were treated with various
reagents to locate chemical constituents i.e.
Tannin, mucilage, lignin and calcium.
Pharmaceutical evaluation (Anonymous,
2000):
Physicochemical parameters and
preliminary phytochemical investigations were
conducted on shade dried powders of leaf, stem
and root. The presence or absence of different
phyto-constituents in aqueous & methanol
extracts was detected.
RESULTS
Macroscopical characters- [Fig 1]
Bulbophyllum neilgherrens Wight. is an
epiphytic rhizomatous orchid with greenish
angled pseudobulbs bearing a single leaf at its
apex. Roots arise from the base of pseudobulb.
Scape is longer than the leaf which emerges
from the base of the pseudobulb. It is sheathed
at the base and sheath is also seen at the joints.
Inflorescence is raceme, drooping with many
flowers. Fruit is a capsule, green, globular-
elongate, 2 cm long, 5 angled with minute
seeds. [Fig 1A & 1B]
Description of leaf- Leaves are 8 cm–15 cm
long, 2–3 cm broad, coriaceous, elliptic to
broadly oblong, flattened, succulent, obtuse at
apex with narrow base. Midrib is prominent in
the ventral surface where as grooved on the
dorsal surface. Leaf margins are simple. Leaf
blade has parallel venation, tapers into short
petiole attached to the pseudobulb. A single
leaf emerges from the top of each pseudobulb.
[Fig 1C]
Description of stem- Horizontally creeping
stout somewhat rhizomatic, measuring about 6–
8 × 0.2–0.3 cm, rounded with slight ridges and
grooves, hard, light brown in colour with dark
brown scaly rings formed at successive
intervals. Nodal region is bulged, flattened
gives cone shaped structure inside the bulb.
Tuft of roots arise from the lower side of the
node. [Fig 1D]
Description of root- Tuft of thin roots arise
from the nodal region of the stem (adventitious)
measuring about 6–10 cm long, greenish to
light brown in colour, covered with delicate
fibrous type of absorptive tissue called
velamen, which is dead and perforated. When
the root becomes dry velamen part detaches
from the thin wiry central part which is
strongly attached to the stem. [Fig 1E]
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Microscopical characters-
Leaf [Fig 2]
Leaf was isobilateral in nature. The upper
and lower epidermis was undifferentiated,
mesophyll tissue is filled with chloroplast
pigments consisting number of secretory cells.
Vascular bundles were centrally located. Upper
epidermis was single layered with compactly
arranged barrel shaped cells. At the midrib
portion the barrel shaped cells were
morphologically modified into tangentially
elongated compactly arranged cells resulting in
the formation of motor cells or hinge cells.
These epidermal cells were covered with thick,
ridged cuticle. Lower epidermis has only the
barrel shaped cells without motor cells, with
thick cuticle [Fig 2A]. Both the epidermis
possesses sunken stomata. Mesophyll was
spirally thickened near the epidermis with
banded parenchyma cells. Rest of the
mesophyll tissue was filled with
undifferentiated isodiametric parenchyma cells
containing numerous choloroplast, and was
compactly arranged. The mesophyll also
consists of some mucilage cavities. The
mesophyll also consists of raphide idioblast. In
midrib portion there was a centrally located
large vascular bundle and smaller vascular
bundles are passing through the main nerves
[Fig 2B]. Vascular bundle consists of phloem
towards lower epidermis, xylem towards upper
epidermis with few xylem elements with xylem
parenchyma and its fibres, where as phloem
with few sieve elements and fibres [Fig 2C].
Some of the mesophyll parenchyma consists of
reddish brown colour contents. The thick
cuticle and sunken stomata shows the
xerophytic nature of the plant, where as the
parenchyma cells, large mucilage cells show
the hydrophytic nature of the plant.
Powder microscopy: Diagnostic characters of
powder showed anisocytic stomata in epidermis
[Fig 2D], fibers from vascular bundles [Fig
2E], acicular crystals of calcium oxalate [Fig
2F], raphides, mucilage cells [Fig 2G], annular
thickened parenchyma cells, tannin from
mesophyll tissue and epidermal cells in surface
view.
Stem [Fig 3]
TS of stem showed the outer epidermis is
followed by hypodermis and the ground tissue
[Fig 3A]. Epidermis is made of single layered
compactly arranged barrel shaped cells without
intercellular spaces and is covered with thick
cuticle. Hypodermis made of 6–7 layers of
compactly arranged lignified sclerenchyma
cells seen below epidermis [Fig 3B].
Endodermis is made of abruptly placed barrel
to uneven shaped cells with thick lignified cells
followed by ground tissue. Ground tissue is
consisting of outer thin walled parenchymatous
zone, then pericyclic fibre zone and the central
region with scattered vascular bundles. Ground
tissue occupied 2/3rd
portion of the section
lying beneath the endodermis. 5–7 layers of
loosely arranged parenchyma cells without
intercellular spaces are seen consisting oil
globules, tannin [Fig 3C]. Some of the inner
parenchyma cells were lignified and pitted. 2–3
layers of lignified pericyclic fibres forming a
ring like structure were noticed. Number of
vascular bundles are scattered all over the zone.
Vascular bundles in peripheral zone are larger
in size than those in the central zone. Vascular
bundles are collateral and closed, each bundle
surrounded by a sheath which is more
conspicuous towards upper and lower side of
the bundle. The Vascular bundle consists of
xylem and phloem. Xylem consisting 2–3 large
metaxylem and small protoxylem with
tracheids and lysogenous cavity is present inner
to the protoxylem. Phloem consists of
conspicuous sieve tubes and companion cells.
Phloem parenchyma is not found. Mostly the
ground tissue is parenchymatous; some of the
lignified pitted parenchyma surrounds the
vascular bundles. Rest of the parenchyma cells
were also lignified and are thick walled [Fig
3D].
Powder microscopy: Powder showed the
presence of acicular crystals, tannin, fragments
of annular vessel, tracheids with oil globules
[Fig 3E], fibers [Fig 3F], fragments of
parenchyma cells, annular pitted vessel[Fig 3G]
and lignified parenchyma cells [Fig 3H].
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 259–269
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 259–269
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 259–269
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Root [Fig 4]
TS of root showed outer velamen followed
by single layer of exodermis, leading into a
wide zone of cortex. Inner to it there was
circularly arranged single layer of endodermis
followed by pericycle and the vascular bundles
with alternatively arranged xylem and phloem,
forming central large pith [Fig 4A]. The outer
layer of the root showed velamen tissue. These
are dead cells, variously elongated, thick
walled and compactly arranged. Exodermis is
the outermost layer of the cortex, tangentially
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 259–269
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arranged, thick walled and suberized. Few cells
which are unthickened are passage cells.
Beneath the exodermis many layers of (5–6)
loosely arranged parenchyma cells, consisting
chloroplast pigments, along with some air
chambers are present. Some of the parenchyma
cells have raphides, oil globules, starch grains
or yellowish brown tannin material [Fig 4B,
Fig 4C]. Endodermis is single layered with
compactly and circularly arranged barrel
shaped cells forming a ring, followed by single
layer of thin walled pericycle. Some of the
endodermal cells opposite to phloem are
thickened. Vascular bundles form polyarch,
radially arranged and exarch. Xylem vessels
with metaxylem towards pith and protoxylem
towards the endodermis. Xylem alternate with
the phloem, xylem consists of xylem
parenchyma and tracheids. The xylem
parenchyma is angular. Phloem consists of
sieve tube and companion cells. Pith is the
central most part of the root being angular
parenchymatous, thick walled and lignified
[Fig 4D].
Powder microscopy: Diagnostic characters of
powder showed the presence of lignified fiber
[Fig 4E], oil globules [Fig 4F], tannin and
starch grains [Fig 4G], acicular crystals,
tracheids [Fig 4H], mucilage containing cell,
fragments of pitted vessel [Fig 4I].
Histochemical tests-
The results of various histochemical tests
conducted on the leaf, stem and root powder
are depicted in Table I.
Pharmaceutical evaluation
The physicochemical parameters and
qualitative analysis results are enumerated in
Table II and Table III respectively.
Table: I showing Histochemical test results
Table: II showing results of physicochemical parameters
Sl. no Parameters Leaf Stem Root
1 Foreign Matter Nil Nil Nil
2 Loss on Drying % w/w 5.844 10.009 5.638
3 Total Ash Content% w/w 6.05 0.499 2.497
4 Acid Insoluble Ash % w/w 0.1 0.0998 0.4995
5 Water Soluble Extractive Value % w/w 33 3.7 4.7
6 Alcohol Soluble Extractive Value % w/w 5.9 6.8 3.7
7 PH 5 5 5
Sl.
no
Reagent Observation Characteristics Result
Leaf Stem Root
1. Phloroglucinol+Conc.
HCl
Red Lignified cells ++ ++ ++
2. Iodine Blue Starch grains − − ++
3. Phloroglucinol+Conc.
HCl
Dissolved Calcium oxalate
crystals
++ ++ ++
4. Fecl3 solution Dark blue to
black
Tannin cells ++ ++ ++
5. Ruthenium red Red Mucilage ++ ++ ++
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Table : III showing results of phytochemical evaluation
Sl. no Parameters Leaf Stem Root
1 Alkaloids (M.E.)* + + +
2 Alkaloids (W.E.)* − − −
3 Saponin Glycosides (W.E.) + − −
4 Tannins &Phenols (M.E.) + + +
5 Tannins &Phenols (W.E.) + − −
6 Flavanoid (M.E.) − − −
7 Steroids (M.E.) − − −
8 Reducing sugar(W.E.) + − −
* M.E- Methanol extract; W.E- Water extract
DISCUSSION
B. neilgherrens Wight. is an epiphytic
orchid with stout rhizome modified into
pseudobulb to store moisture in excess so that it
can survive in unfavorable seasons. The plant
usually found growing in humid conditions of
moist deciduous and evergreen forests on tree
trunks of Anacardium occidentale (Cashew),
Syzigium cumini (Jamun) or other medium
sized to large trees. A very few indigenous
medicinal claims have been recorded on leaves
and pseudobulb of the plant. Limited number of
scientific studies has been reported on this
species with regard to structural, chemical,
pharmacological or clinical evaluation.
Pharmacognostical study reveals that the
leaf is isobilateral. Epidermis has some motor
cells and the mesophyll is undifferentiated with
spirally thickened parenchyma cells, which
shows that the cells are able to retain water for
long duration. The motor cells help the leaf to
roll due to the changes in their turgidity there
by reducing the stomatal transpiration under
xeric conditions. Presence of mucilage cells,
calcium oxalate crystals, sunken stomata and
the absence of trichomes are the important
characters of leaf. Oil globules and tannin
containing cells, calcium oxalate crystals,
mucilage containing cells are the important
characters found in rhizomatic stem. Velamen
tissues in roots during dry weather remains
filled with air and during rain quickly absorb
water. Passage cells serve as channels for flow
of water absorbed by the velamen. Lignified
parenchyma cells in the pith region of the root
are the other special characters. These may help
the species to adapt itself in the stress of
climatic variations.
Microscopic study of the plant powder
shows the presence of large quantities of fibers,
oil globules, tannin, and mucilage containing
cells. Histochemical tests of leaf, stem and root
shows the presence of lignin, tannin, calcium
and mucilage. Starch was detected only in root.
The physicochemical parameters shows that
loss on drying is more in stem as compared to
leaf and root which shows that higher moisture
content is in stem followed by leaf. Total ash is
more in leaf followed by root and less in stem.
Water soluble extractive value is more than five
times higher than alcohol soluble extractive
value in leaf showing the presence of more
water soluble constituents. Root also shows
higher extractive value in water where as stem
has higher extractive value in alcohol. PH
value
of leaf, stem and root did not show any
difference.
Among the qualitative assessment,
alkaloids were detected in methanolic extracts
of all three parts of the plant taken for
investigation, where as it could not be detected
in water extract. Stem and root shows the
presence of tannin and phenols only in
methanol extract while leaf contains tannin and
phenols in both water and methanol extract.
Water soluble extractives being highest in leaf,
also shows the presence of saponin glycosides
and reducing sugar in water extract.
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 259–269
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
Natural products with reservoirs of
structural and chemical entities will have
definite therapeutic relevance. Tannins are
reported as potential antiviral, antibacterial,
antiparasitic and hypolipidemic (Tannin.2013),
Pengelly Andrew 2004). Tannin and saponin
containing drugs demonstrated anti diabetic
activity
(Akhlaghi Farideh et al., 2012,
Pengelly Andrew 2004). Saponins, tannin and
phenols exhibit antibacterial activity (Doughari
JH et al., 2007). Research studies also
supported the view that phyto-constituents like
phenols, saponins, tannins, alkaloids exhibit
antioxidant, adaptogenic and antimicrobial
activities (Sukh Dev, 2006).
CONCLUSION
The studies carried out on the sample not
only established the appropriate data that may
be utilized for identification, but also
established the purity and standard of the plant
sample. Based on the reported phyto-
constituents some more pharmacological as
well as clinical studies may be carried out for
producing a proper scientific validation of the
folk orchid Bulbophyllum neilgherrense wight.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge Dr. K.
Gopalakrishna Bhat, Professor of Botany (Rtd.)
for his help in identification of this orchid
species and its authentication, Villagers of
Sullia TQ for sharing their knowledge and
experience on the plant.
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Mahadi Elizabeth. (2012),
Antihyperglycemic effect of Asafoetida
(Ferula assafoetida Oleo gum resin) in
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(2008), Phytochemical survey of
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705–12.
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31.
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Henry A N. (1997), Some medicinal
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Source of Support: Nil Conflict of Interest: None Declared
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 270–277
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
ISSN 2277-4289 | www.gjrmi.com | International, Peer reviewed, Open access, Monthly Online Journal
A COMPARATIVE ACUTE TOXICITY EVALUATION OF ASHOKA
KSHEERAPAKA PREPARED FROM TWO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
SARACA (S. ASOCA & S. THAIPINGENSIS)
Chavan Sulakshan S1*, Gamit R V
2, Ashok B K
3, Shukla V J
4, Das P
5, Ravishankar B
6
1Ph D Scholar in Ayurvedic Pharmacology, IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurveda University, Jamnagar, Gujarat,
India 2Laboratory Assistant, IPGT&RA, Gujarat Ayurveda University, Jamnagar.Gujarat, India
3Drug discovery lab, R & D, Himalaya drug company, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
4Head, Pharmaceutical Chemistry Lab, IPGT & RA, Gujarat Ayurveda University, Jamnagar, Gujarat, India
5Chairman, The Science Foundation For Tribal & Rural Resource Development, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
6Director, SDM Research Centre for Ayurveda and Allied Sciences, Kuthpady, Udupi, Karnataka, India
*Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 10/03/2013; Revised: 25/03/2013; Accepted: 30/03/ 2013
ABSTRACT
Ashoka (Saraca asoca) is an important Ayurvedic drug for treating gynecological disorders.
Hence it is economically important. There were reports that it has become quite scarce in several
localities and reported to be threatened in North Eastern Region of India. Ashoka bark widely
adulterated with other barks & or from same genus of different species. Ashoka Ksheerapaka is one
among clinical formulations of the plant Ashoka. Literature review revealed that no toxicity studies
have been undertaken on this formulation especially on Ashoka Ksheerapaka made from S. asoca &
S. thaipingensis. Because of this the present study was designed to evaluate Ashoka Ksheerapaka
made from two species for acute toxicity in Wistar strain albino rats as per OECD (Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development) guideline 425 with 2000 mg/kg as limit test. On 1st day
test formulations were administered & observed for any toxicity changes for next 14 days. On 15th
day serum biochemical and hematological parameters were estimated. In all the three groups normal
weight gain was observed. Both the formulations did not produce any mortality up to the dose of
2000 mg/kg on oral administration. S. asoca increased the Monocyte percentage & Blood Sugar
Level (BSL) significantly, while in S. thaipingensis significant increase in Monocyte percentage &
significant decrease in the Platelet count in comparison to Normal Control group.The significant
increase in Monocyte percentage is in accordance with the property of estrogens to mediate its effect
through estrogen receptor in monocytes.
KEY WORDS: Ashoka, Ashoka Ksheerapaka, Acute toxicity, Saraca asoca, Saraca thaipingensis
Research article
Cite this article:
Chavan Sulakshan S, Gamit R V, Ashok B K, Shukla V J, Das P, Ravishankar B (2013), A
COMPARATIVE ACUTE TOXICITY EVALUATION OF ASHOKA KSHEERAPAKA PREPARED
FROM TWO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF SARACA (S. ASOCA & S. THAIPINGENSIS),
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med., Volume 2(4): 270–277
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 270–277
Global Journal of Research on Medicinal Plants & Indigenous Medicine || GJRMI ||
INTRODUCTION
Ashoka [Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd.] is
one of the most important Ayurvedic drug for
the treatment of various feminine disorders
especially in menorrhagia (Kirtikar & Basu,
2001). The word Ashoka means “without
sorrow”, a reference to reputation of it‟s bark
for keeping a woman healthy and youthful
(Shashikant Patwardhan, 2013). The natives
and traditional healers of Chhattisgarh use Sita-
Ashoka (the name given to Saraca asoca)
mainly in treatment of gynecological disorders
(Nalin, 2005). Its bark is bitter, astringent and
sweet in taste. It has stimulating effect on
endometrial and the ovarian tissue. It is useful
in internal bleeding, hemorrhoids, ulcers,
uterine affections, menorrhagia especially due
to uterine fibroids, meno-metrorrhagia,
leucorrhoea and pimples (Govind Das, 1970).
Dried stem bark of Saraca asoca (Roxb.)
Willd. is a genuine drug collected from wild or
cultivated trees, found in Central and Eastern
Himalayas, Western Ghats and Deccan
(Anonymous, 1986).
Number of studies has shown the
adulteration of Ashoka bark with barks of other
trees, but less on the trees of the same genus.
Ashoka bark is widely adulterated with barks of
Polyalthia longifolia, ocassionally bark of
Ashoka is mixed with Rohitaka bark
(Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.Parker)
and Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw (Pradhan
P et al., 2009). Raw material from wild is
mostly collected by local people. There are
high and unintentional chances for a mistaken
identity of various other species of the same
Genus in the name of Ashoka. The drug from
the same genus but of different species is
difficult to identify. Such close resemblances of
Saraca asoca plant is observed with Saraca
thaipingensis. So it is imperative to carry out
the toxicological study of these drugs (spp.)
before being used in therapeutics. Since ancient
times, Ashoka is being used in Ayurvedic
preparations but comprehensive data on
majority of them is not available. Till date no
reports on the toxicological study on Ashoka
Ksheerapaka (a medicament prepared with
milk, water & plant drug) made from S. asoca
& S. thaipingensis Prain. are available. Hence,
this study was designed to evaluate Ashoka
Ksheerapaka made from two species of Saraca
i.e. S. asoca & S. thaipingensis for acute
toxicity in Wistar strain albino rats.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Plant material
The dried bark of S. asoca and S.
thaipengensis were procured from Orissa from
authentic source and also correct identification
was made in Pharmacognosy laboratory
attached to the Institute. The herbarium
samples of these two species were deposited in
the laboratory (S. asoca- voucher specimen
no.6024 & S. thaipingensis- voucher specimen
no.6023). Dried barks were coarsely powdered
and stored in dry air tight container.
Preparation of Ksheerpaka
The Ksheerapaka (a medicament prepared
with milk, water & plant drug) was prepared
according to Acharya Sharangdhara by taking
one part drug material, adding cow‟s milk 8
times of bark then adding water 32 times of
bark, (i.e. 1:8:32). Ashoka bark powder was
weighed. Then, in stainless steel pot weighed
coarsely powdered bark of Ashoka was taken as
one part, then eight times of the bark cow milk
was added & 32 times of bark, water was added
in it. Then it was boiled till only milk remained
& water was evaporated (Tripathi Brahmanand,
2004).
Animals
Twenty Wistar strain female albino rats,
weighing 160 ± 20 g were taken from the
animal house attached to the institute (Institute
of PG Teaching and Research in Ayurveda,
Jamnagar). They were housed in polypropylene
cages with stainless steel cover meshes, at 22 ±
3°C with relative humidity of 50–60 %, on a 12
h natural day and night cycle. They were fed
with Amrut brand rat pellet feed supplied by
Pranav Agro Industries and with tap water ad
libitum. The experiments were carried out in
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accordance with the norms of the Institutional
Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC), after
obtaining its permission (IAEC -04/09-10/PhD-
1).
Study protocol
Acute oral toxicity study for both the
samples was carried out as per OECD
(Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development) guideline 425 with 2000 mg/kg
as limit test. Out of twenty animals 6 animals
were allotted to normal control (NC) group. In
both the test drug groups (i.e. S. asoca & S.
thaipingensis), single animals were dosed in
sequence usually at 48 h intervals. Using the
default progression factor, doses were selected
from the sequence 175, 550, and 2000 mg/kg
(because no estimate of the substance‟s
lethality was available, dosing was initiated at
175 mg/kg) as recommended in OECD
Guidelines 425. Food, but not water was
withheld for overnight before the experiment
and further 2 h after administration of test drug.
As there was no mortality observed even at
2000 mg/kg, additional 4 more animals were
dosed with 2000 mg/kg and observed for 14
days with different parameters. The animals
were observed continuously for 6 hours after
the dosing. The careful cage side observation
was done without disturbing the animal
attention and at the end of every hour the
animals were individually exposed to open
arena for recording the behavioural changes.
On 14th
day evening the rats were kept in
metabolic cages for fasting. On 15th
day body
weight of each animal was recorded. Blood was
collected by supra-orbital puncture with the
help of micro capillary tubes under mild ether
anesthesia for estimation of serum biochemical
and hematological parameters.
To estimate haematological parameters
0.08 ml blood was mixed with 0.02 ml of
EDTA (33.33 mg/ml) and fed to the auto
analyzer (Sismes KX-21, Trans Asia). The
parameters measured were; Total WBC count,
differential leucocyte count, Total RBC count,
haemoglobin content, PCV, MCV, MCH,
MCHC and platelet count.
For estimation of biochemical parameters,
serum was separated from collected blood and
requisite quantity of serum was fed to the auto
analyzer (Fully automated Biochemical
Random Access Analyzer, BS-200; Lilac
Medicare Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai) which was
automatically drawn in to the instrument for
estimating different parameters. Biochemical
parameters like blood sugar (BSL) (Pennock
CA et al., 1973), serum cholesterol (Roeschlau
P et al., 1974), serum triglyceride (Fossati P &
Prencipe L, 1982), HDL cholesterol, blood
urea, serum creatinine (Slot C, 1965), serum
glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) (Burtis
CA & Ashwood ER, 1999), serum glutamic
oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) (Tietz NW,
1995), serum total protein (Tietz NW, 1986),
serum albumin and serum globulin (Doumas
BT, 1972), serum alkaline phosphatase
(Wilkinson JH, 1969), total billirubin
(Pearlman PC & Lee RT, 1974), uric acid
(Kabasakalian P, 1973), were estimated.
Statistical analysis
The results are presented as Mean ± SEM.
The generated data were analyzed by
employing student‟s t test for unpaired data.
One way ANOVA was also employed with
Dunnets‟ multiple t test (DMTT) as post-hoc
test. For this purpose Sigma-stat software
(version 3.1) was employed.
RESULTS
In all the three groups normal weight gain
was observed (Table no. 1). Data pertaining to
the effect of test drug on WBC related
parameters are given in Table no.2. Both the
test drugs increased the Monocyte percentage
significantly in comparison to Normal Control
group. While a non-significant increase in Total
WBC count, Neutrophils percentage &
decrease in Lymphocyte percentage,
Eosinophils percentage was observed.
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Table - 1 : Effect of test drug on Body weight (BW)
Group Body weight at different time duration % change in (BW)
Initial (g) On 7th
day (g) Final (g)
NC 161.67 ± 5.85 171.00 ± 6.98 173.00 ± 4.31 07.01 ↑
S. asoca 166.40 ± 8.45 174.40 ± 3.49 188.00 ± 4.20 12.98 ↑
S. thaipingensis 162.80 ± 7.79 172.40 ± 4.45 180.80 ± 7.97 11.06 ↑
(Data: Mean ± SEM, ↑ :- Increase, ↓ :- Decrease)
Table – 2 : Effect of test drug on WBC related parameters
WBC related
Parameter
Group
NC S. asoca S. thaipingensis
Total
WBC(/cumm)
5660.00 ± 647.77 6880.00 ± 561.61 (21.55↑) 7060.00 ± 553.72 (24.73↑)
Neutrophils(%) 22.40 ± 3.61 24.60 ± 3.83 (9.82↑) 26.00 ± 3.85 (16.07↑)
Lymphocytes(%) 71.40 ± 3.25 68.40 ± 3.96 (4.20↓) 67.20 ± 3.74 (5.88↓)
Eosinophils(%) 03.80 ± 0.58 03.60 ± 0.25 (5.26↓) 03.60 ± 0.25 (5.26↓)
Monocytes(%) 02.40 ± 0.25 03.40 ± 0.25* (41.67↑)
03.20 ± 0.20
* (33.33↑)
(Data: Mean ± SEM, The values in parenthesis are the percentage change in comparison to Normal Control
group. ↑ :- Increase, ↓ :- Decrease, * :- P< 0.05 by student‟s „t‟ test for unpaired data)
Table – 3 : Effect of test drug on RBC and Platelet related parameters
RBC and Platelet
related Parameter
Group
NC S. asoca S. thaipingensis
Total RBC
count(10e6/µl)
7.58 ± 0.19 7.57 ± 0.18 (0.05↓) 7.66 ± 0.26 (1.11↑)
Haemoglobin (g %) 14.24 ± 0.32 14.80 ± 0.57 (3.93↑) 13.90 ± 0.33 (2.39↓)
P.C.V. (%) 44.34 ± 1.14 44.22 ± 0.77 (0.27↓) 44.18 ± 1.13 (0.36↓)
MCV (fl) 58.50 ± 0.53 58.44 ± 0.91 (0.10↓) 57.76 ± 0.75 (1.26↓)
MCH (pg) 18.82 ± 0.20 18.78 ± 0.25 (0.21↓) 18.18 ± 0.28 (3.40↓)
MCHC (g/dl) 32.14 ± 0.45 32.14 ± 0.22 (0.00) 31.48 ± 0.24 (2.05↓)
Platelet count (10e3/µl) 1049.60 ± 67.01 1056.20 ± 62.54
(0.63↑)
663.00 ± 102.64*†
(36.83↓)
(Data: Mean ± SEM, The values in parenthesis are the percentage change in comparison to Normal Control
group. ↑ :- Increase, ↓ :- Decrease, * :- P< 0.05 by student‟s „t‟ test for unpaired data, † :- P< 0.05 by
ONE WAY ANOVA & Dunnet‟s Multiple „t‟ test as post-hoc test.)
Table – 4 : Effect of test drug on BSL and lipid profile
Parameter Group
NC S. asoca S. thaipingensis
BSL (mg/dl) 80.20 ± 4.76 100.00 ± 5.02*†
(24.69↑)
94.80 ± 5.72 (18.20↑)
S.Cholesterol (mg/dl) 65.20 ± 5.32 63.40 ± 2.16 (2.76↓) 67.40 ± 7.33 (3.37↑)
S. Triglyceride (mg/dl) 89.25 ± 6.47 92.20 ± 3.73 (3.31↑) 106.25 ± 7.16 (19.05↑)
HDL Cholesterol (mg/dl) 38.80 ± 2.31 36.80 ± 2.75 (5.15↓) 33.00 ± 4.01 (14.95↓)
(Data: Mean ± SEM, The values in parenthesis are the percentage change in comparison to Normal Control
group. ↑ :- Increase, ↓ :- Decrease, * :- P< 0.05 by student‟s „t‟ test for unpaired data, † :- P< 0.05 by ONE WAY ANOVA & Dunnet‟s Multiple „t‟ test as post-hoc test.)
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Table – 5 : Effect of test drug on serum biochemical parameters
serum biochemical
Parameter
Group
NC S. asoca S. thaipingensis
Blood Urea(mg/dl) 54.60 ± 2.93 50.60 ± 1.50 (7.33↓) 65.60 ± 5.19 (20.15↑)
S.Creatinine(mg/dl) 0.62 ± 0.05 0.56 ± 0.07 (9.68↓) 0.58 ± 0.06 (6.45↓)
S.G.P.T.(IU/L) 42.60 ± 3.86 47.60 ± 4.62 (11.74↑) 36.40 ± 3.96 (14.55↓)
S.G.O.T.(IU/L) 126.20 ± 8.00 147.80 ± 11.16 (17.12↑) 121.60 ± 10.52 (3.65↓)
Total Protein(g/dl) 7.90 ± 0.19 7.80 ± 0.15 (1.27↓) 7.66 ± 0.39 (3.04↓)
Albumin(g/dl) 4.38 ± 0.07 4.38 ± 0.16 (0.00) 4.12 ± 0.26 (5.94↓)
Globulin(g/dl) 3.52 ± 0.12 3.42 ± 0.10 (2.84↓) 3.54 ± 0.31 (0.57↑)
A/G ratio 1.26 ± 0.03 1.26 ± 0.07 (0.00) 1.20 ± 0.13 (4.76↓)
Alkaline Phosphatase(IU/L) 134.60 ± 32.19 192.40 ± 19.51 (42.94↑) 169.60 ± 38.65 (26.00↑)
Bilirubin(T)(mg/dl) 0.38 ± 0.05 0.34 ± 0.04 (10.53↓) 0.34 ± 0.12 (10.53↓)
Uric Acid(mg/dl) 0.88 ± 0.09 1.26 ± 0.17 (43.18↑) 1.08 ± 0.20 (22.73↑)
(Data: Mean ± SEM, The values in parenthesis are the percentage change in comparison to Normal Control group. ↑ :- Increase, ↓ :- Decrease)
The effect of test drugs on RBC related
parameters is shown in Table no. 3. Both the
test drug treated groups did not show any
significant changes in RBC related parameters.
Test drug B decreases the Platelet count
significantly in comparison to NC group, while
the test drug S. asoca did not show any
significant changes.
Effect of test drug on BSL, lipid profile is
presented in Table no. 4. Animals from S.
asoca group exhibit significant elevation in the
BSL while non-significant up & downs were
observed in lipid profile in comparison to NC
group. Test drug S. thaipingensis did not
produce any significant changes in these
parameters.
Both the test drugs did not produce any
significant change in Blood Urea, S. Creatinine,
S.G.P.T., S.G.O.T. activity, Total Protein,
Albumin, Globulin, A/G ratio, Alkaline
Phosphatase activity & Bilirubin. (Table no. –
5)
DISCUSSION
Ashoka, which is an economically
important plant, has become quite scarce in
several localities and is reported to be
threatened in North Eastern Region of India
(Sharma PC et al., 2005; Alok Sharma, 2008).
Hence, it has become the target for adulteration
of its bark. A drug is taken for the beneficial
effect so it must not produce any toxicological
changes in the recipient‟s body. But till date no
study has been reported on the safety aspect of
Ashoka Ksheerapaka of S. asoca and S.
thaipingensis. 15 days after drug
administration, no mortality was observed
hence both the drugs are not lethal even at the
limited test dose. Normal weight gain shows
there are no serious effects on the body weight
which was common side effect in synthetic
estrogenic compound which were mostly used
in menstrual disorders (Olinda rola, 2012).
Both the drugs elevate the WBC count non-
significantly and no significant changes were
observed in Neutrophils percentage in
comparison to NC group values i.e. both the
drugs restricted the increase in WBC count and
Lymphocyte percentage which was observed
significantly in earlier studies on oral
contraceptive pills. Further, Monocyte
percentage in S. asoca group (41.64%) & S.
thaipingensis group (33.33%) was significantly
increased which is also in accordance with
property of estrogens, this finding suggests that
test drugs modulate the monocyte numbers and
its effect may be mediated through estrogen
receptor in monocytes (Sajida SH et al., 2006).
Global J Res. Med. Plants & Indigen. Med. | Volume 2, Issue 4 | April 2013 | 270–277
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Both the test groups did not produce any
significant change in RBC related parameters
i.e. RBC count, Hb, MCV, MCH, MCHC.
Platelet count in S. thaipingensis group was
decreased significantly (36.83%), while in S.
asoca group no significant changes were
observed in comparison to NC group values. It
can be suggested that observed no significant
effect on Hb in both the test drugs was in
accordance with the earlier studies on oral
contraceptive pills (Sajida SH et al., 2006).
In S. asoca group significant increase in
BSL (24.69%) was observed in comparison to
NC group value while on lipid profile no
significant changes were observed. S.
thaipingensis did not produce any significant
changes on glycemic control (BSL) value and
on lipid profile. S. asoca lowers S. cholesterol
(2.76%) and HDL cholesterol (5.15%) non-
significantly in comparison to NC group
values. Both the test formulations did not
produce any significant changes in Blood urea,
S. creatinine, SGPT, SGOT, Total protein,
Albumin, Globulin, A/G ratio, Alkaline
phosphatase, Bilirubin levels. This indicates
that they do not have any toxicological
implication for acute administration even at
very high dose levels.
CONCLUSION
Both the species of Saraca i.e. S. asoca &
S. thaipingensis are safe at limited test dose
when administered orally in the form of
Ksheerapaka. However further toxicological
evaluation like chronic toxicity studies etc. are
required to provide complete safety profile.
Both the drugs modulate the Monocytes
percentage which may produce its estrogenic
effect by affecting the estrogenic receptor on
Monocytes which may be evaluated only after
detailed efficacy related study on these plants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the authorities
of IPGT and RA, Gujarat Ayurved University
for providing facilities to carry out the research
work. One of the authors extends his deep
gratitude to Director General, CCRAS, New
Delhi & Dr. Sudesh Gaidhani, Dy. Director
(Pharmacology) CCRAS, New Delhi, for
providing fellowship.
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