Godfrey Wettinger

AGRICULTURE IN MALTA

IN T H E L A T E MIDDLE AGES

N o p r o p e r t r e a t m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n M a l t a d u r i n g t h e c e n t u r y o r s o b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e O r d e r o f S t . J o h n i n t h e i s l a n d h a s y e t a p p e a r e d i n p r i n t . N o r c o u l d t h e s u b j e c t h a v e b e e n a d e q u a t e l y t a c k l e d b e f o r e t h e r e c e n t e f f e c t i v e o p e n i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s a r c h i v e s c o n t a i n i n g p r e - 1 5 3 0 d o c u m e n t a t i o n , s i n c e t h e d o c u m e n t s k n o w n u p t o s o m e t w e n t y y e a r s a g o c o n s i s t e d m a i n l y o f g o v e r n m e n t d e c r e e s a n d r e l a t e d p a p e r s w h e n t h e y w e r e n o t e n t i r e l y o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o r i g i n a n d i n t e r e s t ( 1 ) . N o w , w i t h t h e f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s u r v i v i n g n o t a r i a l r e g i s t e r s a n d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d o p e n i n g t o r e s e a r c h o f s u c h p r i m e r e c o r d s a s t h o s e o f t h e b i s h o p ' s c o u r t a n d t h e t i t h a l a c c o u n t s , o n e c a n a t l a s t a t t e m p t a t l e a s t a p r e l i m i n a r y w o r k i n g u p o f t h e n o t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f f a r m i n g o n t h e t w o i s l a n d s o f M a l t a a n d G o z o w i t h o u t t h e c o n s t r a i n t o f r e p e a t i n g e n d l e s s l y w h a t s u c h a u t h o r s a s Q u i n t -i n u s a n d A b e l a w r o t e c e n t u r i e s a g o ( 2 ) . M o r e t h a n t w o g e n e r a t i o n s b a c k , M o n s . A . M i f s u d w r o t e a l l t h e r e w a s t o w r i t e t h e n o n t h e s u b j e c t a n d , i f o n e e x c e p t s H e n r i B r e s c ' s s e m i n a l s t u d y o f M a l t a ' s p u b l i c f i n a n c e s , n o o n e h a s a d d e d m u c h t o M i f s u d ' s a c c o u n t ( 3 ) .

T h e n o t a r i a l r e c o r d s , v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y f o r t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s s o f o r t h e f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c o n t a i n a m a s s o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n l a n d o w n e r s h i p a n d l e a s i n g , o n e m p l o y m e n t a g r e e m e n t s a n d t h e s a l e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a n d f a r m a n i m a l s ( 4 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e o l d e s t s u r v i v i n g r e g i s t e r d o e s n o t g o b e y o n d 1 4 6 7 , o n l y f i v e h a v i n g s u r v i v e d d o w n t o 1 5 0 0 a n d s o m e 2 6 d o w n t o 1 5 3 0 o u t o f t h e h u n d r e d s w h i c h m u s t h a v e o n c e e x i s t e d . T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n f o r t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e i r c o n t e n t s a r e

1 . S e e G . W e t t i n g e r , ' O u r M e d i e v a l H i s t o r i c a l A r c h i v e s a n d t h e i r C a r e " , Maltese H i i t o r y ; W h a t F u t u r e } , e d . A . W i l l i a m s a n d R . V e l l a B o n a v i t a .

2 . N e v e r t h e l e s s b o t h Q u i n t i n u s a n d A b e l a o c c a s i o n a l l y r e c o r d e d m a t t e r s n e v e r r e f e r r e d t o i n a r c h i v a l r e c o r d s . T h u s Q u i n t i n u s m e n t i o n s s u c h t h i n g s a s c l a s s i c a l r u i n s , t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f M a l t e s e f i e l d s a n d M a l t e s e P a u l i n e t r a d i t i o n s i n h i s t i m e : t e x t i n H o r a t i o C . R . V e l l a , T h e E a r l i e s t Description of M a l t a [Lyons 1 5 3 6 ) by Jean Q u i n t i n d ' A u l u n ( M a l t a , 1 9 8 0 ) .

3 . A . M i f s u d . * L ' A p p r o v i g i o n a m e n l o e 1 ' U n i v e r s i t i d i M a l t a ' , A r c h i v u m Melitense, I I I ; H . B r e s c , " T h e " S e c r e x i a " a n d t h e R o y a l P a t r i m o n y ' , M e d i e v a l M a l t a : Studies on M a l t a before the Knights, e d . A . T . L u t t r e l l , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 .

4 . C f . G . W e t t i n g e r , ' T h e V i l l a g e o f H a l M i l i i e r i : 1 4 1 9 - 1 5 3 0 ' , H a t M i l l i e r i : a Maltese CasaXe, its Churches and Paintings, e d . A . T . L u t t r e l l .

2 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h o s e t h a t h a v e n o t s u r v i v e d , a n d s t a t i s t i c a l s t u d i e s a r e t h e r e f o r e u n r e l i a b l e ; . n a d d i t i o n s e v e r a l o f t h e s u r v i v i n g r e g i s t e r s a r e i n s u c h a d e c a y e d c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e y c a n n o t b e e x a m i n e d w i t h o u t s e r i o u s d a m a g e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a l s o , b y t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e t h e y d o n o t g i v e a n y g l o b a l s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s i z e o f t h e p e a s a n t p o p u l a t i o n , t h a t o f t h e i r f i e l d s o r t h e f i e f s , o f p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n f i g u r e s f o r a n y c r o p . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e b i s h o p ' s c o u r t h a v e p r o v e d t o b e s u r p r i s i n g l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e s t u d y o f s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e C h u r c h i n t h e M i d d l e A g e s w a s m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f a ' j u s t p r i c e ' a n d , a s a r e s u l t , q u i t e a f e w o f t h e s e t s o f p r o c e e d i n g s w h i c h h a v e s u r v i v e d c o n c e r n t h i s i d e a , u s u a l l y o n t h e s a l e o f i m m o v a b l e p r o p e r t y , e s p e c i a l l y o f f i e l d s ( 5 ) . T h e y f r e q u e n t l y c o n t a i n s c o r e s o f p a g e s o f e v i d e n c e o f t h e g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e e c o n o m i c h i s t o r i a n . T h e t i t h e r e c o r d s t h e m s e l v e s p r o v i d e a m a s s o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n l a n d -o w n e r s h i p i n M a l t a ( 6 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e e a r l i e s t r e g u l a r l i s t d o e s n o t g o b a c k f u r t h e r t h a n 1 5 2 2 , t h o u g h l i s t s o f d e f a u l t e r s a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r s u r v i v e . E a c h l i s t c o n t a i n s p r e c i s e i f b r i e f d e t a i l s o n s o m e 6 0 0 l a n d h o l d i n g s i n M a l t a c o n c e r n i n g o w n e r s h i p , t h e p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e o f t h e o w n e r s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e h o l d i n g s a n d t h e s i z e o f t h e t i t h e s p a i d , w i t h f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o p r e v i o u s a n d s u b s e q u e n t o w n e r s , t h e l a t t e r i n l a t e r e n t r i e s w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y m a k e t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e d o c u m e n t s o m e w h a t d i f f i c u l t . P a y m e n t s o f t i t h e s h a d b e c o m e f o s s i l i z e d l o n g b e f o r e , a n d o n e i s c e r t a i n l y j u s t i f i e d i n u s i n g t h e m f o r i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

S i n c e t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e M a l t e s e i s l a n d s h a d n o t y e t a f f i r m e d i t s e l f , t h e i r w h o l e e c o n o m y d e p e n d e d o n a g r i c u l t u r e . C e r t a i n l y , a s h a s l o n g b e e n k n o w n , M a l t a s e r v e d a s t h e b a s e f o r c o r s a i r v e s s e l s , a n d a p a r t i c u l a r d o c u m e n t o f 1 4 9 2 f r o m P a l e r m o s h o w s t h a t a s m a n y a s s i x s u c h v e s s e l s w e r e t h e n o p e r a t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f r o m M a l t a t h o u g h n o s i z a b l e f l e e t w a s b a s e d p e r ­m a n e n t l y o n i t s p o r t ( 7 ) . N o r d i d M a l t a t h e n h a v e a l a r g e g a r r i s o n m a i n t a i n e d f r o m e x t e r n a l f u n d s . T h e g a r r i s o n w a s s m a l l , n o m o r e t h a n f i f t y m e n a t t h e C a s t l e - b y - t h e - S e a , a n d i t w a s p a i d n o r m a l l y e n t i r e l y o u t o f l o c a l r e v e n u e s . G o z o ' s g a r r i s o n w a s e v e n s m a l l e r a n d w a s s i m i l a r l y m a i n t a i n e d . T h e r e w a s , i n f a c t , n o g r e a t e x t e r n a l d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t s u b s i d y o n w h i c h t h e i s l a n d c o u l d r e l y f o r i t s b a l a n c e o f p a y m e n t s . T h e i s l a n d d i d n o t p r o v i d e a n y m i n e r a l

5 . T h e s e a r e m o s t l y t o b e f o u n d i n C a t h e d r a l M u s e u m , M d i n a , C [ u r i a ] E [ p i a c o p a l i s ] M [ e l i -t e n a i a ] , A [ c t a ] 0 [ r i g i n a l i a ] , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h p r o c e e d i n g s c o n c e r n i n g m a r r i a g e , c h u r c h b e n e f i c e s , a n d a w i d e v a r i e t y o f o t h e r s c o n c e r n i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e c l e r g y .

6. S e e e s p e c i a l l y C a t h [ e d r a l ) M u B [ e u m ] . M d i n a . C a t h [ e d r a l ) A r c h [ i v e t . P r e b [ e n d e ] 3 , 5 a n d 6 . w h i c h a r e t h e e a r l i e s t s e t s e x t a n t .

7 . A p r i l 1 4 9 2 , A [ r c h i v i o d i ] S [ t a t o d i ] P [ a l e r m o | , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 4 8 , f o l . 2 8 5 r v . A s t u d y o f M a l t e s e a h i p p i n g a n d c o r s a i r i n g i n t h e c e n t u r y o r s o b e f o r e 1 5 3 0 i s o n e o f t h e d e a i d e r a t a o f M a l t e s e h i s t o r y .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 3

r e s o u r c e s , a n d f i s h i n g s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n r e l a t i v e l y a s u n i m p o r t a n t t o t h e i s l a n d ' s e c o n o m y t h e n a t i t i s n o w . T h i s w a s t r u e a l s o o f G o z o .

I n r e a l i t y , M a l t a d i d n o t p r o d u c e e n o u g h w h e a t t o f e e d i t s o w n p e o p l e e v e n t h o u g h t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n t h e n d i d n o t a m o u n t t o m o r e t h a n a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f w h a t i t d o e s n o w . P r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y y e a r l a r g e a m o u n t s o f w h e a t a n d o t h e r c e r e a l s a n d p u l s e s w e r e i m p o r t e d f r o m S i c i l y f r e e o f t h e S i c i l i a n e x p o r t d u t i e s . B u t n o n e o f t h i s w h e a t w a s b r o u g h t t o M a l t a w i t h o u t p a y m e n t t o t h e S i c i l i a n e x p o r t e r s , a n d t h e m o n e y f o r i h i s c a m e o u t o f t h e p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e e x p o r t o f M a l t e s e c o t t o n a n d c u m i n . I n f a c t , i t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t M a l t e s e f a r m i n g w a s s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o d u c t i v e i n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r t o d e f r a y t h e e x p e n s e s o n w h e a t , o n o t h e r f o o d s a s w e l l a s s u p e r i o r t e x t i l e s a n d a w h o l e r a n g e o f o t h e r o b j e c t s n e e d e d f r o m a b r o a d . I t p a i d a l s o , i n d i r e c t l y , f o r t h e i s l a n d ' s n o r m a l n e e d s o f d e f e n c e , a n d e n a b l e d s u b s t a n t i a l r e n t s t o b e s e n t r e g u l a r l y a b r o a d t o a b s e n t e e l a n d l o r d s l i k e t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e P i r o l l o a n d A J a g o n a f a m i l i e s a s w e l l a s t h e b i s h o p . L o c a l l y , f a r m i n g p r o v i d e d a l i v e l i h o o d f o r t h e p e a s a n t s a n d f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f a n e c o n o m y w h i c h i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s o f c r a f t s m e n , m a s o n s , c a r p e n t e r s , a b l a c k s m i t h , a t l e a s t o n e p h y s i c ­i a n a n d a s u r g e o n , s e v e r a l n o t a r i e s , a n d s c o r e s o f p r i e s t s s e c u l a r a n d r e g u l a r . F i n a l l y , a t M d i n a r e s i d e d t w o o r t h r e e s c o r e s o f s u b s t a n t i a l l a n d o w n e r s a n d f i e f - h o l d e r s , w h o r e g a r d e d i t a s d e g r a d i n g t o e n g a g e i n a n y o c c u p a t i o n , r e l y i n g o n t h e i n c o m e f r o m t h e i r e s t a t e s f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d .

A c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f i r r i g a t i o n t o o k p l a c e . T h i s i s p r o v e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y p l a c e - n a m e s l i k e is-Saqwi o r H a b e l is-Saqwi, f o u n d b o t h i n M a l t a a n d i n G o z o . M o r e t h a n 1 0 0 p l a c e - n a m e s r e f e r t o g n t e n o r g h a j n l a n d s a n d s o m e 2 0 0 t o w e l l s o f v a r i o u s s i z e s — bir, bjar, giebja, gibjet, g i b j u n — a n d a f e w t o r e s e r v o i r s , a g a i n b o t h i n M a l t a a n d i n G o z o ( 8 ) . B u t t h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t t h e p r e d o m i n a n t n a t u r e o f M a l t e s e f a r m i n g w a s t h a t k n o w n a s d r y f a r m i n g e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e v a g a r i e s o f t h e w e a t h e r f o r i t s s u p p l y o f w a t e r . W h e n t h e r a i n s f a i l e d , a s h a p p e n e d f o r t h r e e y e a r s i n t h e l a t e r 1 4 6 0 s , l a n d ­l o r d s h a d i n e v i t a b l y t o g r a n t t h e i r t e n a n t s a r e m i s s i o n o f r e n t , a s w a s d o n e b o t h b y t h e C r o w n a n d t h e C a t h e d r a l i n o r a r o u n d 1 4 6 9 ( 9 ) . T h e r e l a t i v e l y n u m e r o u s bur, m a r g o r m a r g a , a n d g f t a d i r o r g f t o d i r a p l a c e - n a m e s i n d i c a t e t h a t M a l t a t h e n h a d a l e s s e f f i c i e n t s y s t e m o f g e t t i n g r i d o f s t o r m w a t e r t h a n n o w a d a y s , s o t h a t r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a r e a s , m a i n l y a t t h e h e a d o f v a l l e y s w e r e s w a m p y a n d p r o b a b l y , a s i n l a t e r t i m e s , m a l a r i o u s — l a n d w h i c h c o u l d b e p r o f i t a b l y u s e d f o r t h e r e t t i n g o f f l a x . I n t h e gnien a n d g h a j n a r e a s h o r t i -

8 . G . W e t t i n g e r . ' E a r l y M a l t e s e a n d G o x i t a n P l a c e - n a m e * ' , C i v i l i s a t i o n ( M a l t a , O c t o b e r 1 9 8 2 o n w a r d a ) .

9 . E g . A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 2 3 , f o l * ( 9 0 * - I 9 4 v ; C a t h . M m . , M d . . C E M , A O . v o l . 4 . f o l * . 4 2 6 r v e t a e q .

4 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

c u l t u r e w a s c a r r i e d o n , i n c l u d i n g m u c h g r o w i n g o f v i n e s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w i n e . T h e k a r s t i c a r e a s w e r e m a i n l y u s e d f o r v e r y r o u g h g r a z i n g m a i n l y b y s h e e p a n d g o a t s , t h e t h o r n s a n d t h i s t l e s g r o w i n g t h e r e f o r m i n g t h e i s l a n d ' s o n l y l o c a l s u p p l y o f f u e l .

L A N D O W N E R S H I P

T h e l a r g e s t l a n d h o l d i n g s i n f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y M a l t a w e r e t h e f i e f s , o r i g i n ­a l l y b l o c k s o f r o y a l l a n d g r a n t e d o u t , m o s t l y o n t e r m s o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , t o i n f l u e n t i a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f M d i n a w h o a l s o f r e q u e n t l y o w n e d a l l o d i a l l a n d ( 1 0 ) . T h e r e w e r e s o m e t h i r t y o r f o r t y f i e f s , l o c a t e d i n a l a r g e c i r c l e f r o m B u d a q q a n d B e n w a r r a t i n t h e n o r t h , w e s t w a r d s t o B u n u h h a l a , G h a j n R i h a n a a n d G h a j n T u f f i e h a , s o u t h w a r d s f r o m t h e l a s t t o B i n g e m m a , H e m s i j a , B u q a n a , D e j r i l -B n i e t a n d T a b r i j a . I n e a s t e r n a n d e a s t c e n t r a ! M a l t a t h e r e w e r e t h e f i e f s o f B u l e b e n , M a r n i s i , D e j r L i m a r a , P e t r a l o n g a ( p r e s e n t - d a y S e n g l e a ) , a n d M a r s a , t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e m a l l . R o y a l e s t a t e s n o t y e t a l i e n a t e d i n c l u d e d l o c a l i t i e s l i k e F i d d i e n n e a r R a b a t . T h e b i s h o p o f M a l t a h a d t w o f i e f s o n t h e i s l a n d a s w e l l a s a l a r g e e s t a t e a t L e n t i n : i n S i c i l y . O n e f i e f s t r e t c h e d e a s t w a r d s f r o m R a b a t , t h e o t h e r w a s n e a r H a l R e s q u n i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e i s l a n d .

W i t h ~ ~ f e w e x c e p t i o n s , t h e f i e f s l a y s o m e d i s t a n c e a w a y f r o m t h e f i f t y o r s o v i l l a g e s s t i l l e x i s t i n g i n t h e e a r l y f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( I I ) . I n f a c t , t i t h a l e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t b e t w e e n o n e t h i r d a n d o n e h a l f o f t h e v i l l a g e r s t h e m ­s e l v e s o w n e d a f i e l d o r t w o m o s t l y , b u t f a r f r o m a l w a y s , q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e i r v i l l a g e s ( 1 2 ) . I n f a c t , a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e a r c h i d i a c o n a l t i t h e s f o r 1 5 3 6 s h o w s t h a t , w h i l e t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f M d i n a , a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y f i e f - h o l d e r s o r e c c l e ­s i a s t i c a l b o d i e s , p a i d f i v e - e i g h t h s , t h o s e o f t h e v i l l a g e s , m o s t l y p e a s a n t s , p a i d t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e - e i g h t h s o f t h e t i t h e s , i n d i c a t i n g a d i v i s i o n o f p r o p e r t i e s b e t w e e n t h e m i n t h a t p r o p o r t i o n ( 1 3 ) . P e a s a n t o w n e r s h i p w a s , h o w e v e r , m u c h l e s s c o m m o n i n R a b a t , t h e s u b u r b o f M d i n a , t h a n i n t h e v i l l a g e s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e l a n d l e s s p e a s a n t s t e n d e d t o r e s i d e t h e r e , t a k i n g u p a c r a f t o r a c ­c e p t i n g p a i d e m p l o y m e n t w i t h t h e f i e f - h o l d i n g i n h a b i t a n t s o f M d i n a w h o s e

1 0 . O n f i e f * *ee B r e w : , op. cit., a n d J , M o n t a l t o , T h e Nobles of M a l t a ( M a l t a , 1 9 7 9 } ; aee al»o A . L u t t r e l l , ' T h e S a l e o f G u t n e r i n o n M a l t a ; 1 3 1 8 ' , Estudioi Histdricos y Documentos de lot Archivos de Protocolos, V I ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

1 1 . G . W e t t i n g e r , ' T h e L o s t V i l l a g e s a n d H a m l e t s o f M a l t a ' , M e d i e v a l M a l t a : Studies on M a l t a before the Knights, e d . A . T . L u t t r e l l .

1 2 . T h u s N a x x a r h a d 5 1 d e c a n a l t i t h e p a y e r s i n 1 5 3 6 . t e n at w h o m a l s o p a i d t i t h e s t o t h e a r c h d e a c o n f o r o t h e r l a n d s i n 1 5 4 6 . w h e n t h e r e w e r e a l s o 13 o t h e r a r c h i d i a c o n a l t i t h e p a y e r s i n t h e s a m e v i l l a g e : C a t h . M m . , M d . , C a t l i . A r c h . , P r e b . 5 a n d 3 r e s ­p e c t i v e l y .

1 3 . I b i d . , P r e b . 3 . F u r t h e r r e s u l t s a w a i t a n a l y s i s b y c o m p u t e r , b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r a n d D r . S t a n l e y F i o r i n i o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l t a .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 5

e s t a t e s l a y w i t h i n e a s y r e a c h ( 1 4 ) . A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n m i g h t a l s o a c c o u n t f o r t h e l a c k o f t i t h e p a y i n g l a n d l o r d s a t Z e j t u n , A x a c , G u d j a a n d Z a b b a r .

I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t i c e d t h a t p r e c i s e d e t a i l s o f t h e s i z e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y f i e f s i s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y l a c k i n g ( 1 5 ) . T h e e v i d e n c e o f i n c o m e s , r e n t s a n d t i t h e s i n d i c a t e s u n m i s t a k a b l y t h a t t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n a s c o r e o f t i m e s , t h e i a r g e r o n e s s e v e r a l s c o r e s o f t i m e s , a s l a r g e a s a p e a s a n t ' s n o r m a l f i e l d . T h u s a t a t i m e w h e n p e a s a n t s ' f i e l d s w e r e r a r e l y r e n t e d f o r m o r e o n e u n c i a , t h e f o l l o w i n g f i e f r e n t s w e r e b e i n g e x a c t e d ( 1 6 ) :

B i n g e m m a 2 6 . v i i . 1 4 9 9 1 2 u n c i e a n d o n e w e t h e r B u d a q q 2 8 . 1 . 1 5 1 1 1 6 u n c i e a n d s i x s a l m e o f w h e a t o r b a r l e y

f o r h a l f t h e f i e f 1 2 . v i i U 5 2 6 3 5 u n c i e

B u q a n a S 0 . i v . 1 5 0 2 3 3 u n c i e a n d a p i g , l o a n o f 1 2 u n c i e a n n u a l l y D e j r L i m a r a 2 5 . v i i i . 1 4 8 6 1 7 u n c i e

6 . v i i . l 4 9 8 3 4 u n c i e 1 5 t a r e n i , 1 s a l m a o f w h e a t , 1 w e t h e r

G h a j n R i h a n a 2 0 . U 4 9 5 7 0 u n c i e a n d 6 w e t h e r s G h a j n T u f f i e h a 3 1 . v i i l . 1 4 8 7 1 2 u n c i e ( t h e v i r i d a r i u m a l o n e ? )

2 9 . v i i . 1 4 9 9 4 4 u n c i e G h a j n Z e j t u n a 2 2 . i v . 1 4 9 6 8 u n c i e

2 ? . v i i . l 5 0 6 1 0 u n c i e 1 5 . 1 . 1 5 1 8 9 u n c i e 7 t a r e n i 1 0 g r a n i f o r o n e - e i g h t h

G h e m i e r i 4 . 1 X . 1 4 9 3 1 4 u n c i e ( v i r i d a r i u m ) M a m i s i 6 . v i i . l 4 9 8 3 2 u n c i e

4 . V . 1 5 0 0 3 2 u n c i e M t a h l e b 3 1 . v i i i . 1 4 8 7 1 5 u n c i e Q l e j g h a 2 4 . i x . 1 4 9 5 5 0 u n c i e

2 3 . i i . 1 5 0 1 6 0 u n c i e T a b r i j a 1 9 . v i i . 1 5 2 2 a t l e a s t 6 2 u n c i e

M . I n s p i t e o f i t * m u c h l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n c o m p a r e d t o N a x x a r , R a b a t h a d o n l y 1 5 d e c a n a l t i t h e p r a y e r i i n 1 5 3 6 ; ibid., P r e b . 5 ; i t h a d 12 a r c h i d i a c o n a l t i t h e p a y e r a i n 1 5 4 6 , s e v e n o f t h e m i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e of 1 5 3 6 . a n d o n e t h e s o n o f a n o t h e r w h o a l s o a p p e a r * i n t h e e a r l i e r y e a r : ibid., P r e b . 3 .

1 5 . M o n t a l t o , op. cit., p . 1 7 . 1 6 . B i n g e m m a : N o t . J , S a h a r a , N [ o t a r i a l | A[rchive»] V [ a l l e t t a ] , R 4 9 4 / 2 ; B u d a q q :

N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 5 , f o l . 2 7 r v ; B u q a n a : N o t , J . S a h a r a , N A V , M». 1 1 3 2 , l o o s e a n d u n p a g i n a t e d ; D e j r L i m a r a : idem, N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 , a n d B 4 9 4 / 2 ; G h a j n R i h a n a ; i d e m , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; G h a j n T u f f i e h a : i b i d - , a n d R 4 9 4 / 2 : G h a j n Z e j t u n a : i d e m , I t 4 9 4 / 1 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r . N A V , R 1 4 0 / 3 , f o l . 1 9 r v , a n d N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V . R 6 9 ; G h e m i e r i : N o t . J . S a h a r a , N A V . R 4 9 4 / 1 ; M a r n U i : N o t . J . S a h a r a . N A V . R 4 9 4 / 2 a n d i b i d . ; M t a h l e b : i d e m , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; Q l e j g h a : i b i d . , a n d R 4 9 4 / 2 ; T a b r i j a : N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 .

6 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

I n 1 5 0 6 t h e f i e f i n c o m e s w e r e e s t i m a t e d t o a m o u n t ( 1 7 ) :

G n i e n i l - F i r i e n a n d Q a t t a r a 3 0 u n c i e G h a j n T u f f i e h a 5 0 u n c i e G h a r i e x i m 2 0 u n c i e M a r s a 2 3 0 u n c i e Q l e j g h a 8 0 u n c i e S a q q a j j a 1 0 u n c i e T a b r i j a 6 0 u n c i e

I n 1 4 9 9 T a b r i j a ' s i n c o m e a p p a r e n t l y a m o u n t e d t o 3 6 u n c i e , G h a j n R i h a n a ' s t o c a . 7 0 u n c i e , a n d B u l e b e n ' s t o 2 6 u n c i e ; t h a t o f G h e m i e r i , S a m m a t i , B a h u r i e n a n d B u n u h h a i a t o g e t h e r a m o u n t e d t o 3 0 u n c i e 1 5 t a r e n i ( 1 8 ) . T i t h a l r e c o r d s r e v e a l t h e s a m e g r e a t d i s p a r i t y o f s i z e b e t w e e n t h e f i e f s a n d t h e p e a s a n t s ' f i e l d s ( 1 9 ) :

B u d a q q S a n t i B u n u h h a i a G h a j n R i h a n a B i n g e m m a B a h r i j a V n e z j a ( t e r r i t o r i o )

4 s a l m i o f w h e a t 4 s a l m i o f w h e a t 4 s a l m i o f w h e a t 8 s a l m i o f w h e a t 6 s a l m i o f w h e a t 3 s a l m i o f w h e a t 6 s a l m i o f w h e a t

T h e s e p a y m e n t s s h o u l d b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t o t a l p a y m e n t o f 1 s a l m a 1 2 t h u m e n i 2 m o n d e l l i o f w h e a t m a d e b y 2 3 l a n d o w n e r s o f N a x x a r f o r a t o t a l o f 2 9 h o l d i n g s s u b j e c t t o a r c h i d i a c o n a l t i t h e s i n 1 5 4 6 , a n d 5 s a l m e 8 t h u m i n a 1 m o n d e l l o p a i d b y s o m e 4 6 p e a s a n t s o f t h e s a m e v i l l a g e f o r t h e i r 6 8 h o l d i n g s s u b j e c t t o d e c a n a l t i t h e s i n 1 5 2 2 ( 2 0 ) . T h e p e a s a n t s ' h o l d i n g s i n t h e o t h e r v i l l a g e s w e r e r o u g h l y s p e a k i n g , j u s t a s s m a l l i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e f i e f s , t h e t i t h e s p a y a b l e b y t h e p e a s a n t s o f e a c h v i l l a g e b e i n g r o u g h l y c o m ­p a r a b l e t o t h o s e p a y a b l e b y o w n e r s o f i n d i v i d u a l f i e f s .

T h o u g h t h e h o l d i n g s o f t h e p e a s a n t s w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y s m a l l , a n d t h e y h a r d l y e v e r i n d i v i d u a l l y o w n e d m o r e t h a n t h r e e o r f o u r , t h e i r o w n e r s h i p o f

1 7 . N [ a t i o n a l ] L i b r a r y o f j M [ a l t a ] , U n i v [ e r s i t i ] 2 0 6 , fob. I Z v , 1 2 , 8 v , 1 0 , 6 v , 1 4 v , l l v - 1 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

1 8 . N L M , U n i v . 1 1 . f o l s . 5 6 6 v - 5 6 7 v , i n c o m e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t a x l i a b i l i t y a t 1 5 p e r c e n t i m p o s e d o n a b s e n t e e l a n d l o r d s .

1 9 . B u d a q q : C a t h . M u * . , M d . , P r e b . 3 , f . 4 ; S a n t i . B u n u h h a i a , G h a j n R i h a n a a n d B i n ­g e m m a : ibid., f o l . 4 v ; B a t i r i j a : i b i d . , P r e b . I I , f o l . 4 1 ; V n e z j a : ibid.

2 0 . C a t h . M u s . , M d . , P r e b . 3 a n d 6 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 7

f r e e h o l d l a n d g a v e t h e m a s t a t u s f a r s u p e r i o r t o t h e g e n e r a l r u n o f p e a s a n t s i n t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g i s l a n d o f S i c i l y , w h e r e t h e l a n d w a s j u s t a b o u t i n v a r i a b l y o w n e d b y t h e K i n g , t h e f e u d a l l o r d s o r t h e c h u r c h a n d n e v e r b y t h e p e a s a n t s ( 2 1 ) . I n M a l t a i n 1 5 2 2 t h e r e w e r e 4 2 9 l a n d o w n e r s w h o r e s i d e d o u t ­s i d e M d i n a , w h o h e l d b e t w e e n t h e m 5 7 2 h o l d i n g s s u b j e c t t o d e c a n a l t i t h e s , a n u m b e r w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n r e d u c e d b y 1 5 3 6 t o 4 2 3 l a n d o w n e r s w i t h 5 1 7 h o l d i n g s ( 2 2 ) . I n 1 5 4 6 t h e r e w e r e 3 1 2 l a n d o w n e r s s u b j e c t t o a r c h i d i a c o n a l t i t h e s f o r t h e i r 4 8 0 h o l d i n g s , a l l d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e s u b j e c t t o d e c a n a l t i t h e s t h o u g h t h e o w n e r s w e r e s o m e t i m e s t h e s a m e ( 2 3 ) . O t h e r p e a s a n t s , o f c o u r s e , p a i d t i t h e s t o t h e T r e a s u r e r o f t h e C a t h e d r a l , b u t t h e e a r l i e s t s e t o f r e c o r d s o f t h e t r e a s u r e r ' s t i t h e s , t h a t o f 1 5 4 1 , i s t o o d e f e c t i v e f o r s t a t i s t i c a l i n v e s t i g ­a t i o n ( 2 4 ) . I t i s , h o w e v e r , p r o b a b l e t h a t M a l t a m u s t h a v e h a d , i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s o m e 8 0 0 v i l l a g e o r p e a s a n t l a n d o w n e r s u n b e -h o l d e n t o a n y o n e . T h e p e a s a n t s a l s o h a d g r a z i n g rights o n l a n d n o r m a l l y r e ­f e r r e d t o a s s p u c i t r m c o m u n e , c o m m o n l a n d , a p r i v i l e g e w h i c h t h e y w e r e v e r y c a r e f u l n o t t o l o s e t o a n y o n e .

T h e p e a s a n t ' s h o l d i n g s w e r e n o r m a l l y v e r y w i d e l y s p r e a d o u t . T h u s t h e N a x x a r l a n d o w n e r s i n 1 5 2 2 p o s s e s s e d l a n d s p r e a d o u t o v e r t h e w h o l e ' e m p t y ' n o r t h e r n p a r t o f M a l t a a s f a r a w a y a s G h a l l i s , Q o r t i n S a m m a t a n d W i e d Q a n n o t t a ( 2 5 ) . I n f a c t , a m o n g t h e i d e n t i f i a b l e d e c a n a l h o l d i n g s s u r p r i s i n g l y f e w s e e m t o h a v e b e e n s i t u a t e d c l o s e i n t o N a x x a r i t s e l f . T h e a r c h i d i a c o n a l h o l d i n g s o f t h e p e a s a n t s f r o m N a x x a r w e r e p o s s i b l y l e s s w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d , t h o u g h s o m e w e r e a s f a r a w a y a s S a n P a w l t a l - B i n d i q i . B u d a q q . M g h a t a b a n d G h a r -g h a r ( 2 6 ) . T h e t i t h e s p r e s u m a b l y o r i g i n a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d t e n t h s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f e a c h h o l d i n g , a n d t h u s r e p r e s e n t f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e o f t h e l a t t e r . P e t r u s B u c h a i a r o f N a x x a r p a i d a t o t a l o f 5 t h u m i n a o f w h e a t f o r h i s h o l d i n g s i n 1 5 2 2 . S a l v u s G a u c h i p a i d 6 t h u m i n a f o r l a n d a t Q o r t i n S a m m a t n e a r Q a w r a , a n d F r a n c i s c u s M i f s u d p a i d a s i m i l a r a m o u n t f o r h i s o w n f o u r h o l d i n g s : t h e s e a m o u n t s m u s t r e p r e s e n t f a i r l y l a r g e s t r e t c h e s o f l a n d , t h o u g h s t i l l f a r s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t o f a n y o f t h e f i e f s ( 2 7 ) . F e w o f t h e o t h e r N a x x a r l a n d o w n e r s i n 1 5 2 2 p a i d i n m o r e t h a n t h r e e t h u m i n a o f w h e a t , m o s t o f t h e m , i n f a c t , l e s s t h a n o n e t h u m i n a . B u t s o m e a l s o p a i d t i t h e s t o t h e a r c h d e a c o n a n d p o s s i b l y

2 1 . V . D ' A l e s s a n d r o , ' P a e s a g g i o a g r a r i o , regime d e l l a t e r r a e s o c i e t A r u r a l e [ s e c o l i X I -X V } ' , S t o r i a della S i c i l i a ( S t o r i a d i N a p o l i e d e l l a S i c i l i a ) , I I I , e i p . p p . 4 2 8 - 4 3 3 .

2 2 . C a t h . M u s , . M d . , P r e b . 6 , p r o v i s i o n a l f i g u r e s . 2 3 . I b i d . , P r e b . 3 . 2 4 . I b i d . , P r e b . 1 1 . 2 5 . i b i d . , P r e b . 6 , f o l a . 2 2 - 2 8 , i g n o r i n g t h e l a t e r i n s e r t i o n s a s r e v e a l e d b y d i f f e r e n t

w r i t i n g . 2 6 . I b i d . , P r e b , 3 . f o l s . I 8 - 1 9 v . 2 7 . i b i d . , P r e b . 6 , f o l s . 2 2 v , 2 5 v a n d 2 4 v .

8 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

a l s o t o t h e t r e a s u r e r o f t h e C a t h e d r a l . T e n o u t o f t h e 5 1 N a x x a r d e c a n a l t i t h e p a y e r s o f 1 5 3 6 a l s o a p p e a r a m o n g t h e 2 3 N a x x a r l a n d o w n e r s w h o p a i d t i t h e s t o t h e a r c h d e a c o n ( 2 8 ) . A t l e a s t s i x o u t o f t h e 1 6 R a b a t d e c a n a l t i t h e p a y e r s o f 1 5 3 6 a l s o a p p e a r a m o n g t h e 1 2 R a b a t i n h a b i t a n t s w h o p a i d t i t h e s t o t h e a r c h d e a c o n i n 1 5 4 6 ( 2 9 ) .

L E A S E H O L D S A N D M E T A Y A G E

I n t h e f i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s i t w a s a l r e a d y n o r m a l f o r s e v e r a l , i f n o t m o s t , o f t h e l a r g e r p r o p e r t i e s , w h e t h e r f r e e h o l d o r f i e f - l a n d , t o b e l e a s e d o u t t o t h e a c t u a l f a r m e r o r t o a n i n t e r m e d i a r y w h o l e t t h e m o u t i n s m a l l e r p o r t i o n s t o t h e f a r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s i n 1 4 9 5 A n t o n i u s G a t t D e s -g u a n e s , a p r o m i n e n t l a n d o w n e r o f M d i n a , w a s t h e ' p r i n c i p a l i s g a b e l l o t u s bonorum d i l i A l a g o n i sistentium i n insulis M e l i v e t i e t G a u d i s i C ( 3 0 ) . I n t h i s q u a l i t y h e s u b - l e t t o t w o p e a s a n t s . S a l v a t u r i S p i t e r i a n d G i l i o C u m b u c a l l e d X i l e y p e , t h e g a r d e n - t y p e l a n d c a l l e d G h a j n S t a s a t a f i x e d a n n u a l r e n t p a i d p a r t l y i n m o n e y a n d p a r t l y i n k i n d . O n 2 0 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 5 t h e m a g n i f i c u s P a u l u s d e A r a g o n a , a c i t i z e n o f S y r a c u s e , l e a s e d t o N i c o l a u s d e C a x a r o o f M d i n a t h e t e n i m e n t u m t e r r a r u m a t G h a j n R i h a n a c o n s i s t i n g o f a r a b l e a n d n o n - a r a b l e l a n d , i n c l u d i n g t h r e e g a r d e n - t y p e f i e l d s , f o r f o u r y e a r s a t t h e s u b s t a n t i a l m o n e y r e n t o f 7 3 u n c i e a n d s i x w e t h e r s ( 3 1 ) . O n 2 1 S e p t e m b e r o f t h e s a m e y e a r , N i c o l a u s C a x a r o r e n e w e d t h e l e a s e o f t h e j a r d i n o o f G h a j n R i h a n a f o r a n o t h e r f o u r y e a r s i n f a v o u r o f t h e s i t t i n g t e n a n t , t o b e a d d e d t o t h e t h r e e y e a r s a l r e a d y a g r e e d u p o n a t a r e n t o f t e n u n c i e f o r t h e p e r i o d o f s i x y e a r s s t i l l r e m a i n i n g ( 3 2 ) . O f c o u r s e , n u m e r o u s o t h e r e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e g i v e n .

T h e p e a s a n t s f r e q u e n t l y o b t a i n e d l a n d b e l o n g i n g t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f M d i n a o n a r e n t a l b a s i s f o r p e r i o d s o f f o u r y e a r s , s o m e t i m e s f o r t h r e e o r e v e n s i x y e a r s , p r e s u m a b l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c r o p r o t a t i o n i n u s e i n t h e f i e l d i n q u e s t i o n . L o n g - l e a s e s o f 3 9 y e a r s h a v e b e e n f o u n d , b u t s o r a r e l y t h a t s u c h c e n s u s - p a y i n g l a n d w a s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a s i c - C e n s . ic-Cnus, ic-Cnejjes f r o m t h a t f a c t ( 3 3 ) . T h e p e a s a n t s a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y r e n t e d o u t t h e i r l a n d t o e a c h o t h e r , m o s t l y w h e n t h e y c o u l d n o t w o r k i t t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h s i c k n e s s , o l d a g e , m i g r a t i o n , a n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n , i n c a r c e r a t i o n , a n d s o o n . B u t

2 8 . I b i d . , P r e b . 5 , f o l s . 1 6 - , a n d P r e b . 3 , f o l s . 1 8 - 1 9 v . 2 9 I b i d . , P r e b . 5 . f o l s . 1 3 - 1 4 v , a n d P r e b . 3 . f o l s . 1 3 - 1 4 . 3 0 . D e e d d a t e d 5 A u g u s t 1 4 9 5 : N o t . J a c o b u s S a h a r a . N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 . 3 1 . I b i d . , u n d e r t h a t d a t e . 3 2 . I b i d . , u n d e r t h a t d a t e . 3 3 . F o r t h e s e p l a c e - n a m e s see G . W e t t i n g e r , * N o n A r a b o - B e r b e r I n f l u e n c e s o n M a l t a ' s

M e d i e v a l N o m e n c l a t u r e ' , Procedings of the Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of Studies on Cultures oj the Western M e d i t e r r a n e a n , I I , p p . 2 0 2 , 2 0 9 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 9

q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y t h e y p a s s e d o n l a n d t o e a c h o t h e r b y w a y o f m e z z a d r i a o r m e t a y a g e , b y v i r t u e o f w h i c h h a l f t h e p r o d u c e w a s r e t a i n e d b y t h e t e n a n t a n d h a l f w a s s u r r e n d e r e d t o t h e l a n d l o r d . T h u s o n 1 7 O c t o b e r 1 4 8 8 R o g e r i u s d e B o r d i n o , a c a n o n o f t h e c a t h e d r a l , l e a s e d o u t t o R o g e r i o G r i m a f o r f o u r y e a r s h i s v i n e y a r d a t W i e d i l - B u z b i e z ad medietatem fructus ( 3 4 ) ; o n 1 8 N o ­v e m b e r 1 4 9 5 C a t a l d u s X e b r a s o f N a x x a r l e a s e d o u t ad campensiam et nomine campensie i u x t a usum M a k e t o G r e g o r i o B e r t e l l i t w o a r a b l e f i e l d s a d j o i n i n g H a b e l i d - D e j r f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o s e a s o n s : t h e t e n a n t h a d t o c u l t i v a t e a n d p l o u g h t h e f i e l d s w e l l , s o w i n g g r a i n i n t h a t s e a s o n a n d c o t t o n o n s u i t a b l e p o r t i o n s o f t h e f i e l d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , a n d r e c e i v e t h e l o a n o f t w e n t y c a r l e n i w h i c h h e h a d t o r e t u r n a t t h e e n d o f t h e l e a s e ( 3 5 ) . I t w o u l d n o t s e e m t h a t t h e g r e a t e r l a n d o w n e r s f r e q u e n t l y r e s o r t e d t o m e t a y a g e w h e n t h e y l e a s e d o u t t h e i r l a n d . B u t i t w a s i n t h a t w a y t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y o f V n e z j a w a s l e a s e d o u t i n 1 4 8 7 b y i t s o w n e r n o M i s A n t o n i u s G a t t D e s g u a n e s ( 3 6 ) .

L A N D H U N G E R

O n e p e c u l i a r i t y o f l a n d - l e a s e s o f f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y M a l t a a n d G o z o w a s t h a t t h e y f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e d t h e l o a n o f m o n e y f r o m t h e t e n a n t t o t h e l a n d ­l o r d . T h i s c u s t o m i s e x p l a i n e d i n a p r e - 3 4 5 0 t e x t f r o m G o z o w h i c h s t a t e s t h a t l a n d w a s t h e n s o s c a r c e o n t h a t i s l a n d o w i n g t o t h e g r e a t i n c r e a s e o f p o p u ­l a t i o n t h a t t h i s m e t h o d o f p e r s u a s i o n w a s a d o p t e d b y w o u l d - b e t e n a n t s t o o b t a i n l a n d f r o m t h e l a n d l o r d s ( 3 7 ) . I t w a s t h e r e f o r e a s o r t o f k e y - m o n e y d i s g u i s e d a s a n i n t e r e s t - f r e e l o a n t o g e t r o u n d t h e C h u r c h s a n c t i o n a g a i n s t u s u r y . A t e a r l i e r t i m e s , t h e G o z i t a n t e x t e x p l a i n s , w h e n p e o p l e w e r e f e w e r a n d t e n a n t s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d , i t h a d b e e n t h e l a n d l o r d w h o o f f e r e d l o a n s t o w o u l d - b e t e n a n t s a n d n o t t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d .

L a n d i n c r e a s e d m u c h i n p r i c e d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y b o t h i n M a l t a a n d i n G o z o . O n t h e l a t t e r i s l a n d i n 1 4 4 9 l a n d w a s r e p u t e d t o h a v e b e c o m e h a l f a s d e a r a g a i n a s i t h a d b e e n t w e n t y o r t w e n t y f i v e y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y b e c a u s e , a s i t w a s c l a i m e d , t h a t i s l a n d w a s m o r e h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d t h a n i t h a d b e e n : ' k i a l u p r e s e n t i e s t i c h u i p u p o l a t a l a i n s u l a d i G o z u ' < 3 8 ) , A t t h e t u r n o f t h e s a m e c e n t u r y , w i t n e s s e s i n t h r e e s e t s o f u s u r y p r o c e e d i n g s c l a i m e d r e p e a t e d l y t h a t l a n d p r i c e s h a d i n c r e a s e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g 1 5 , 1 7 , 2 0 , 3 0 o r 4 0 y e a r s b y a h a l f o r e v e n b y t w o - t h i r d s ( 3 9 ) . O n e o f t h e v i l l a g e r s , ' B a r t h o -

3 4 . N o t . G r a c i a n u g d e V a a s a l l o , N A V , R 4 6 4 / 1 , f o i . 1 7 v . 3 5 . N o t . J a c o b u a S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 , u n d e r t h a t d a t e . 3 6 . D e e d d a t e d 9 F e b r u a r y 1 4 8 7 , N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 , 3 7 . C a t h . M u g . , M d , , C E M , A O . v o l . 2 , f o l e . 2 5 v , 2 6 v . ' 3 8 . C a t h . M u s . , M d . . C E M , A O , v o l . 2 , f o l . 1 8 . 3 9 . I b i d . , f o l s . 1 8 , 2 4 r v , 2 6 v , 2 0 7 v , 2 0 9 v , 2 1 2 v , 2 9 2 , 2 9 9 v , 3 0 2 , e t c .

1 0 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

l o m e u s B u t t i g i e g . a t t r i b u t e d t h i s t o a n i n c r e a s e o f p e o p l e a n d o f h o u s e s i n M a l t a ( 4 0 ) . O n 1 0 M a y 1 4 9 2 c o m p l a i n t s w e r e m a d e t h a t i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s p u b l i c w a y s h a d b e e n t a k e n o v e r a n d e n c l o s e d s o t h a t i t w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o g o a b o u t t h e i s l a n d ( 4 1 ) . T h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e w s i n 1 4 9 2 d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d l a n d p r i c e s b e c a u s e s e v e r a l w i t n e s s e s i n s i s t e d t h a t l a n d p r i c e s h a d a c t u a l l y r i s e n s i n c e t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e J e w s — n e v e r , h o w e v e r , i n t i m a t i n g t h a t i t h a d a n y t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h a t e v e n t ( 4 2 ) . M a n f r i d u s A x a c , a s u b s t a n t i a l l a n h o l d e r f r o m M d i n a . s a i d t h a t ' l a n d n o w c o s t s a l o t , h a v i n g risen s k y h i g h ' . ( 4 3 ) . I t i s a l s o b o m e o u t b y w h a t i s k n o w n o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g i n c o m e s o f f i e f - h o l d e r s . T h u s i n 1 4 9 9 . t h e w i d o w o f P e t r o d i B a l d e s . w h o h e l d h a l f t h e f i e f o f M a r s a a n d d i e d i n 1 4 7 9 , c l a i m e d t h a t h e r l a t e h u s b a n d u s e d t o r e c e i v e a n i n c o m e o f t w e n t y u n c i e f r o m t h a t s o u r c e ; i t p r o d u c e d 6 0 u n c i e i n 1 4 9 9 ( 4 4 ) . L u c a B a r b e r i i n 1 5 0 6 s t a t e d t h a t t h e f i e f o f Q l e j g h a , o n c e p r o ­d u c i n g 3 0 u n c i e a n n u a l l y , t h e n p r o d u c e d 8 0 , t h a t o f G h e r i e x e m h a d risen f r o m 1 2 t o 2 0 u n c i e , t h a t o f T a b r i j a f r o m 2 0 t o 6 0 , G h a j n T u f f i e h a f r o m 2 2 t o 5 0 u n c i e , G n i e n i l - F i r i e n a n d Q a t t a r a f r o m f i v e u n c i e t o 3 0 a n d S a q q a j j a f r o m s i x t o t e n ( 4 5 ) .

I m p r o v e d m a n a g e m e n t m e t h o d s m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e m a i n f a c t o r w h i c h i n c r e a s e d t h e p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e l a r g e r e s t a t e s , b u t b e t t e r h u s b a n d r y c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t ( 4 6 ) . I n 1 4 9 9 M a t h e u s V e l l a , n i c k n a m e d Z i r q u n a , o f M q a b b a , c l a i m e d t h a t i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f B i r m i f t u h l e a s e s w e r e m u c h h i g h e r t h a n t h e y u s e d t o b e a n d t h e t e n a n t s c o n s e q u e n t l y t r i e d t o g e t m o r e o u t o f t h e l a n d , c u l t i v a t i n g p r e v i o u s l y u n f i l l e d a r e a s , c o n v e r t i n g t h e m i n t o c o t t o n f i e l d s i f p o s s i b l e ( 4 7 ) . M e m b e r s o f a l l c l a s s e s , i n f a c t , o b t a i n e d g r a n t s o f c o m m o n w a s t e l a n d , t h r o u g h -

4 0 . T e a t i m o n y d a t e d 3 9 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 9 ; ibid., f o l s . 8 1 v - 8 2 . 4 1 . C a p i t o l i o f M a l t a , 1 0 M a y 1 4 9 2 ; C a l h . M u i . , M d . . C a t h . A r c h . , M a . 3 4 , f o l . 1 1 4 v . 42! C a t h . M u s . , M d . . C E M . A O , v o l . 2 . f o i l . 3 0 0 v , 3 0 1 . 3 0 4 r v . 3 0 5 r v , 3 1 0 , 3 1 1 . 4 3 . ' i c i t t a m e n c h e a l p r e s e n t e l o t e r r e n e v a l i g r a n p r e c z o e t e s t i m u n t a t o a l i c h e l i * , 8

N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 : ibid., f o l . 2 2 0 . 4 4 . T e s t i m o n y , 3 0 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 9 : ibid., f o l . 1 6 8 . 4 5 . N J . M U n i v . 2 0 6 , f o l s . 6 v , 8 v , l l v - 1 2 , 1 2 , 1 2 v , I 4 v . 4 6 . T h e s u r v i v i n g d o c u m e n t a t i o n d o e s n o t r e v e a l w h e t h e r l e a s i n g l a n d w a s m o r e p r o f i t ­

a b l e t h a n w o r k i n g i t b y p a i d l a b o u r , n o r s h o w t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s t o t h e o w n e r o f r e n t a l o r s h a r e - c r o p p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n t h e d e b a t e i n t h e town c o u n c i l o n 2 0 J u l y 1 4 8 1 w h i c h f i n a l l y e n d e d w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n t o l e a s e M i i i e b f r - R i h to t h e h i g h e s t b i d d e r f o r a p e r i o d o f t e n y e a r s , t h o s e w h o s p o k e i n f a v o u r o f s h a r e - c r o p p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s d i d n o t h a v e t h e i r r e a s o n s r e c o r d e d i n t h e m i n u t e s : N L M , U n i v . 1 1 , f o l s . 4 9 0 v - 4 9 2 v , o p i n i o n o f N a r d u s C a l a v a g i v i n g s e c o n d p r e f e r e n c e t o s h a r e - c r o p p i n g o n f o l . 4 9 1 a n d t h a t o f A n t o n i u s F a l c a o n f o l . 4 9 1 v , w h o w o u l d s e e m t o h a v e p r e f e r r e d r e n t i n g f o r t w o y e a r s t o s h a r e - c r o p p i n g f o r f o u r y e a r s .

4 7 . C a t h . M u s . . M d . , C E M , A O , v o l 2 , f o l . 9 9 v . O n e o w n e r i m p r o v e d h i s f i e l d b y r e ­p a i r i n g t h e s u r r o u n d i n g w a l l , e r e c t i n g a n i n n e r o n e t o s e p a r a t e o f f t h e t h r e s h i n g f i e l d , d i g g i n g a c i s t e r n , a n d c l e a r i n g t h e f i e l d o f s t o n e s a n d m a n u r i n g i t : ibid., f o l . 9 3 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 1 1

o u t t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d l a t e r , f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t b o t h i n M a l t a a n d i n G o z o ( 4 8 ) . T h i s w a s n o t c a u s e d b y p r e s u m e d m e r e r a p a c i t y o n t h e i r p a r t o r b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d f a m i ' y p r e s t i g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m a n i n c r e a s e o f l a n d e d w e a l t h , b u t m u s t h a v e m a d e g o o d e c o n o m i c s e n s e , a n a s p e c t o f t h e m a t t e r w h i c h h a s b e e n i g n o r e d , s o f a r . b y t h e h i s t o r i a n s w h o h a v e a l l u d e d t o i t . O n 1 1 F e b r u a r y 1 4 6 3 t h e t o w n c o u n c i l a g r e e d w i t h o n e d i s s e n t i e n t t h a t "hi ridumi', t h e c l i f f f a c e , s h o u l d b e t r a n f o r m e d i n t o a m e a d o w ( 4 9 ) . O n 6 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 9 t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s l e a s e d a l a r g e s t r e t c h o f c o m m o n g r a z i n g l a n d a t M i z i e b i r - R i h t o a p r i v a t e p e r s o n f o r s i x y e a r s a t e l e v e n u n c i e a y e a r , a f t e r f i g h t i n g o f f f o r y e a r s , a g e n e r a t i o n b e f o r e , t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t s o f A n t o n i u s D e s g u a n e s a n d h i s s o n A n g a r a u s ( 5 0 ) . A b o u t f o u r y e a r s b e f o r e t h a t , g r a n t s o f l a n d w e r e m a d e , f o u r t h u m i n a a t a t i m e , b o t h t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e v e n u e s o f t h e C r o w n a n d ' t o h e l p t h e p o o r ' ( 5 1 ) . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l p l o t s w e r e m u c h l a r g e r t h a n w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a h o u s e , a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e d f o r e x p l o r a t i o n a s f i e l d s .

A G R I C U L T U R A L L A B O U R E R S

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t p a i d l a b o u r w a s t h e f i r s t s o l u t i o n t o t h e l a n d l o r d s ' l a b o u r p r o b l e m c r e a t e d b y t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f s e r f d o m i n M a l t a a p p a r e n t l y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( 5 2 ) . I n 1 4 5 5 p a i d l a b o u r w a s c o n s i d e r e d s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c o n ­t i n u a l d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n e m p l o y e e s a n d t h e i r e m p l o y e r s w e r e l e a d i n g t o t h e n e g l e c t o f c u l t i v a t i o n o n t h e l a n d s o f t h e l a t t e r ( 5 3 ) . S u r v i v i n g e m p l o y m e n t c o n t r a c t s s h o w p r o m i n e n t l a n d o w n e r s l i k e S i m o n i d c M a z a r a , G u i l l i e l m u D e s ­g u a n e s , J o h a n n e s d e N a v a , A n t o n i L a n c i a D e s g u a n e s , A n t o n i G a t t D e s g u a n e s , N a r d u s d e V a c c a r o , M a n f r i d u s d e l a C h a b i c a a n d M a n f r i d u s A x a c u s . n g p a i d l a b o u r i n t h e i r f i e l d s o r v i n e y a r d s . ( 5 4 ) . O t h e r e m p l o y e r s i n c l u d e d c r a f t s m e n l i k e N i c o l a u s X a r a a n d J a c o b u s H a k y m a s w e l l a s t h e t o w n s u r g e o n M i c h a e l e

4 8 . S e e b e l o w , p p . 3 1 - 3 3 . 4 9 . N L M , U n i v . t l , f o l . I 8 0 v . 5 0 . I b i d . , f o l . 5 5 7 . S e e a b o v e , f t n . 4 6 , a n d b e l o w , p . 3 2 - 3 3 . 3 1 . 2 1 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 6 : A S P . R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a . v o l . 1 9 2 , f o l . 1 9 2 r v . 3 2 . O n 12 N o v e m b e r 1 3 7 2 J o h a n n e s G r e c u w a s f r e e d ' a b o m n i J u g o e t v i n c u l o B e r v i t u t i s

c u r i e ' : A S P . R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 6 , f o l . 2 0 9 v . p u b l i s h e d i n H . B r e s c , ' D o c u m e n t s o n F r e d e r i c k I V o f S i c i l y ' s I n t e r v e n t i o n i n M a l t a , 1 3 7 2 ' , Papers oj the B r i t i s h School at Rome, X L I ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 1 9 5 ; ' A s c h o n u . s e r v u i c u r i e c a b e l l o t u s c a b e l l e t o n ­s u r e ' , 2 J a n u a r y 1 3 7 4 i n A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 2 , f o l . 2 0 3 .

5 3 . P a r a . 6 o f t h e c a p i t o l i o f 2 N o v e m b e r 1 4 5 5 : N L M , L i b r . M s . 4 9 4 , f o l . 3 2 . 5 4 . C o n t r a c t s d a t e d 1 5 M a y 1 4 8 7 . 3 1 M a y 1 4 8 7 , 2 7 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 4 . 8 J u l y 1 4 9 6 - N o t J

S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 3 F e b r u a r y 1 4 9 7 . 1 2 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 8 , 1 5 J u l y 1 4 9 9 19 A u g u s t 1 4 9 9 : idem, N A V , I t 4 9 4 / 2 ; 8 O c t o b e r 1 4 8 8 , 1 J u l y 1 4 9 5 " i d e m R 4 9 4 / 1

1 2 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

d e F e r r i o l o a n d n o t a r y J a c o b u s d e F a l c z o n o ( 5 5 ) . O t h e r p r o m i n e n t t o w n s m e n l i k e N i c o l a u s d e C a x a r o , G u l l i e l m u s d e R i e r a , P e t r o d e B r a n c a t o a n d S a l v o d e F a l c z o n o t o g e t h e r w i t h a l a r g e n u m b e r o f m i s c e l l a n e o u s l a n d o w n e r s , s o m e a c t u a l l y l i v i n g i n t h e v i l l a g e s , a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y e m p l o y e d p a i d l a b o u r , m e n l i k e P e t r u s Z a m m i t o f M d i n a a n d P e t r u s N u a r o f S i g g i e w i ( 5 6 ) . T h e C a r m e l i t e s t h e m s e l v e s e m p l o y e d a m a n i n 1 4 6 7 ( 5 7 ) . S i n c e m o s t o f t h e e m p l o y e r s l i v e d a t M d i n a , t h e e m p l o y e e s f r e q u e n t l y c a m e f r o m R a b a t o r D i n g l i . O t h e r s l i v e d a t M o s t a , Q o r m i , A t t a r d a n d S a f i . E n g a g e m e n t s w e r e m o s t l y e i t h e r a n n u a l o r m o n t h l y , i n v o l v i n g w o r k i n t h e v i n e y a r d s s e v e r a l s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t t h e t e r m o f e m p l o y m e n t s h o u l d r u n f r o m j u s t a f t e r t h e g r a p e h a r v e s t i n S e p t e m b e r t o t h e f o l l o w i n g 8 M a y . P a y m e n t , b y t h e y e a r o r m o n t h l y , w a s e f f e c t e d o n l y p a r t l y i n a c t u a l m o n e y , w h i c h v a r i e d b e t w e e n 6 . 5 a n d 1 0 M a l t e s e u n c i e i f a n n u a l a n d a t 2 u n c i e i f m o n t h l y , t h e h e a v i e r w a g e h e r e c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r t h e i n s t a b i l i t y o f e m p l o y m e n t . I n a d d i t i o n , s o m e t h r e e s a l m e o f w h e a t o r i t s e q u i v a l e n t i n w h e a t a n d b a r l e y w e r e p a i d t o t h e e m p l o y e e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e ' u s u a l ' p r o v i s i o n o f s h o e s a n d c l o t h e s . E m p l o y e e s u n d e r t o o k t o p e r f o r m a l l t a s k s n o r m a l l y d o n e b y f r e e m e n e x c e p t t h e c a r r y i n g o f d u n g , t h e l a t t e r t a s k b e i n g t h e r e f o r e a p p a r e n t l y l e f t f o r y e t a n o t h e r e v e n l o w e r c l a s s o f w o r k e r t o p e r f o r m , p r e s u m a b l y t h e s l a v e s , M o s l e m s o r r e c e n t l y c o n v e r t e d c a p t i v e s o r s l a v e s b o m i n c a p t i v . t y , o f w h o m t h e r e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a f a i r n u m b e r i n p r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p ( 5 8 ) . P a i d e m p l o y e e s o r d a y l a b o u r e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y r e ­s e r v e d t h e r i g h t t o s t a y a w a y t o h a r v e s t t h e i r o w n l a n d ( 5 9 ) . O n e w a s g i v e n l e a v e f o r t w o w e e k s t o t i l l h i s o w n v i n e y a r d ( 6 0 ) . O b v i o u s l y n o t a l l p a i d l a b o u r e r s l a c k e d l a n d .

5 5 .

5 6 .

5 7 . 5 8 .

5 9 .

6 0 .

C o n t r a c t s . 4 J u l y 1 4 9 9 : N o t . J . S a b a r a . N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 ; 3 0 M a y I 4 8 6 a n d 1 7 A u g u s t I 4 8 6 ; idem, N A V , K 4 9 4 / 1 ; 8 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 a n d 3 1 J u l y 1 4 9 9 : idem, N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 . C o n t r a c t * , 2 9 A u g u s t 1 4 9 5 a n d 2 1 M a r c h 1 4 9 6 , 2 0 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 5 ; N o t J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 2 D e c e m b e r 1 5 3 0 : N o t . G i r o l a m o C u m b o , N A V , R 1 9 6 / 1 , f o l . 3 7 ; 2 0 N o v e m b e r 1 5 0 0 : N o t . J . S a h a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 ; 1 5 M a y 1 4 8 7 : idem, N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 6 O c t o b e r 1 5 1 7 : N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 . C o n t r a c t , 2 2 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 7 : N o t . P . B o n e l l o , N A V , M a . 5 8 8 , f o l . 3 4 . E n o u g h d o c u m e n t a t i o n s u r v i v e s f o r a b r i e f p a p e r o n s l a v e r y i n M a l t a b e f o r e t h e c o m i n g o f t h e O r d e r . T h u s M a s i u s Z u p a r d u r e s e r v e d t h e r i g h t t o g a t h e r i n h i s o w n h a r v e s t , 3 1 J u l y 1 4 9 9 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 . J o h a n n e s C a s a h a ( s i c ) w a s g i v e n t h e r i g h t t o a b s e n t h i m s e l f f o r o n e w e e k a t t h e f i r s t h o e i n g o f t h e v i n e y a r d s a n d a n o t h e r w e e k a t t h e s e c o n d i n o r d e r t o t i l l h i s o w n v i n e y a r d . 8 J u l y 1 4 9 6 : idem, N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 1 3

W H E A T , B A R L E Y A N D M A H L U T

W i t h a p o p u l a t i o n a l m o s t r e a c h i n g 1 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1 4 1 9 - 2 0 , d i m i n i s h i n g s o m e w h a t a r o u n d 1 4 5 0 b u t r e g a i n i n g i t s f o r m e r s i z e b y t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y a n d j u s t a b o u t d o u b l i n g a g a i n b y 1 5 3 0 ( 6 1 ) , M a l t a n e e d e d f o r i t s o w n p r o v i s i o n s o m e 1 4 , 0 0 0 t o 2 8 , 0 0 0 s a l m e o f w h e a t o r t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t i n b a r l e y o r t h e m i x t u r e o f t h e t w o g r a i n s k n o w n l o c a l l y a s m a h l u t ( 6 2 ) . G o z o ' s n e e d s c a n b e p u t a t a b o u t a t h i r d t h o s e o f M a l t a . I n t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y M a l t a s t i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y e x p o r t e d w h e a t , b u t i t i s l i k e l y t h a t e v e n t h e n t h i s w a s v e r y r a r e . I n 1 3 5 6 t h e K i n g d i r e c t e d t h e t o w n m a y o r o f M a l t a a n d G o z o a n d o f a f e w o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s i n S i c i l y t o p e r m i t t h e e x p o r t o f g r a i n t o M e s s i n a i n o r d e r t o a l l e v i a t e t h e f a m i n e r a g i n g t h e r e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y h e o r d e r e d t h a t t w o m e r c h a n t s o f M e s s i n a b e p e r m i t t e d t o e x p o r t w h e a t f r o m M a l t a o n t h e i r v e s s e l ( 6 3 ) . G r a i n i s a l s o k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n e x p o r t e d f r o m M a l t a i n 1 3 7 1 t o M e s s i n a a n d b a r l e y i n 1 3 7 7 t o P a l e r m o ( 6 4 ) . I n 1 3 9 8 t h e a b s e n t e e b i s h o p o f M a l t a w a s p e r m i t t e d t h e f r e e e x p o r t o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f h i s p r o p e r t y ( 6 5 ) , a n d i n 1 3 9 9 A n t o n i u s B i r t e l l u s e x p o r t e d 8 3 s a l m e o f w h e a t i n t e n d i n g a t f i r s t t o t a k e i t t o N o r t h A f r i c a ( 6 6 ) . N o l a t e r s i z a b l e e x p o r t s o f g r a i n f r o m M a l t a a r e k n o w n , b u t i n 1 4 1 9 p e r ­m i s s i o n w a s g i v e n f o r t h e e x p o r t o f r e d u n d a n t g r a i n ( 6 7 ) . I n G o z o i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e g i v e n i n 1 4 3 7 f o r t h e e x p o r t t o N o r t h A f r i c a o f a q u a n t i t y o f w h e a t a n d b a r l e y t w o y e a r s o l d ( 6 8 ) , b u t i n 1 4 4 0 t h e s c a r c i t y o f w h e a t w a s a l r e a d y s o g r e a t t h a t a f o r e i g n s h i p w a s f o r c e d t o u n l o a d i t s c a r g o o f w h e a t i n t h e i s l a n d ( 6 9 ) . T h e a b u n d a n c e o f w h e a t i n G o z o i n 1 4 5 4 l e d t o a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y l o w e r i n g o f i t s p r i c e ( 7 0 ) , j u s t t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e i s l a n d h a d b e e n d e s p e r a t e l y t r y i n g t o s t a v e o f f f a m i n e ( 7 1 ) . I n f a c t , t h e i n e l a s t i c i t y o f d e m a n d f o r g r a i n s i s

6 1 . G . W e t t i n g e r , ' T h e M i l i t i a L i s t o f 1 4 1 9 - 2 0 : a N e w S t a r t i n g P o i n t f o r t h e S t u d y o f M a l t a ' s P o p u l a t i o n ' , M e l i t a H i s t o r i a n . V , p . 8 3 . S e e a l s o H . B l o u e t , T h e Story of M a l t a ( R e v i s e d e d i t i o n , M a l t a , 1 9 8 1 ) , p p . 4 2 - 4 3 .

6 2 . D i e g o d e Q u a d r o i n 1 5 9 0 c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e M a l t e s e p o p u l a t i o n o f h i s t i m e , a m o u n t ­i n g t o 2 8 , 8 6 4 p e r s o n s , w o u l d n e e d s o m e 4 0 , 5 7 2 s a l m e . H o w e v e r , t h e S i c i l i a n v i c e r o y , t h e C o n t e d ' A l v a , e s t i m a t e d M a l t a ' s r e a l n e e d s w i t h t h a t p o p u l a t i o n a t a m e r e 2 5 , 8 8 3 o r t h e r e a b o u t s : A S P , T r i b u n a l d e l R e a l P a t i i m o n i o , n u m e r o p r o w i s o r i o 2 0 3 2 f o l s . 1 9 5 v .

6 3 . C . C o s e n t i n o , Codice diplomatico di Federico III d'Aragona re di Sietfia ( 1 3 5 5 - 1 3 7 7 ) ( P a l e r m o , 1 8 8 5 ) , d o c . C C C X X V I I , p . 2 6 2 .

6 4 . B r e s c , p . 1 3 2 , f t n . 3 1 , 6 5 . 2 6 N o v e m b e r 1 3 9 8 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 3 5 , f o l . 4 8 r v . 6 6 . O c t o b e r 1 3 9 9 : A S P , M i s c e l l a n e a a r c h i v i s t i c a , v o l . 3 5 , f o l , 2 1 7 . 6 7 . C a p i t o l i o f 6 A p r i l 1 4 1 9 : S . G i a m b r u n o & L . G e n u a r d i . C a p i t o l i inediti dells eitti

d e m a n i a l i di S i c i l i a ( P a l e r m o , 1 9 1 8 ) , p p . 3 8 7 - 3 8 8 . 6 8 . 2 8 O c t o b e r 1 4 3 7 : A S P . R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 7 3 , f o l . 1 3 0 v . 6 9 . A S P , L e t t e r e v i c e r e g i e . v o l . 1 8 , f o l s . 7 v - 8 . 7 0 . A S P , L e t t e r e v i c e r e g i e , v o l . 5 3 , f o l s . 3 7 - 3 8 . 7 1 . A S P , L e t t e r e v i c e r e g i e , v o l . 5 0 , f o l . 1 6 4 .

1 4 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

e x c e l l e n t l y i l l u s t r a t e d b y w h a t h a p p e n e d i n M a l t a a n d G o z o t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n 1 4 3 9 t h e t o w n c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e r e w a s a s h o r t a g e o f g r a i n e v e r y t w o o r t h r e e y e a r s ( 7 2 ) a n d y e t s u c h e v i d e n c e o f i m p o r t a t i o n a s s u r v i v e s c o n s i s t e n t l y s h o w s t h a t u n t i l t h e 1 4 8 0 s t h e r e h a r d l y e v e r w a s a n y l a k o f t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f m o r e t h a n 1 , 0 0 0 o r 2 , 0 0 0 s a l m e t o p r e v e n t f a m i n e ( 7 3 ) . I n 1 4 8 0 , h o w e v e r , m e m b e r s o f t h e t o w n c o u n c i l c o n s i d e r e d t h e I m p o r t a t i o n o f 2 , 0 0 0 , 3 , 0 0 0 a n d e v e n 5 , 0 0 0 s a l m e o f w h e a t ( 7 4 ) . T h e s i t u a t i o n m u s t h a v e b e e n q u i t e a l a r m i n g . I n 1 4 9 2 t h e M a l t e s e a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e c o n t e n t t o a s k f o r a n a n n u a l s u p p l y o f 1 , 0 0 0 s a l m e f r e e o f e x p o r t d u t y ( 7 5 ) . E v e n t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s u p p l y o f l o c a l w h e a t h a d s e r i o u s l y d e t e r i o r a t e d i n r e l a t . o n t o t h e d e m a n d c o m p a r e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n 1 4 3 9 . I n f a c t , b y 1 5 3 0 t h e t w o i s l a n d s w e r e h a v i n g t o i m p o r t s o m e 9 , 0 0 0 s a l m e o f w h e a t a n n u a l l y f r o m S i c i l y ( 7 6 ) .

W i t h a p e r e n n i a l s c a r c i t y o f w h e a t o n e w o u l d h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e M a l t e s e f a r m e r w o u l d h a v e s t r i v e n h i s u t m o s t t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d b y i n c r e a s ­i n g h i s p r o d u c t i o n , b u t t h e i n c r e a s e , i f i t e v e r o c c u r r e d , m u s t h a v e b e e n v e r y m o d e r a t e . T h e w h e a t f r o m S i c i l y w a s n o r m a l l y s o l d a t a s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r p r i c e t h a n l o c a l w h e a t , b u t t h e l o c a l p r o d u c e r w a s n o t a l l o w e d t o r a i s e h i s p r i c e d u r i n g t . m e s o f s c a r c i t y t o m a t c h t h a t o f t h e f o r e i g n w h e a t ( 7 7 ) . D u r i n g 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 2 3 M a l t e s e w h e a t w a s o f f i c i a l l y s u p p o s e d t o s e l l a t 1 2 t a r e n i a s a l m a , b a r l e y a t h a l f t h a t p r i c e a n d m a h l u t ( h a l f w h e a t a n d h a l f b a r l e y ) a t a n i n t e r ­m e d i a t e p r i c e ( 7 8 ) . I n G o z o t h e p r i c e o f w h e a t w a s a f o u r t h p a r t l e s s t h a n w h a t i t w a s i n M a l t a ( 7 9 ) . T h e p r i c e o f f o r e i g n , n o r m a l l y S i c . l i a n , w h e a t v a r i e d

7 2 . C a p i t o l i o f M a l t a , 1 * J u l y 1 4 3 9 : G i a m b r u n o A G e n u a r d i , p . 4 0 9 . 7 3 . N L M . U n i v . 1 1 , tola. 1 5 2 ( 1 4 6 2 ) , 1 8 5 ( 1 4 6 3 ) , Z 5 2 v ( 1 4 7 3 ) , 2 8 8 v ( 1 4 7 4 ) . e t c . 7 4 . I b i d . , i o l i . 4 3 1 - 4 3 4 v , m e e t i n g o f t h e t o w n c o u n c i l , 2 8 J u l y 1 4 8 0 . 7 5 . C a p i t o l i , 1 0 M a y 1 4 9 2 ; C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h i v e s , M s . 3 4 , f o l s 1 1 3 v - 1 1 4 7 6 . J u r a t s o f M a l t a t o J o a n n i K a p a , 2 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 3 3 , a n d A n t o n i n u s S p a t a f o r a t o t h e

v i c o - p o r t u l a n o o f L i c a t a , 2 3 J u l y 1 5 3 3 : C a t h . M m . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M i . 3 3 A r a -g o n e n s i a , d o e s . 1 2 8 a n d 1 3 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y . S e e a l s o l e t t e r f r o m A n t o n i o M a n d u c a ( t o t h e V i c e r o y ? ) , n . d . N L M , U n i v . 1 3 , f o l . 2 4 7 r v .

7 7 . T h u s o n 2 2 O c t o b e r 1 4 7 7 i t w a s a r r a n g e d t h a t w h e a t w a s t o b e p r o c u r e d i n S i c i l y a t 3 0 ' g r a n i l u t h u m i n u d i M a l t a ' w h i l e M a l t e s e w h e a t w a s n o t to b e s o l d a t a h i g h e r p r i c e t h a n 1 5 ' g r a n i p r o t h u m i n o ' : N L M , U n i v . 1 1 , f o i l . 3 6 7 v - 3 6 8 .

7 8 . F o r M a l t e s e w h e a t s ee N L M , U n i v . 1 1 , f o l . 6 8 v ( 2 2 J u n e 1 4 5 0 ) ; i b i d . , f o l . 5 7 3 v ( 3 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 9 ) ; ibid., f o l s . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 ( 2 8 D e c e m b e r 1 4 7 0 ) ; i b i d . , f o l . 3 4 7 ( 1 7 N o v e m b e r 1 4 7 5 ) ; i b i d . , f o l . 3 6 8 v ( 2 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 7 7 ) : C a t h . M u s . , M d . . C E M , A O , v o l . 2 , f o U . 2 0 4 v - 2 0 5 ( 4 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 ) ; i b i d . , v o l . 7 A , f o l . 1 4 4 ( 6 F e b r u a r y 1 5 2 2 ) ; f o r b a r l e y see N L M . U n i v . 1 1 . f o l . 6 8 v ( 1 4 5 0 ) ; i b i d . , f o l . 5 7 3 v ( 3 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 9 ) ; i b i d . , f o l . 3 6 8 v ( 2 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 7 7 ) ; C a t h . M u s . . M d . . C E M , A O , v o l . 2 , f o l . 2 0 5 (4 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 ) ; i b i d . , v o l . 7 A . f o l . 1 4 4 ( 6 F e b r u a r y 1 5 Z 3 ) ; f o r m a h l u t see i b i d . , v o l . 6 , f o l s . 3 5 2 a n d 3 5 3 v .

7 9 . I n 1 4 5 4 , o w i n g to i t s a b u n d a n c e , w h a e t w a s p r i c e d o f f i c i a l l y a t 1 0 ' g r a n a l u t u m -m i n u ' ; n G o i o : A S P , L e t t e r s v i c e r e g i e , v o l . 5 3 , f o l s . 3 7 - 3 8 ; d i r e c t i o n s w e r e g i v e n

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 1 5

b e t w e e n 1 6 t a r e n i a n d 2 8 t a r e n i a n d m o r e f o r e v e r y s a l m a , d e p e n d i n g c o m ­p l e t e l y o n i t s m a r k e t v a l u e a t t h e S i c i l i a n p o r t s o f e m b a r k a t i o n ( 8 0 ) . P o s s i b l y S i c i l i a n w h e a t w a s c o n s i d e r e d o f s u p e r i o r q u a l i t y t o M a l t e s e a n d G o z i t a n g r a i n : i n a t l e a s t o n e c o u r t c a s e n u m e r o u s w i t n e s s e s c l a i m e d t h a t l o c a l g r a i n w a s o f i i t t l e e s t i m a t i o n , s o m u c h s o t h a t t h e r e w a s a t i m e w h e n i t w a s s o l d a t a l o w e r p r i c e t h a n t h e o n e f i x e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ( 8 1 ) .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n p r i c e m u s t , h o w e v e r , h a v e c r e a t e d g r e a t p r o b l e m s o f e n f o r c e m e n t . U n l e s s t h e w h e a t i t s e l f w a s r e c o g n i z a b l y d i f f e r e n t , i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n e a s y m a t t e r t o s t o r e i t a w a y u n t i l t h e f o r e i g n w h e a t c a m e o n t h e m a r k e t ( 8 2 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t a v e r y l a r g e p r o p o r ­t i o n o f t h e l o c a l c r o p w a s n e v e r s o l d a t a l l b u t w a s c o n s u m e d b y t h e p r o d u c e r s t h e m s e l v e s i f t h e y w e r e s m a l l - f a r m e r s o r w a s g i v e n i n p a r t - p a y m e n t o f w a g e s i f p r o d u c e d o n t h e l a r g e r e s t a t e s . S t i l l , a s u f f i c i e n t a m o u n t m u s t h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d o n t h e s e l a t i f u n d i a - I i k e e s t a t e s f o r s a l e t o t h e r e s t o f t h e p o p u ' a r i o n : T a b r i j a a l o n e i n 1 5 2 3 p r o d u c e d a l m o s t 3 0 0 s a ' m e ( 8 3 ) .

C O T T O N

T h e w h o l e o f t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e M a l t e s e i s l a n d s u n t i l t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e O r d e r d e p e n d e d o n t h e g r o w i n g o f c o t t o n . M a l t e s e c o t t o n i s m e n t i o n e d i n G e n o a a t l e a s t o n c e i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y ( 8 4 ) a n d , t h o u g h

t h a t i t s h o u l d b e s o l d a t 12 t a r e n i p e r s a l m a , s a m e a s i n M a l t a , t h e p r i c e o f b a r l e y b e i n g e x a c t l y h a l f : A S P , L e t t e r e v i c e r e g i e , v o l . 5 6 , f o l . 8 4 v .

8 0 . I t c o s t 1 6 t a r e n i a s a l m a a t S y r a c u s e i n 1 4 6 2 : N L M , U n i v . I I , f o l . 1 5 7 b i s ; a t M a l t a i n 1 4 8 7 a n d 1 4 9 5 i t w a s p r i c e d a t 2 0 t a r e n i a s a l m a : N A V , N o t a r y J . S a b a r a , R

4 9 4 / 1 , c o n t r a c t s d a t e d 2 4 N o v e m b e r 1 4 8 7 a n d 2 6 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 5 ; i t s p r i c e w a s t h e s a m e o n 5 D e c e m b e r 1 5 1 1 ; C a t h . M u s . M d , . C E M , A O , v o l , 6 , f o l . 6 4 ; i n 1 4 9 7 i t w a s p r o c u r e d f r o m L i c a t a a t 2 2 $ t a r e n i a s a l m a : ibid, v o l . 1 9 8 , f o l . 1 4 0 v .

8 1 . E v i d e n c e , 4 - 8 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 : i b i < f . , v o l . 2 , l o U . 2 0 1 - 2 1 6 8 2 . S e e b e l o w , p . 4 8 . O n 2 8 D e c e m b e r 1 4 7 0 i t w a s d i r e c t e d t h a t l o c a l w h e a t w a s t o b e

s o l d b e f o r e S i c i l i a n w h e a t ; N L M . U n i v 1 1 . f o l s . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 . I t w a s n o t to b e m i x e d w i t h S i c i l i a n w h e a t : ibid., f o l . 3 4 7 .

8 3 . S e e b e l o w , p . 4 8 . 8 4 . F o r t h e m e n t i o n o f M a l t e s e c o t t o n a t G e n o a i n 1 1 6 4 : D . A b u l a f i a , ' H e n r y C o u n t o f

M a l t a a n d h i s M e d i t e r r a n e a n A c t i v i t i e s : 1 2 0 3 - 1 2 3 0 " . i n M e d i e v a l M a l t a : Studiet on M a l t a before the Knight,, p p . 1 0 6 4 1 7 , T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h a t c e n t u r y G e n o a t r a d e d i n E n g l i s h w o o l l e n * a s w e l l a s F r e n c h a n d F l e m i n g w o o l l e n s , c o t t o n f r o m M a l t a , c l o t h f r o m G e r m a n y , r e d a n d b l u e , e t c . : L . C i b r a r i o , D e l l a ecanomia politica del medio evo, ( T n r i n , 1 8 4 2 ) . I l l , 2 8 1 , f t n . 1 , c i t i n g P r o t o c o l l i d i L a n f r a n c o a n d o t h e r u n k n o w n n o t a r i e s i n t h e n o t a r i a l a r c h i v e s o f G e n o a . 1 1 8 0 , 1 1 9 2 .

1 6 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y i s a l m o s t t o t a l l y s i l e n t a b o u t i t ( 8 5 ) , t h e f o u r t e e n t h s h o w s i t b e i n g e x p o r t e d m a i n l y t o S y r a c u s e a n d t h r o u g h t h e r e f a r t h e r a f i e l d , b u t i t w a s a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y e x p o r t e d d i r e c t t o T r i p o l i , V e n i c e , A n c o n a , B a r i a n d B a r c e l o n a ( 8 6 ) . M a l t a i s l i s t e d b y P e g o ' o t t i a m o n g t h e s i x c o u n t r i e s g r o w ­i n g c o t t o n i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h a t c e n t u r y ( 8 7 ) , b u t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f M a l t a ' s c o t t o n e x p o r t s , e x c e p t t h a t c o t t o n f r o m M a l t a a n d A l e x a n d r i a f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o t t o n i n d u s t r i e s o f G e n o a , M o n t p e l l i e r a n d B a r c e l o n a ( 8 8 ) . T a k i n g b o t h f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t o g e t h e r , D e l T r e p p o a f f i r m s t h a t M a l t e s e c o t t o n e v e n t u a l l y t o o k t h e p l a c e o f T u r k i s h c o t t o n a t B a r c e l o n a w h e r e S i c i l i a n a n d M a l t e s e c o t t o n c o n t i n u e d t o f o r m t h e b u l k o f t h e c o t t o n i m p o r t s ( 8 9 ) , f o r e s h a d o w i n g a c o n ­n e c t i o n b e t w e e n B a r c e l o n a a n d M a l t a w h i c h w a s t o l a s t u n t i l t h e v e r y l a s t d a y s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ( 9 0 ) T r a v e l l e r s t o t h e M a l t e s e i s l a n d s b o t h i n 1 3 9 4 a n d c a . 1 4 7 0 r e m a r k e d o n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f c o t t o n o n o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e i s l a n d s ( 9 1 ) , a n d b y t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y R a b e l a i s i n F r a n c e u s e d t h e p h r a s e b i a n c c o m m e c o t t o n d e M a l t f i e , a s w h i t e a s M a l t a c o t t o n ( 9 2 ) .

8 5 . A S y r a c u s a n barcha c a p t u r e d b y a G e n o e s e p r i v a t e e r o r p i r a t e o n 2 1 J u n e 1 2 7 2 w h i l e s a i l i n g b e t w e e n M a l t a a n d S i c i l y c o n t a i n e d 3 0 r o t o l o s o f c o t t o n y a r n i n i t s c a r g o : C a n c e l l e r i a A n g i o m a , V I I I , 2 4 6 .

8 6 . H . B r e s c . T h e " S e c r e z i a " a n d t h e R o y a l P a t r i m o n y i n M a l t a , 1 2 4 0 - 1 4 5 0 ' , 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 : A . S a p o r i , T b e n i d e l c o m m e r c i o i n t e r n a i i o n a l e n e l M e d i o e v o ' A r c h i v i o Storico I to-Mono, C X I I I ( 1 9 5 5 ) . N o . 4 0 5 , 1 7 - 3 8 ; M . F . M a z z a o u i . T h e I t a l i a n Cotton Industry i n the L a t e r M i d d l e Ages. 1 1 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 ( C a m b r i d g e . 1 9 8 1 ) , 3 1 , e t c . ; J . H e e r s , * I 1 c o m m e r c i o n e l M e d i t e r r a n e o a l i a f i n e d e l s e c o l o X I V e n e i p r i m : a n n i d e l X V " , A r c h i v i o Storico I t a l i a n o , C X I I I ( 1 9 5 5 1 . N o . 4 0 6 . p p . 1 5 7 - 2 0 9 ; J . B e z z i n a , ' D o k u m e n t i d w a r M a l t a f l - A r k i v j u t a * D u b r n v n i k ' , L - O r i n o n t , 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 5 .

8 7 . R . S . L o p e z & I . W . R a y m o n d . M e d i e v a l T r a d e in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n W o r l d ( L o n d o n , 1 9 3 5 ) , 1 0 9 ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y P e g a l o t t i , 7 ,a P r a t i c a della m e r c a l u r a , e d . A . E v a n s , w a * n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r .

8 8 . J , H e e r s , op. cit. 8 9 . M . d e l T r e p p o , I mercanti e a t a l a n i e Vespansione della corona aragonese n e l secolo

X V ( N a p o l i , 1 9 6 8 ) , 6 9 ; s ee a l s o ibid., p p . 9 6 , 9 7 a n d 1 0 5 . 9 0 . J . C . L a F o r c e , T h e Development of the Spanish T e x t i l e Industry, 1 7 . 5 0 - 1 8 0 0 ( B e r k e ­

l e y a n d L o B A n g e l e s , 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 4 . 1 3 6 , 1 3 7 n . 1 7 9 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y . J . D e b o n o , ' A s p e c t s o f t h e C o t t o n T r a d e i n M a l t a . 1 7 5 0 - 1 8 0 0 " , p a r t l y u n p u b l i s h e d B . A . ( H o n s . ) t h e s i s . D e p t . o f H i s t o r y , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l t a , a n d idem, ' T h e C o t t o n T r a d e o f M a l t a , 1 7 5 0 - 1 8 0 0 ' . A r c h i v u m , J o u r n a l of Maltese H i s t o r i c a l Research, N o . 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

9 1 . E . R o s s i , ' M a l t a d e s c r i t t a d a u n p e l l e g r i n o i t a l i a n o n e l 1 3 9 4 ' , G i o r n a l e di P o l i t i c o e L e t t e r a l u r a , 1 9 3 4 . p . 6 9 7 ; see L . l e G r a n d . ' R e l a t i o n d u p i l e r i n a g e h J e r u s a l e m d e N i c o l a s d e M a r t o n i , n o t a i r e i t a l i e n : 1 3 9 4 - 1 3 9 5 ' , R e v u e de I ' O r i e n t l a t i n , H I ( 1 8 9 5 ) . 5 7 8 - 5 7 9 . F o r t h e v i s i t t o M a l t a c a . 1 4 7 0 b y t h e F l e m i n g A d o r n e . see R . B r u n s c h v i g ( e d . & t r . ) . D e u x reclis de voyage inidits en Afrique du nord au X V sihele ( P u b l i c a ­t i o n s d e I T n s t i t u t d ' E t u d e s O r i e n t a l s e l a F a c u l t e d e L e t t r e s d ' A l g e r , n . 7. 1 9 3 6 ) , 1 7 9 .

9 2 . M M . B u r g a u d d e s M a r e t s e t R a t h e r y , Oeuvres de Rabelais collationmes pour la pre-

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 1 7

T h e e a r l y r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e e x p o r t o f c o t t o n f r o m M a l t a o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i t t h e r e i n v a r i a b l y r e f e r t o q u i t e s m a l l a m o u n t s , b u t t h i s i s n o i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e s c a l e o f p r o d u c t i o n o f c o t t o n o n t h e M a l t e s e i s l a n d s ; o f t h a t t h e r e i s r e a l l y n o r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a t a l l . I n 1 3 7 2 - 7 4 t h e r o y a l s e c r e t o o f M a l t a o b t a i n e d a r e v e n u e i n k i n d o f 6 5 c a n t a r a ( e q u i v a l e n t t o 5 , 1 6 1 k i l o s ) o f u n -g i n n e d r a w c o t t o n ( 9 3 ) . A r o y a l o f f i c i a l p a i d t h e s u m o f 1 2 1 u n c i e a t M e s s i n a d u r i n g 1 3 7 2 - 7 3 o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s a l e o f M a l t e s e g i n n e d c o t t o n ; a t t h e p r i c e o f 1 6 f l o r i n s a c a n t a r o , t h i s c o t t o n m u s t h a v e a m o u n t e d t o 3 8 c a n t a r a , e q u i v a l e n t t o s o m e 1 1 4 c a n t a r a o f u n g i n n e d c o t t o n ( 9 4 ) . I n 1 4 3 9 t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s o f M a ' t a c o m p l a i n e d t h a t ' t h e s a i d t o w n a n d i s l a n d i s a l m o s t d e s ­t r o y e d a n d r e n d e r e d i n c a p a b l e o f p a y i n g t h e s a i d m o n e y o w i n g t o t h e d r y n e s s o f t h e w e a t h e r o f t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e p r e s e n t o n e , w h i c h h a s b e e n u n p r o d u c t i v e o f g r a i n s , c o t t o n a n d c u m i n a n d o t h e r r e v e n u e s a n d p r o ­c e e d s b y w h i c h t h i s i s l a n d m a i n t a i n s i t s e l f ( 9 5 ) . W i t h t h e f i r s t s u r v i v i n g n o t a r i a l r e g i s t e r , t h a t o f 1 4 6 7 . o n e b e g i n s t o o b t a i n a r e g u l a r a n d f a i r l y a b u n d a n t d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s a l e o f r a w c o t t o n a t v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f p r o d u c t i o n ( 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , i n t h a t v e r y y e a r ( 1 4 6 7 ) t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s o f G o z o p o i n t e d o u t , i n a n e f f o r t t o o b t a i n a n e x e m p t i o n f r o m a p r o p o s e d t a x , t h a t : ( 9 7 ) .

t h i s i s l a n d d o e s n o t h a v e a n y o t h e r l i v e l i h o o d , s u b s i d y o r s u s t e n a n c e e x c e p t f r o m c o t t o n , a n d w h e n [ t h e ] c o t t o n [ c r o p | f a i l s t h e i s l a n d c a n n o t e a r n a p e n n y a n d i t I s a l r e a d y f o u r y e a r s t h a t c o t t o n h a s f a i l e d a n d t h u s t h e p e o p l e o f t h e i s l a n d d o n o t p o s s e s s a p e n n y a n d , w h a t i s w o r s e , t h e g r a i n h a r v e s t h a s b e e n v e r y p o o r a n d i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n g r a i n f r o m a b r o a d , a n d w e a r e t h u s i n s o m e c o n f u s i o n , n o t k n o w i n g h o w t o s u s t a i n o u r s e l v e s a n d m a i n t a i n t h e s a i d i s l a n d .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t c o t t o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e o n l y c a s h c r o p o f G o z o w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g . I n t h i s , M a l t a m u s t h a v e r e s e m b l e d G o z o .

m i t r e fois sur les editions originates aceompagnfes d'un commentate nouveau. troi-s i e m e e d i t i o n r e v u e e t a u g m e n t e e ( P a r i s , n . d ) , I , p . 3 4 2 . T h e p h r a s e a p p e a r s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n a n e d i t i o n o f 1 5 3 4 .

9 3 . D o c u m e n t p u b l i s h e d i n H , B r e s c , ' T h e " S e c r e z i a " a n d t h e R o y a l P a t r i m o n y o f M a l t a , 1 2 4 0 - 1 4 5 0 " , M e d i e v a l M a l t a : Studies on M a l t a before the Knights, p . 3 7 : ' c u c t o n i m a s c h a b b u c a n t a r i a s e x a g i n t a q u i n q u e " .

9 4 . L e t t e r t o N o t a r y P e t r u s d e B r u l l i s . 2 0 A u g u s t 1 3 7 3 : A S P . R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 6 , f o l s . 2 4 2 v - 2 4 3 . T h e p r i c e a n d q u a n t i t y a r e g i v e n i n o r c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e 1 3 7 3 d o c u ­m e n t . U n g i n n e d c o t t o n i s t h r e e t i m e s a s h e a v y a s g i n n e d c o t t o n : M . M i e g e , H i s t o i r e de M b l t e , I , 3 6 1 .

9 5 . C a p i t o l i o f 1 9 J u l y 1 4 3 9 : G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i , p . 4 0 8 . 9 6 . B e t w e e n t h e f i r s t s u r v i v i n g r e g i s t e r , t h a t o f n o t a r y P a u l o B o n e l l o ( 1 4 6 7 ) a n d t h e n e x t ,

t h a t o f n o t a r y J . S a b a r a ( 1 4 8 6 ) t h e r e i s a l o n g g a p a l m o s t t o t a l l y u n c o v e r e d b y n o t a ­r i a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n .

9 7 . C a p i t u i a o f G o z o , 2 4 J u l y 1 4 6 7 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 1 8 , f o l s . 3 2 4 v - 3 2 5 a n d v o l . 1 1 9 , f o l s . 2 4 0 v - 2 4 1 , i d e n t i c a l r e g i s t r a t i o n s .

I S G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

T h e a p p r o x i m a t e s i z e o f M a l t a ' s c o t t o n e x p o r t s m a y p e r h a p s b e c a l c u l a t e d b y o f f s e t t i n g i t a g a i n s t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y i m p o r t a t i o n o f w h e a t . T o b a l a n c e t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f a n o c c a s i o n a l t h o u s a n d s a l m e o f w h e a t a t f i r s t , t h e n a n a n n u a l t h o u s a n d , a n d f i n a l l y u p t o s o m e 9 0 0 0 s a l m e a y e a r , t h e i s l a n d m u s t h a v e e x p o r t e d a t f i r s t a n o c c a s i o n a l t h e n a n a n n u a l 1 6 6 c a n t a r a o f g i n n e d c o t t o n a n d , a r o u n d 1 5 2 8 , w e l l o v e r 1 0 0 0 c a n t a r a ( 9 8 ) . T h i s m u s t , h o w e v e r , b e r e d u c e d b y t h e s u b s t a n t i a l s u m s e a r n e d b y t h e e x p o r t o f c u m i n b u t t h e m o n e y t h u s o b t a i n e d h a d a l s o t o c o v e r c o s t o f i m p o r t a t i o n o f s e v e r a l o t h e r a r t i c l e s o f t r a d e : a l l t y p e s o f c l o t h , t i m b e r f o r b e a m s a n d f o r s h i p - b u i l d i n g o r r e p a i r , a s w e l l a s I t h i n g s i n d a i l y u s e f r o m p a p e r t o n a i l s , i r o n f o r b l a c k s m i t h s , s p i c e s a n d c h e m i c a l s , g u n n e r y a n d e x p l o s i v e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m u c h o f t h e c o t t o n w a s s p u n i n t o y a m b e f o r e e x p o r t r a i s i n g i t s p r i c e a t l e a s t b y a t h i r d .

C o t t o n w a s s o w n i n M a r c h o r A p r i l a n d d i d n o t m a t u r e f o r h a r v e s t i n g b e f o r e S e p t e m b e r o r e v e n O c t o b e r ( 9 9 ) . I t s g r o w i n g s e a s o n , t h e r e f o r e , f e l l l a r g e l y i n t h e w a r m e r a n d d r y e r m o n t h s o f t h e y e a r . I n f a c t , a f t e r M a r c h r a i n i n M a l t a b e c o m e s u t t e r l y u n r e l i a b l e , a n d o n l y f i e ' d s w i t h a n a s s u r e d s u p p l y o f w a t e r w e r e r e a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r c o t t o n g r o w i n g . O n e t h e r e f o r e f i n d s l a n d a l w a y s c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e f i f t e e n t h a n d e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t o o n e o r o t h e r o f t w o t y p e s , t h a t s u i t a b l e f o r g r a i n a n d p u l s e s , a n d t h e o t h e r w i t h a m o r e a b u n d a n t w a t e r s u p p l y a l s o a d a p t e d t o t h e g r o w i n g o f c o t t o n . T h e l a t t e r w a s m u c h m o r e v a l u a b l e . T h u s i n 1 4 4 9 i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t ( 1 0 0 ) :

a r a b l e l a n d o f t w o c r o p s , v i z . l a n d w h i c h i s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w h e a t a n d b a r l e y a n d c o t t o n i n t h i s i s l a n d o f G o z o , w a s a n d i s b e t t e r a n d m o r e v a l u a b l e t h a n l a n d o f am c r o p , t h a t i s l a n d w h i c h i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f c o t ­t o n , a n d i t i s w o r t h a n d u s u a l l y v a l u e d i f n o t b y a h a l f a t l e a s t b y a t h i r d m o r e .

T h e s a m e d i s t i n c t i o n w a s m a d e f i f t y y e a r s l a t e r ( 1 0 1 ) :

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u s t o m o f M a l t a t h e v a l u a t i o n [ o f l a n d ] i s m a d e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l a n d : w h e n i t i s g o o d a n d o f t w o c r o p s o n s i t e s w h i c h c o u l d b e u s e d f o r b u i l d i n g , a t u m i n o o f s u c h l a n d i s u s u a l l y v a l u e d a t a c o m m o n p r i c e

9 8 . F o r i m p o r t s o f w h e a t , s ee a b o v e p p . 1 3 - 1 4 . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s b a s e d o n w h e a t p r i c e s a * g i v e n i n f o o t n o t e 8 0 . G i n n e d c o t t o n p r i c e s : i n 1 4 6 7 i t c o s t 1 2 f l o r i n s a c a n t a r a a c ­c o r d i n g t o c o n t r a c t s d a t e d 4 S e p t e m b e r , 7 a n d 9 O c t o b e r : i n d e e d s o f N o t . P . B o n e l l o . N A V . M s , 5 8 8 . f o l s . 7 v , 2 3 v , 2 5 v ; i t v a r i e d m a i n l y b e t w e e n 8 a n d 1 5 f l o r i n s d o w n t o 1 5 0 0 a s i n t h e d e e d s o f N o t . J . S a b a r a a n d N o t . G r a c i a n o V a s s a l l o , passim, a n d m a i n l y u p t o 2 5 f l o r i n s b e t w e e n 1 5 0 0 a n d 1 5 3 0 , a s i n d e e d s o f N o t . C . C a u c h u r a n d N o t . J . B o n d i n . I t i s h o p e d i n a f u t u r e e d i t i o n t o g i v e n p r i c e l i s t s i n g r a p h f o r m b o t h f o r w h e a t a n d f o r c o t t o n , ( u n g i n n e d , g i n n e d a n d i a r n ) .

9 9 . S e e b e l o w p p . 2 0 a n d 4 5 f o r t h e t i m e o f s o w i n g . 1 0 0 . C a t h . M u s . . M d . . C E M . A O . v o l . 2 , f o l . 2 5 . 1 0 1 . I b i d . , f o l . 5 6 , t e s t i m o n y o f N i c o l a u s C u r m i , 1 9 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 9 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 1 9

o f t w o g o o d u n c i e , a n d w h e n i t i s r o c k y a n d o f o n e c r o p i t i s v a l u e d u s u a l l y a t a b o u t s i x M a l t e s e u n c i e [ i e . l e s s t h a n o n e u n c i a ponderis generalis] t h e t h u m i n o .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e g o o d q u a l i t y l a n d , h e r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y i t s s u i t a b i l i t y f o r b u i l d i n g , w a s v a l u e d a t s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n t w i c e t h e l e s s v a l u a b l e l a n d .

C o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s s t a r t e d i n G o z o i n 1 4 4 9 t o r e v o k e a s u s u r i o u s t h e s a l e b a c k i n 1 4 2 4 o f a f i e l d o f s o m e 5 . 5 5 a c r e s s i t u a t e d i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f S a n t a C e c i l j a p r o v i d e t h e h i s t o r i a n w i t h a r e m a r k a b l e a m o u n t o f e c o n o m i c i n f o r m ­a t i o n o t h e r w i s e u n o b t a i n a b l e ( 1 0 2 ) . T h e p l a i n t i f f a r g u e d t h a t t h e f i e l d w a s f e r t i l e a n d o f t h e b e s t l a n d i n G o z o , a b l e t o r e n d e r , o n a b i e n n a l c r o p r o t a t i o n o f w h e a t o r b a r l e y f o l l o w e d b y c o t t o n , a n a n n u a l i n c o m e o f e i g h t o r n i n e G o z i t a n u n c i e ( 1 0 3 ) :

T A B L E 1 . P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e f i e l d T a l - B e r b r i a t S a n t a C e c i l j a

G o z o , c a . 1 4 2 4 / 1 4 4 9 F i r s t year, ij w h e a t i s g r o w n C r o p Q u a n t i t y P r i c e V a l u e W h e a t 1 2 / 1 4 s a l m e 2 u . 4 t . p e r s a l m a 2 5 u . 1 8 t . t o 2 9 u . 2 6 t . s t r a w 2 4 / 2 8 l o a d s 1 c a r l i n u p e r l o a d 1 2 t . t o 1 4 t . t h o r n s 6 / 8 l o a d s 1 t a r i p e r l o a d 6 t . t o 8 t .

T o t a l v a l u e ; 2 6 u . 6 t . t o 3 0 u . 1 8 t .

F i r s t year, if barley is grown W h e a t 1 6 / 1 8 s a l m e l u . 2 t . p e r s a l m a 1 7 u . 2 t . t o 1 9 u . 6 t . s t r a w 4 0 / 5 0 l o a d s 1 c a r l i n u p e r l o a d 2 0 t . t o 2 5 t . t h o r n s 6 / 8 l o a d s 1 t a r i p e r l o a d 6 t t o S t .

T o t a l v a l u e : 1 7 u . 2 8 t . t o 2 0 u . 9 t .

Second year, with cotton as m a i n crop c o t t o n 1 0 / 1 2 c a n t a r a 2 u . O t . p e r c a n t a r 2 0 u . O t . t o 2 4 t . O t . t h o r n s 6 / 8 l o a d s 1 t a r i p e r l o a d 6 t . t o S t .

T o t a l v a l u e : 2 0 u . 6 t . t o 2 4 u . 6 t .

T h e p l a i n t i f f s t a t e d t h a t o n G o z o t h e l a n d w a s c u s t o m a r i l y c u l t i v a t e d c o n t i n u a l l y w i t h o u t a n y p e r i o d o f r e s t , a c e r e a l c r o p o f w h e a t o r b a r l e y a l t e r n a t i n g , w h e n s u i t a b l e , w i t h c o t t o n ( 1 0 4 ) . A w i t n e s s p u t i t d i f f e r e n t l y ,

1 0 2 . I b i d . , f o b . l - 3 5 v . 1 0 3 . P l e a s o f A n t o n i R e k i s e . 18 D e c e m b e r 1 4 4 9 : ibid., f o l s . 3 2 - 3 3 . P r e s u m a b l y , t h e income

r e f e r r e d t o i s t h e r e n t a l value o f t h e l a n d . 1 0 4 . I b i d . , f o l . 3 2 v .

2 0 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e c e r e a l c r o p w a s f o l l o w e d b y maisi, f a l l o w , c o t t o n b e i n g s o w n o n l y w h e n t h e l a n d h a d o b t a i n e d e n o u g h r a i n ( 1 0 5 ) . T h e p r o d u c t i o n c l a i m e d f o r t h e f i e l d a t S a n t a C e c i l j a c o u l d o n l y j u s t i f y t h e i n c r e a s e d v a l u e o f l a n d ' o f t w o c r o p s ' i f o n l y a h a l f o r e v e n o n l y a t h i r d o f t h e f i e l d w a s s u i t a b l e f o r c o t t o n g r o w i n g , a s w a s c l a i m e d b y s o m e p a s t t e n a n t s ( 1 0 6 ) . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , o n e h a s t o a l l o w f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a f o d d e r c r o p w a s g r o w n i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e s o w i n g o f c o t t o n ( 1 0 7 ) .

I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t i n 1 4 4 9 n o r m a l t e n u r e o n G o z o w a s a r r a n g e d o n a m e t a y a g e b a s i s , t h e l a n d l o r d r e c e i v i n g h a l f t h e i n c o m e o n t h e w h e a t a n d b a r l e y c r o p s , i n c l u d i n g h a l f t h e s t r a w , a n d t h e w h o l e o f t h e t h o r n s ( 1 0 8 ) . H o w e v e r , h e r e c e i v e d o n l y o n e f o u r t h o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e c o t t o n c r o p t o ­g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h o r n s c o l l e c t e d t h a t y e a r , t h e t e n a n t o b t a i n i n g a n o t h e r f o u r t h , t h e r e m a i n i n g h a l f g o i n g t o t h e cuttunerius, o r c o t t o n f a r m e r , w h o a c t u a l l y w o r k e d t h e l a n d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c o t t o n c r o p ( 1 0 9 ) . R a t h e r u n e x ­p e c t e d l y , t h e c o t t o n g r o w e r w a s t h e r e f o r e n o r m a l l y a d i s t i n c t p e r s o n q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m b o t h t h e l a n d - o w n e r a n d t h e t e n a n t ; h e u n d e r t o o k t o g r o w t h e c o t t o n , s u r r e n d e r i n g a f o u r t h t o t h e l a n d - o w n e r a n d a n o t h e r f o u r t h t o t h e t e n a n t , a n d s a t i s f y i n g h i m s e l f w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g h a l f ( 1 1 0 ) :

J a c o b u s F i s a t i n i . . . s a i d t h a t i t i s t h e c u s t o m o f t h e i s l a n d o f G o z o t h a t o u t o f t h e w h e a t a n d b a r l e y p r o d u c e d o n t h e l a n d t h a t i s f a r m e d t h e l a n d l o r d o r o w n e r o f t h e s a i d l a n d h a s a h a l f a n d t h e f a r m e r o r t e n a n t t h e r e m a i n i n g h a l f , a n d o f t h e c o t t o n t h e l a n d l o r d o r o w n e r o f t h e l a n d h a s a f o u r t h p a r t a n d t h e t e n a n t h a t a n o t h e r f o u r t h p a r t a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g t w o f o u r t h s o f t h e c o t t o n b e l o n g t o t h e e n i l u n e r i o , t h a t i s t o h i m w h o s o w s t h e c o t t o n a n d d o e s t h e h o e i n g o f t h e c o t t o n .

T h i s t y p e o f t e n u r e s u r v i v e d w e l l i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N u m e r o u s c o n ­t r a c t s o f l e a s e ad cattaniam c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e r e g i s t e r s o f N o t a r y J a c o b o

1 0 5 . J a c o b u s F i s a t i n i ( F s a d n i ) , 2 2 D e c e m b e r 1 4 9 9 : ibid., f o l . 3 4 . C f . t h e M a l t e s e p h r a s e a r t moxa, u n w o r k e d l a n d .

1 0 6 . I b i d . , f o l s . 2 6 , 3 4 v . 1 0 7 . " L e t e r r e n o n p r o d u c o n o c o n s e c u t t i v a m e n t e c o t t o n e , m a a l t e r n a t t i v a m e n t e s e m i n a t i .

L ' a n n o p e r b d e s t i n a t o a l c o t t o n e , s i t i r a n o d a l l e v i s c e r a d e l l a t e r r a d u e p r o d o t t i . I I p r i m o s i r a c c o g l i a n e l p r i n c i p i o d e l v e r n o i n e r b e o r t a l i z i e , l e g u m i s u l l a e d o r z o d e t t o f b r r a i n a . I I M a r z o f i n i s c o n o 1c a n z i d e t t e p r o d u z i o n i , e s i p r e p a r a n o l e t e r r e p e r l a s e c o n d a m e s s e d e l c o t t o n e . I n v i s t a d i u n d u p l i c a t e r a c c o l t o n e l m e d e s i m o a n n o l a g e n t e d i c a m p a g n a i m p i e g a m o l t o c o n t a n t e e s i o c c u p a i n d e f e s s a m e n t e o g n i q u a t t r o o o t t o a n n i a d i s s o d a r e l a t e r r a , a c o n c i m a r l a e m i g l i o r a r l a . ' , r e p o r t b y t h e C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e , V a l l e t t a , 1 7 J u n e 1 7 7 6 : N L M , L i b r . 1 0 2 0 , i t e m 2 0 , p . 4 ( m y p a g i n a t i o n ) .

1 0 8 . C a t h . M u s . . M d . , C E M , A O , v o l . 2 , f o l . 3 2 v . 1 0 9 . I b i d . 1 1 0 . I b i d . , f o l . 3 4 v , t e s t i m o n y g i v e n o n 2 2 D e c e m b e r 1 4 4 9 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 2 1

S a b a r a ( 1 4 8 6 - 1 5 0 1 ) a n d N o t a r y C o n s a f v o C a n c h u r ( 1 4 8 8 - 1 5 3 1 ) ( 1 1 1 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e ­l y t h e y i n v a r i a b l y r e f e r t o M a l t e s e c u s t o m w i t h o u t e v e r e x p l a i n i n g w h a t i t w a s . I t i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e y p r a c t i c a l l y a l w a y s c o v e r p e r i o d s o f j u s t o n e s e a s o n a n d f r e q u e n t l y m e r e p o r t i o n s o f f i e l d s , p r e s u m a b l y t h e p a r t s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f c o t t o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n o r m a l m e t a y a g e a r r a n g e ­m e n t s w e r e a l s o q u i t e f r e q u e n t b y t h e e n d o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d i n ­s t a n c e s o c c u r w h e r e p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d s w e r e r e n t e d o u t f o r f o u r y e a r s o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t c o t t o n w a s t o b e g r o w n r e p e a t e d l y f o r t h e w h o l e p e r i o d ( 1 1 2 ) . F i e f - h o l d e r s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e n o t a v e r s e t o g r o w i n g c o t t o n o n t h e i r f i e l d s . I n 1 4 9 3 t h e n o b l e m a n P e t r u s d e V a c c a r o r e f e r r e d t o t h e f i e l d s h e h a d i n h e r i t e d f r o m h i s m o t h e r w h i c h w e r e p r o d u c i n g b o m b i c i o r c o t t o n i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r y e a r a n d t o a n o t h e r f i v e s a l m e o f l a n d s i m i l a r l y g r o w i n g c o t t o n ( 1 1 3 ) . I n 1 4 9 7 A n t o n i u s G a t t D e s g u a n e s , a n o t h e r n o b l e m a n , s o l d m o r e t h a n t h i r t e e n c a n t a r a o f g i n n e d c o t t o n i n o n e t r a n s a c t i o n a l o n e ( 1 1 4 ) , a n d t w o y e a r s l a t e r h i s c o u s i n a n d n a m e s a k e A n t o n i u s L a n c i e D e s g u a n e s a c t u a l l y l e t o u t s o m e l a n d t o a p e a s a n t ad cuttuneriam sive cattaniam ( 1 1 5 ) . T h e n o b l e s c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e s u c c e e d e d i n i m p r o v i n g t h e i r r e v e n u e s f r o m t h e l a n d w i t h o u t s w i t c h i n g o v e r t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c o t t o n .

C U M I N

C u m i n s e e d w a s a n o t h e r o f M a l t a ' s p r i n c i p a l c a s h c r o p s , s e c o n d i n i m ­p o r t a n c e o n l y t o t h a t o f c o t t o n . T h a t i t n e v e r e c l i p s e d t h e l a t t e r i n i m p o r t a n c e u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , w h e n i t s u r v i v e d f o r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a f t e r t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f c o t t o n g r o w i n g , c a n b e d e d u c e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t i t a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y r e c e i v e d a s e c o n d a r y m e n t i o n i n c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s a f t e r c o t t o n . I n 1 3 9 4 t h e I t a l i a n n o t a r y N i c o l a d e M a r t o n i s t a t e d t h a t o n G o z o t h e r e w e r e v i n e y a r d s a n d a g r e a t q u a n t i t y of cotton and cumin a n d m e a t o f

1 1 1 . E g . c o n t r a c t s d a t e d 6 S e p t e m b e r a n d 15 D e c e m b e r 1 4 8 6 . N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 4 D e c e m b e r 1 5 0 0 , 7 a n d 2 7 J a n u a r y 1 5 0 1 . 2 1 O c t o b e r 1 5 1 6 , N o . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 . f o i l . 7 1 a n d 7 9 . R 1 4 0 / 7 , f o l . 4 9 ; 2 7 J a n u a r y 1 5 1 8 , J o t J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 , f o l s . 3 5 v et ieq.; 2 2 F e b r u a r y 1 5 3 1 , i b i d . , f o l s . 3 7 v et teq.

1 1 2 . T h u s o n 7 M a r c h 1 4 9 6 h a l f t h e f i e l d B i t a T u r b e s i v e H a b e t T u r b e a t R a h a l T a r x e n w a s g i v e n t o V i n c e n t i B a r b a r a a n d G r a c i e B r i f f a ad cuctuneriam f o r f o u r s u c c e s s i v e s e a s o n s ' d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y s h o u l d c o n t i n u o u s l y s o w c o t t o n a n d e v e r y o n e s h o u l d c o l l e c t t h e s h a r e p e r t a i n i n g t o h i m o l t h e s a i d c o t t o n ' : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 .

1 1 3 . W i l l i o f n o b i f i j P e t r u s d e V a c c a r o . 8 J u n e 1 4 9 3 : d e e d s o f n o t a r y B a r t h o l o m e u s S i l -l a t o , N A V , M s . 1 0 6 9 , f o l . 3 8 .

1 1 4 . C o n t r a c t , 8 A p r i l 1 4 9 7 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 . 1 1 5 . C o n t r a c t , 2 3 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 ; ibid. I n M a l t e s e , s h i f t l e s s a n d r a t h e r v i o l e n t p e r s o n s

a r e s t i l l f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d ta' qattdni, h i t h e r t o m i s s - s p e l t t a ' qattagtlni.

2 2 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

a l l k i n d s ( 1 1 6 ) . I n 1 4 3 9 t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s o f M a l t a c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c u r r e n t l a c k o f r a i n r u i n e d t h e c r o p s o f c e r e a l s , c o t t o n a n d c u m i n ( 1 1 7 ) . I n 1 4 6 8 t h e G o z i t a n s d i d n o t e v e n m e n t i o n c u m i n w h e n t h e y c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c r o p s o f c e r e a l s a n d c o t t o n o n w h i c h t h e i r i s l a n d e c o n o m y d e p e n d e d h a d f a i l e d u t t e r l y t h a t y e a r ( 1 1 8 ) . T h e F l e m i s h t r a v e l l e r A d o r n e r o u n d a b o u t 1 4 7 0 w r o t e t h a t o n M a l t a g r e w c o t t o n a n d c u m i n ( 1 1 9 ) . P a o l o B o n e l l o ' s n o t a r i a l r e g i s t e r , c o v e r i n g t h e m o n t h s o f S e p t e m b e r t o D e c e m b e r 1 4 6 7 , c o n t a i n s s e v e n ­t e e n c o n t r a c t s i n v o l v i n g c o t t o n b u t n o n e a b o u t c u m i n a n d , l e s t i t b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s i s e a s i l y e x p l a i n a b l e b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e c o t t o n h a r v e s t , o n e c a n p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e s e c o n d v o l u m e o f N o t a r y J a c o b u s S a b a r a ( 1 8 J a n u a r y 1 4 9 7 t o 2 4 F e b r u a r y 1 5 0 1 ) c o n t a i n s t w e n t y c o n t r a c t s o n c o t t o n a n d e i g h t o n l y o n c u m i n . E v e n Q u i n t i n u s c l e a r l y g i v e s t h e p r i m a c y t o c o t t o n o v e r c u m i n i n 1 5 3 3 ( 1 2 0 ) .

C o n t e m p o r a r y r e f e r e n c e s c o m m o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t w o t y p e s o f c u m i n g r o w i n g o n M a l t a a n d G o z o , t h e b i t t e r a n d t h e s w e e t . T h e b i t t e r , w h i c h s u r v i v e d i n M a l t e s e f i e l d s d o w n t o t h e 1 9 5 0 s , b o t a n i c a l l y k n o w n a s C u m i n u m cyminum L . , ( 1 2 1 ) w a s u s e d p r i n i p a i l y f o r t h e f l a v o u r i n g o f f o o d a n d d r i n k s , f o r p h a r m a ­c e u t i c a l p r e p a r a t i o n s a n d f o r p e r f u m e . T h e s w e e l , b o t a n i c a l l y P i m p i n e l l a Anisum L . . i n M a l t e s e h f e w w a , i n E n g l i s h aniseed ( 1 2 2 ) , i s u s e d a s a c o n d i m e n t f o r f o o d e s p e c i a l l y s p r i n k l e d o v e r b r e a d b e f o r e b a k i n g . T h e b i t t e r t y p e o c c u r s m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e s u r v i v i n g n o t a r i a l r e c o r d s d o w n t o 1 5 3 0 , a n d w a s p r o d u c e d i n g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y t h a n t h e s w e e t i n A b e l a ' s t i m e : 3 0 0 0 c a n t a r a o f b i t t e r c u m i n , 1 0 0 0 c a n t a r a o f s w e e t c u m i n ( 1 6 4 7 ) ( 1 2 3 ) . S o w i n g t a k e s p l a c e i n w i n t e r a n d h a r v e s t i n g i n J u n e i n f i e l d s w i t h a l i g h t s o i l ( 1 2 4 ) . L i k e c o t t o n , l a n d f o r c u m i n g r o w i n g w a s o f t e n l e a s e d o u t , e v e n b y t e n a n t s o n a s h a r e -c r o p p i n g b a s i s , t o c u l t i v a t o r s o n a c a t t a n i a t y p e o f c o n t r a c t . T h u s o n 4 J a n u a r y 1 4 8 7 M a t h e u s C a l l e y a g r a n t e d a d c u t t u n e r i a m t o L a u r e n c i u s Z a m i t a p o r t i o n o f t h e f i e l d - s t r i p c a l l e d l l h u i l g e ( 1 2 5 ) :

1 1 6 . E . R o s s i , ' M a l t a d e s c r i t t a d a u n p e l l e g r i n o i t a l i a n o n e l 1394\Gior»i»ie di P o l i t i c a e L e t t e r a t u r a , 1 9 3 4 , p . 6 9 7 .

1 1 7 . C a p i t o l i o f 1 9 J u l y 1 4 3 9 : G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i , p . 4 0 8 . 1 1 8 . C a p i t u l a o f G o z o , 2 4 J u l y 1 4 6 7 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 1 8 , f o l s . 3 2 4 v - 3 2 5 a n d

v o l . 1 1 9 , f o l s . 2 4 0 v - 2 4 I . 1 1 9 . R . B r u n s c h v i g ( e d . & t r . ) . D e u x recits de voyage i n - W i f j en A f r i q u e du n o r i au X V

silicle, p . 1 7 9 . 1 2 0 . O p . cit., p p . 3 6 - 3 7 . 1 Z I . J . B o r g , Descriptive F l o r a of the Maltese Islands ( M a l t a . 1 9 2 7 ) , 4 1 4 - 4 1 3 . 1 2 2 . I b i d - , p . 4 1 4 . 1 2 3 . G . F . A b e l a , D e l l a Descrixione di M a l t a isola nel mar lonio ( M a l t a , 1 6 4 7 ) , p . 1 3 8 . 1 2 4 . F o r Q u i n t i n o s ee H . C . R . V e l l a , op. cit., p p . 3 6 - 3 7 . 1 2 5 . C o n t r a c t , 4 J a n u a r y 1 4 8 7 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 2 3

f o r t h e s o w i n g o f b i t t e r c u m i n a n d a l s o f o r t h e s o w i n g o f a pensa [ a b o u t f o u r k i l o s ) o f b i t t e r c u m i n i n a n o t h e r s t r e t c h o f g r o u n d c a l l e d T a r a h i b e a s w e l l a s f o r t h e s o w i n g o f c o t t o n i n t w o f i e l d - s t r i p s I z a h u r u r a f o r t h e p r e s e n t s e a s o n .

T h e w h o l e c r o p o f b i t t e r c u m i n a n d m o s t o f t h e s w e e t c u m i n o r a n i s e e d w e r e e x p o r t e d .

V I N E Y A R D S A N D V I T I C U L T U R E

A n c i e n t M a l t a d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n r e n o w n e d f o r i t s w i n e . T h e M u s ­l i m s t h e m s e l v e s m u s t h a v e s t r o n g l y d i s a p p r o v e d o f i t . I n p o s t - M u s l i m t u n e s , v i n e y a r d s a r e m e n t i o n e d i n a v a g u e a n d g e n e r a l w a y i n o n e o f t h e s u r v i v i n g A n g e v i n d o c u m e n t s ( 1 2 7 3 ) ( 1 2 6 ) . I t i s k n o w n t h a t J a c o b u s d e P e r e -g r i n o , o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l n o t a b l e s o f t h e i s l a n d , h a d a v i n e y a r d a t M a r s a i n 1 3 6 1 ( 1 2 7 ) . T h r e e v i n e y a r d s a r e m e n t i o n e d i n 1 3 9 9 i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f D e j r H a n d u l ( 1 2 8 ) , a n o t h e r a t Z u r r i e q ( 1 2 9 ) a n d o n e o n t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r o f t h e l a n d c a l l e d G h a j n i l - Q a s a b a t T e w n i t o n t h e i s l a n d o f G o z o ( 1 3 0 ) . A n e x c i s e d u t y o n w i n e a l r e a d y e x i s t e d i n 1 3 7 2 b o t h i n M a l t a a n d G o z o ( 1 3 1 ) , a n d o t h e r w i n e d u t i e s w e r e i m p o s e d i n M a l t a i n 1 3 9 8 ( 1 3 2 ) . I n 1 4 3 4 t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s o f M a l t a c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f f o r e i g n w i n e w a s h a r m i n g M a l t e s e v i t i c u l t u r e w h i c h p r o v i d e d a l i v e l i h o o d f o r a t h o u s a n d i n h a b i t a n t s , a f i g u r e a c c e p t a b l e o n l y i f i t i n c l u d e d t h e l a b o u r e r s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r d e p e n d e n t s ( 1 3 3 ) . I t w o u l d n o t s e e m f r o m s u c h t a x a t i o n f i g u r e s a s h a v e s u r v i v e d t h a t t h e i m p o r t ­a t i o n o f w i n e i n c r e a s e d t o s u c h a n e x t e n t d o w n t o 1 5 3 0 t h a t i t t h r e a t e n e d M a l t e s e v i t i c u l t u r e s e r i o u s l y ( 1 3 4 ) . I n f a c t , i n 1 4 6 2 c l a i m s w e r e m a d e t h a t t h e b a d w e a t h e r a n d t h e a b u n d a n t p r o d u c t i o n o f l o c a l w i n e i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r h a d r e s u l t e d i n " l i t t l e w i n e , n e a r l y n o n e a t a l t ' b e i n g i m p o r t e d s o t h a t t h e t a x - f a r m e r h a d a c t u a l l y l o s t s o m e t w o - t h i r d s o r m o r e o f t h e t a x m o n e y h e

1 2 6 . D o c . V i n R . Mo«cati, ' F o n t i p e r l a s l o r i a d i M a l t a n e l I t . A z c h i v i o d i N a p o t l ' , A r c h i v i o Storico di M a l t a V I I . f a s c . i v ( 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 4 9 5 .

1 2 7 . 1 8 J u n e 1 3 6 1 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 7 . f o l . 4 5 0 . 1 2 8 . 1 9 J u l y 1 3 9 9 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a . v o l . 2 9 , f o l s . I 4 1 v - 1 4 2 . 1 2 9 . 2 2 A u g u s t 1 3 9 9 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 3 6 , f o l . 9 3 v . 1 3 0 . 3 0 A u g u s t 1 3 9 9 : i b i d . , f o l . 1 0 4 v . 1 3 1 . T h e w i n e t a x f a r m i n M a l t a w a s p a r t l y remitted i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e f i g h t i n g t h e r e

i n 1 3 7 2 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 2 , f o l . 2 0 7 . F o r t h e assisa v i n i of G o z o f o r t h e y e a r 1 3 7 2 / 7 3 , s ee A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a . v o l . 1 2 , f o l . 2 0 3 , a n d H . B r e s c , ' T h e " S e c r e z i a " a n d t h e R o y a l P a t r i m o n y ' p . 1 3 0 .

1 3 2 . T h e s e w e r e t e m p o r a r y t a x e s f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e s i e g e o f t h e Ca»tle-by-the-Sea, 1 4 F e b r u a r y 1 3 9 8 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 3 0 , f o l . 3 7 .

1 3 3 . C a p i t o l i o f 14 A u g u s t 1 4 3 4 : G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i . p . 3 9 5 . 1 3 4 . W i n e i m p o r t a t i o n t a x f i g u r e s i n H . B r e s c , ' T h e " S e c r e z i a " a n d t h e R o y a l P a t r i m o n y ' ,

p . 1 3 5 ; m o r e c o m p l e t e f i g u r e s w i l l b e g i v e n i n a p r o j e c t e d p a p e r o n c r a f t s a n d t r a d e i n L a t e M e d i e v a l M a l t a .

2 4 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

h a d p r o m i s e d t o p a y t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s ( 1 3 5 ) . T n l a t e r t i m e s , p a r t l y p e r h a p s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e e x c e s s i v e i m p o r t a t i o n o f S i c i l i a n w i n e a s w e l l a s t h e p r o b a b l e e x t e n s i o n o f c o t t o n g r o w i n g , M a l t e s e v i t i c u l t u r e d i e d o u t a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y , a n d w a s n o t r e v i v e d b e f o r e t h e o p e n i n g y e a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ( 1 3 6 ) .

F i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t v i n e y a r d s e x i s t e d m a i n l y w h e r e t h e r e w a s a r e l i a b l e s u p p l y o f w a t e r f r o m s p r i n g s o r s t r e a m s , r a i n a l o n e b e i n g u n r e l i a b l e . I n t h e v a l l e y s a n d o n t h e h i l l - s l o p e s n o r t h o f M d i n a , v i n e y a r d s w e r e t o b e f o u n d a t W i e d i l - B u z b i e z , F i d d i e n , D e j r H a n d u l , H o f r e t i r - R i h , B a h r i j a , W i e d i r - R u m , G h a r G h o l l i e q a , G h a j n K l i e b , G h e r i e x e m . G h a r T a r a g a t M t a r f a , a n d a t Q a l l e l i j a ( 1 3 7 ) . F a r t h e r a f i e l d o n e c o u l d f i n d t h e m a l s o a t H a l P e s s a ( i e . a t G n i e n t a ' H a l P e s s a , B i e b M a l f , a n d T a ' G e r g u b a ) ( 1 9 8 ) , a t 1 - A h f a r ( i e . G h a r i b 1 - A h f a r , H a b e l t a ' C i l i a , t a " L a h l a h ) ( 1 3 9 ) , a t X w i e k i ( G n i e n i l - G h a r i b , i l - H a b e l , H i r b i t i l - K c e j j e n ) ( 1 4 0 ) , a n d a t G h a r g h a r ( i e . a t T a ' B u r g a , D u k k i e n a t a ' Z e r q a a n d T a ' G u l b i e n ) { 1 4 1 ) . Q a d i n o t f a r f r o m t h e p o r t o f B e n -w e r r a d a n d M a r s a a t t h e h e a d o f t h e G r a n d H a r b o u r e a c h h a d a t l e a s t t w o v i n e y a r d s ( 1 4 2 ) . W a t e r c o u r s e s a l l o v e r M a l t a a n d c i s t e r n s w e r e s i m i l a r l y a s s o -

1 3 5 . V i c e r o y t o i e c r e t o o f M a l t a , 2 5 J u l y 1 4 6 2 : c o p y i n N L M , U n i v . 1 1 , f o l . 1 5 4 . 1 3 6 . F o r l a t e r t i m e s s e e J . D e b o n o , " T h e W i n e T r a d e o f M a l t a d u r i n g t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n ­

t u r y ' , u n p u b l i s h e d M . A . t h e s i s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l t a , 1 9 8 2 . 1 3 7 . C o n t r a c t , 17 O c t o b e r 1 4 8 8 , f o r W i e d i L B u i b i e i : N o t . G r a c i a n o d e V a s s a l d o , N A V ,

E 4 6 4 / 1 , f o l . 1 7 v ; a t . F i d d i e n . c o n t r a c t . 1 0 D e c e m b e r 1 5 4 2 : C a t h . A r c h . , M d . , C E M , A O , v o l . 2 2 , f o l . 3 2 7 ; D e j r H a n d u l : as i n f t n . 1 2 8 ; H o f r e t i r - R i h : 2 6 A u g u s t 1 5 3 2 , N o t . A n t o n i o R a p a , N A V , M s . 1 0 3 3 / 1 A , f o l . 2 6 0 ; B a h r i j a : 2 M a r c h 1 5 0 1 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 , f o l . 8 7 ; W i e d i r - R u m : 9 O c t o b e r 1 5 1 7 , N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 , 1 1 O c t o b e r 1 5 1 4 , N L M , U n i v . 1 2 , f o l . 9 2 ; G h a r G h o l l i e q a : 3 1 A u g u s t 1 4 8 1 , N L M , U n i v . 1 1 , f o l 4 9 5 ; G h a j n K l i e b : 2 M a r c h 1 5 0 1 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 , f o l . 8 7 v ; G h a r i e x e m : 5 A p r i l 1 4 8 7 . N o t , J . S a b a r a , N A V , R . 4 9 4 / 1 ; G h a r T a r a g a t M t a r f a : 1 7 M a r c h 1 5 0 3 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 , f o l . 2 3 4 v ; Q a l l e ­l i j a : 2 1 A u g u s t 1 5 4 9 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o . N A V . R 1 7 5 / 2 4 , f o l . 1 6 7 3 v .

1 3 8 . G n i e n t a * H a l P e s s a : 17 J a n u a r y 1 5 4 4 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o , N A V , R 1 7 5 / 1 2 , f o l . 3 0 8 ; B i e b M a l f : 3 1 M a r c h 1 5 4 6 , idem, N A V , R 1 7 5 / 1 7 , f o l . 4 2 7 v ; T a ' G e r g u b e : 3 A p r i l 1 5 3 9 , N o t . G . B u t t i g i e g , N A V , R 1 0 5 / 6 . f o l . 2 7 9 v .

1 3 9 . G h a r i b 1 - A h f a r : 3 0 A u g u s t 1 5 5 9 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o , N A V , R 1 7 5 / 5 9 , f o l . 1 3 5 6 v ; H a b e l t a " C i l i a : 17 N o v e m b e r 1 5 4 2 , N o t . G c r o l a m o C u m b o , N A V , R 1 9 6 / 4 , f o l . Z O v o f 1 s t p t ; T a ' L a h l a h : 7 F e b r u a r y 1 5 4 9 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o , N A V , R 1 7 5 / 2 3 , f o l . 9 0 6 .

1 4 0 . G n i e n i l - G h a r i b : 1 2 J u l y 1 5 5 5 , N o t . A n t . C a s s a r , N A V , R 1 6 0 / 1 , f o l . 5 3 4 ; I l - H a b e l ; 3 O c t o b e r 1 5 4 1 , N o t . G e r o l a m o C u m b o , N A V , R 1 8 6 / 3 , f o l . 1 2 v o f 4 t h p t ; H i r b i t i l -K c e j j e n : 2 6 M a r c h 1 5 5 5 , N o t . A n t . C a s s a r , N A V . R 1 6 0 / 1 , f o l . 3 8 0 o f 2 n d p t .

1 4 1 . T a ' B u r g a : 1 6 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 7 , N o t . P . B o n e l l o , N A V , M s . 5 8 8 , f o l . 3 1 ; D u k k i e n a t a ' Z e r q a : 2 8 D e c e m b e r 1 5 3 6 , N o t . A n t . R a p a , N A V , R 4 1 4 / 2 , f o l 2 3 5 ; T a ' G u l b i e n : 1 6 J u l y 1 4 9 9 , N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 .

1 4 2 . Q a d i : t a ' B u g i n i h , 6 A p r i l 1 5 5 7 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o , N A V , R 1 7 5 / 5 4 , f o l . 7 5 3 v ; t a l - G h a f r i d , 2 8 M a r c h 1 5 4 1 , N o t . J u l i a n o M u s c a t , N A V , R 3 7 6 / 4 , f o l . 2 1 6 . M a r s a : T a ' D e m u s , 3 1 J a n u a r y 1 5 1 7 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 7 , f o l . 7 8 r v ;

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 2 5

c i a t e d w i t h v i n e y a r d s : W i e d T a b r i j a , W i e d i l - K b i r , W i e d Q a n n o t t a , W i e d i l -Q t e j g h a , W i e d H a z r u n , B i r i l - H u t a n d B i r i l - M e g i l ( 1 4 3 ) . R a h a l T a b u n i , R a h a l G h a x a q , R a h a l M a n i n , R a h a l Q o r m i , R a h a l G h a k r u x , R a h a l T a r t a m i , R a h a l D i n g i i , R a h a l T a r x i e n a n d R a h a l M i l l i e r i a l l h a d a t l e a s t o n e v i n e y a r d i n t h e i r v i c i n i t y ( 1 4 4 ) . G o z o h a d s e v e r a l v i n e y a r d s ; a m o n g t h o s e r e c o r d e d a r e t h e v i n e ­y a r d s a t X l e n d i , W i e d S a r a , Q a b b i e z a a n d M a r s a l f o r n ( 1 4 5 ) .

Q u i t e o f t e n v i n e y a r d s a l s o h a d a n u m b e r o f o t h e r t r e e s , m o s t l y f r u i t t r e e s . T h i s w a s t r u e o f t h e v i n e y a r d c a l l e d T a ' F a s u l a a t W i e d i l - K b i r , G n i e n H i r u n a a t X a g h r e t i l - G h a r , T a ' H a j j i m a t Q a l l e l i j a , T a l - H a m r a a t G h a r b , G o z o , T a K w e j l a a t Q l e j g h a , a n d o f a v i n e y a r d a t S a n c t i P a u l i t a l B u n d a c h i ( 1 4 6 ) . F i e l d s w i t h v i n e s a n d t r e e s i n c l u d e o n e a t G n i e n i t - F a r , o n e a t H a l K i r k o p a n d a n o t h e r a t S i g g i e w i ( 1 4 7 ) .

O w n e r s h i p o f v i n e y a r d s w a s n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o o n l y o n e c l a s s . I n 1 4 3 4 i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t v i t i c u l t u r e w a s t h e m a i n s o u r c e o f s u s t e n a n c e n o t o n l y o f t h e

1 4 3 . W L e d T a b r i j a : 2 2 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 4 2 , N o t . G e r o l a m o C u m b o , N A V , R 1 9 6 / 4 , f o l 8 v o f 1 s t . p t ; W i e d i l - K b i r : 2 5 F e b r u a r y 1 5 3 9 , N o t . J u l i a n o M u s c a t , N A V , R 3 7 6 / 1 , f o l , 1 8 0 v ; W i e d Q a n n o t t a : 4 J a n u a r y 1 5 4 2 . N o t . G . B u t t i g i e g , N A V , R 1 0 5 / 9 , fol. 1 8 0 ; W i e d i l - Q l e j g h a : 2 9 M a y 1 5 5 5 , N o t . A n t , C a s s a r , N A V . R 1 6 0 / 1 , fol 4 8 6 v ;

W i e d H a i r u n : 1 0 A p r i l 1 5 5 6 , N o t . A n t . C a s s a r i u C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M s . 1 8 0 L i b r a d e l l i t e s t a m e n t i , p . 4 3 1 ; B i r i l - H u l : 4 D e c e m b e r 1 5 4 7 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o , N A V . R 1 7 5 / 2 0 , f o l . 2 3 9 ; B i r i l - M e g i l : 2 8 J a n u a r y 1 5 2 9 , N o t . G e r o l a m o C u m b o . N A V , R 1 9 6 / 1 , fol. 7 v .

1 4 4 . R a h a l T a b u n i : 15 D e c e m b e r 1 5 4 6 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o , N A V , R 1 7 3 / 1 8 , fol 2 0 4 ; R a h a l A x a c : 9 J u l y 1 5 4 9 , idem, R 1 7 5 / 2 4 , fol. H 2 1 v ; R a h a J M a n i n : 6 D e c e m b e r 1 5 4 0 , idem, l i 1 7 5 / 7 , f o l . 1 4 4 ; R a h a l Q o r m i : 3 0 J a n u a r y 1 5 2 2 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r ,

N A V . K 1 4 0 / 1 0 . f o l . 1 7 ; R a h a l G h a k r u x : 2 6 J a n u a r y 1 5 2 2 , idem, R . 1 4 0 / 1 0 , fol. 1 5 v , R a h a l T a r t a r n i : C a t h . M u s . . M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , P r e b . 5 ( 1 5 3 6 ) , f o l . 3 v : R a h a l D i n g i i : ibid., f o l . 1 4 ; R a h a l T a r x i e n : 3 A u g u s t 1 4 9 9 , N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 ; R a h a l M i l l i e r i : 17 M a y 1 4 3 1 ; N o t . L . S i l l a t o , l a t e c o p y i n N L M L i b r M s 6 3 5 , f o l . 2 2 5 .

1 4 5 . X l e n d i : 3 M a r c h 1 5 2 6 , N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 1 , f o l . 4 8 v ; W i e d S a r a : 8 D e c e m b e r , 1 5 4 9 , N o t . L . d e A p a p i s , N A V , R . 2 0 3 , fol. 5 0 v ; Q a b b i e i a : 2 0 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 8 1 , N o t . F e r d . C i a p p a r a , N A V , R 1 8 5 / 6 , tel. 1 4 2 v ; M a r s a l f o r n : 8 A u g u s t 1 5 8 2 , idem, R 1 8 5 / 6 , f o l . 6 1 9 .

1 4 6 . T a ' F a s u l a : 2 5 F e b r u a r y 1 5 3 9 , N o t . J u l i a n o M u s c a t , N A V , R 3 7 6 / 1 , fol. I 8 0 v ; G n i e n H i r u n a : 2 3 O c t o b e r 1 5 4 0 , idem, R 3 7 6 / 4 , fol. 7 1 ; T a H a j j i m { ? ) : 2 1 A u g u s t 1 5 4 9 , N o t . B r . d e C a x a r i o . N A V , R 1 7 5 / 2 4 , foi. 1 6 7 3 v ; T a l - H a m r a : 7 A u g u s t 1 5 4 0 , i d e m , R 1 7 5 / 6 , f o l . 4 6 4 ; T a ' K w e j l a : 2 8 A p r i l 1 5 4 3 , N o t . G e r o l a m o C u m b o , N A V , R 1 9 6 / 4 ,

f o l . 6 4 o f 1 s t p t ; S a n c t i P a u l i t a l B u n d i c h i : 5 M a y 1 5 2 5 , N o t . L H a i u s N A V R 7 fol. 2 4 v .

1 4 7 . G n i e n i l - F r a r : 1 6 O c t o b e r 1 5 4 2 , N o t . G e r o l a m o C u m b o . N A V , R 1 9 6 / 2 , f o l . 1 7 o f 1 s t p t ; H a l K i r k o p : 2 A p r i l 1 5 2 2 . N o t . C . C a n c h u r , R 1 4 0 / 9 , fol. 7 8 - S i g g i e w i : 12 M a r c h 1 5 2 7 , idem, R 1 4 0 / 1 1 .

2 6 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

w a g e - e a r n i n g l a b o u r e r s b u t a l s o o f t h e g e n t r y a n d t o w n s m e n ( 1 4 8 ) . P r o b a b l y m o s t o f t h e m a j o r l a n d o w n e r s h a d a t l e a s t o n e v i n e y a r d , a n d o t h e r s o f a l o w e r r a n k , s u c h a s n o t a r i e s , c r a f t s m e n a n d e v e n m e r e p e a s a n t s a l s o s o m e t i m e s o w n e d a v i n e y a r d . N o t a r y I n g o m e s d e B r a n c a t o h a d a v i n e y a r d a t G h a j n B a l l u t . t h e l a w y e r M a r c u s d e B r a n c a t o h a d o n e a t H a b e l l - I b l a q , t h e l a w y e r L a u r e n c i u s d e F a l c z o n o b o u g h t o n e , a n o t h e r w a s o w n e d b y M i c h a e l e d e F e r r i o l o t h e t o w n s u r g e o n i n 1 4 9 9 a n d b y J e r o m i n o C a l l u s t h e t o w n a r o m a t i s t i n 1 5 1 4 ( 1 4 9 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t w a s c l a i m e d t h a t F r a n c i s c u s V e l l a h a d e a r n e d h i s l i v i n g f r o m h i s v i n e y a r d ' w o r k i n g i n i t a n d c u l t i v a t i n g i t h i m s e l f a n d t h e b e e s w h i c h h e k e p t t h e r e d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e ' ( 1 5 0 ) . a n d B a r t h o l o m e u s B u t t i g i e g ' e a r n e d h i s o w n l i v i n g , w o r k i n g a s a f a r m e r a n d i n h i s v i n e y a r d ' , b u t h e w a s a s u b s t a n t i a l p e a s a n t o f 2 e b b u g w h o c l a i m e d t o b e w o r t h a t o t a l o f 1 7 0 u n c i e i n p r o p e r t y a n d m o n e y ( 1 5 1 ) .

N o s a l e s o f g r a p e s h a v e b e e n e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e s u r v i v i n g d o c u m e n t a t i o n w h i c h , h o w e v e r , r e c o r d s s e v e r a l s a l e s o f m u s t o r g r a p e j u i c e r e a d y f o r f e r m e n ­t a t i o n . I n 1 4 6 7 A n t o n e l l u G a t t u D e s g u a n e s s o l d a q u a n t i t y o f m u s t t o D o m i n i c u s F e n e c o f R a b a t , a n d B l a s i u s M u c h o l a o f M d i n a s o l d s o m e o f t h e s a m e l i q u i d t o P a u ' u s A x a c a n d B a r t h o l o m e u s B u g e y a o f 2 e b b u g ( 1 5 2 ) . I n 1 5 3 0 N i c o l a u s F r e n d u o f R a b a t s o l d a b a r r e l o f m u s t t o G a b r i e l i M a r t i n o f M d i n a ( 1 5 3 ) . I n 1 4 3 2 F r a n c i s c u s G a t t u , t h e o w n e r o f t h r e e f i e f s a n d m u c h o t h e r l a n d , b e q u e a t h e d s i x b u t t e s o f m u s t a n n u a l l y t o h i s w i d o w ( 1 5 4 ) , a n d c a . 1 4 2 8 s e v e r a l d e f a u l t i n g t i t h e p a y e r s w e r e r e c o r d e d t o h a v e m a d e s o m e p a r t i a l p a y m e n t s o f t i t h e s i n m u s t , o n e o f t h e m i n a c t u a l w i n e , i n s t e a d o f t h e u s u a l w h e a t o r b a r l e y ( 1 5 5 ) . T h e r e i s n o c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t i n d e p e n d e n t v i n t n e r s e x i s t e d , t h o u g h i t i s p r o ­b a b l e t h a t s o m e t a v e r n o w n e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y o r h a b i t u a l l y p r o d u c e d w i n e o f t h e i r o w n , r e l y i n g m a i n l y o n m u s t b o u g h t f r o m t h e f a r m e r s . I n J a n u a r y 1 4 8 5

1 4 8 . G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i , p p . 3 9 4 - 3 9 5 . 1 4 9 . N o t a r y Ingome» d e B r a n c a t o : 2 9 J a n u a r y 1 5 0 0 , N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 ;

M a r c u s d e B r a n c a t o : 3 M a r c h 1 5 0 0 , i b i d ; L a u r e n c i u s d e F a l c z o n o : 2 4 J u l y 1 4 9 9 , ibid; M i c h a e l i d e F e r r i o l o : 8 N o v e m b e r 1 4 9 9 , i b i d - J e r o n i m o C a l l u s : 1 1 O c t o b e r 1 5 1 4 , N L M . U n i v . 1 2 , f o l . 9 2 .

1 5 0 . E v i d e n c e o i n o t a r y G o m e s d e B r a n c a t o , 2 1 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 5 : C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C E M , A O , v o l . 3 , f o l . 1 1 3 v .

1 5 1 . H i s o w n e v i d e n c e . 3 N o v e m b e r 1 5 0 1 : C a t h . M u s . . M d . , C E M , A O , v o l . 2 , f o l . 3 5 8 v . 1 5 2 . C o n t r a c t , 12 N o v e m b e r 1 4 6 7 : N o t . P . B o n e l l o , N A V , M s . 5 8 8 , f o l . 4 v . C o n t r a c t , 2 8

S e p t e m b e r 1 4 6 7 : ibid., f o l . 2 1 . 1 5 3 . C o n t r a c t , 3 0 D e c e m b e r 1 5 3 0 : N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 . 1 5 4 . P h o t o s t a t i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r o f a f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o p y o f t h e

w i l l o f F r a n c e s c o G a t t o i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f D r . J o h n M o n t a l t o , 12 M a r c h 1 4 3 2 . 1 5 5 . C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C E M , Q u a d e r n i d i v e r s i ' a ' , f o l . Z v , e n t r y o f D o n J o h a n n i V e l l a .

f o l . 4 v , e n t r y o f U g o l i n u S i l l a t u ; i n w i n e , f o l . Z v , e n t r y o f D o n J o h a n n i V e l l a a g a i n , a n d f o l . 4 v , e n t r y o f C o l a S i l l a t u .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 2 7

I s a b e l l a , t h e w i f e o f A n d r i a B o n i c h i o f G o z o , l e a s e d h e r h u s b a n d ' s v i n e y a r d t o P a u l u s A l b a n i s i a v i g n e r i u s o r v i n t n e r a t ' d u i p r o c h i n c u " , t w o f o r five, a c ­c o r d i n g t o t h e c u s t o m o f G o z o , g i v i n g h i m a m a t t o c k f o r t i l l i n g t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e k e y t o t h e b u i l d i n g i n t h e v i n e y a r d ( 1 5 6 ) .

H O R T I C U L T U R E

G a r d e n t y p e a g r i c u l t u r e w a s c a r r i e d o u t m a i n l y i n l o c a l i t i e s c a l l e d v i r i d a r i a o r pomeria i n t h e L a t i n d o c u m e n t s a n d s o m e t i m e s j a r d i n o , i n t h e I t a l i a n o n e s . T h e s e w o r d s a p p e a r m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n v i n e a . v i n e y a r d , b u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t m o s t o f t h e m c o n t a i n e d a t l e a s t o n e v i n e y a r d . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f t h e v i r i d a r i a h a d n a m e s , p o s s i b l y v e r y o l d o n e s , w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h e i r h o r t i ­c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r , e g , g n i e n g a r d e n , g n e / / e n , gnejna s m a l l g a r d e n , g o n n a g a r d e n s , g h a j n s p r i n g , g h e j j u n s p r i n g s ( 1 5 7 ) :

i l - G n e j j e n ( Q r e n d i )

i l - G n e j n a ( G h a j n R i h a n a )

i l - G n e j n a t a ' 1 - I m g a r r

G n i e n i l - B o r g ( P w a l e s )

G n i e n i l - F a r ( D e j r i s - S a f )

G n i e n i l - F i e r e s ( W i e d i l - Q l e j g h a )

G n i e n t a l - G h a q b a ( Z u r r i e q )

G n i e n H i r a ( n e a r M d i n a )

G n i e n 1 - I s t a s ( w e s t o f P w a l e s )

G n i e n i l - K b i r ( G h a j n R i h a n a )

G n i e n i l - L a r i n g ( G h a j n R i h a n a , G o z o )

G n i e n M i r i h ( G o z o )

G n i e n M u s f a r ( Q a l a , G o z o )

G n i e n i s - S u l t a n ( w e s t o f R a b a t )

G h a j n B t e j t e s ( W i e d i r - R u m )

G h a j n K b i r a ( D e j r B a q a r )

G h a j n Q a j j i e d ( w e s t o f R a b a t )

G h a j n K i t t i e n ( S a n G o r g t a l -G h a d i r )

G h a j n Q a s a b ( T o r r i t a ' F a l c a )

G h a j n R i h a n a G h a j n T e w z i e n

( G n i e n i s - S u l t a n )

G h a j n I s t a s ( P w a l e s )

G h a j n T u f f i e h a G h a j n T u t a

( G h a j n i l - K b i r a , G o z o ) G h a j n X e j b a

( G o z o ) G h a j n X i b l a

( G o z o ) G h a j n Z e j t u n

( G o z o ) 1 - E g h j u n

( T a l - K a c c a , G o z o )

A n u m b e r o f o t h e r v i r i d a r i a a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p l a c e - n a m e s r e f e r r i n g t o w a t e r :

B i r M e r q i s ( Z u r r i e q )

T a l - M e n q a ( G e b e l C h a n t a r )

M g a r r V a c c a r i ( M g a r r )

N i x x i e g h a ( P w a l e s )

I l - Q a t t a r a ( W i e d i r - R u m )

Q b i e l a t a ' G h a r l i m a ( D e j r i f - B n i e t )

T a s - S a q w i ( G h a j n i l - K b i r )

1 5 6 .

1 5 7 .

E v i d e n c e o f P a u l u a A l b a n i s i . 1 8 F e b r u a r y 1 4 8 5 : C a t h . Mu«.. M d . G E M A O v o l 1 f o l . 3 S l v . 1 ' A l l t h e s e p l a c e - n a m e s a r e a p p e a r i n g i n - E a r l y M a l t e s e a n d G o z i t a n P l a c e - n a m e s ' , p u b l i s h e d i n t h e n e w m o n t h l y p e r i o d i c a l c a l l e d C i v i l i i a t i o n , w i t h p r e c i s e s p e l l i n g ^ a n d d o c u m e n t a r y r e f e r e n c e s . I t i s n o t p r a c t i c a l t o p u b l i s h t h e m h e r e F o r t h o s e i n

2 8 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

T h e r e f e r e n c e s t o w a t e r a r e : b i r w e l l , r e a l l y w a t e r c i s t e r n , m e n q a w a t e r e n ­c l o s u r e , m g a r r , w a t e r c o u r s e s , p l u r a l o f m i g r a , w a t e r c o u r s e , n i x x i e g h a s p r i n g , q a t t a r a t r i c k l i n g s p r i n g , i l m a w a t e r , s a q w i i r r i g a t e d f i e l d s .

O t h e r v i r i d a r i a h a v e o t h e r n a m e s u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s u p p l y o r p r e s e n c e o f w a t e r , m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t n a m e s o f p e r s o n s s o m e h o w a t s o m e t i m e c o n ­n e c t e d w i t h t h e l o c a l i t y :

T a ' B e z z i n a T a ' G i r g e n t i L - I m t a h l e b S i g a r t a r -

( H a l G h a r g h u r ) G e b e l G h o m o r T a l - M u s f a r R a m l a

T a l - B i d n i i a G e b e l t a l - L e w z T a n - N a h l a T a " S l a m p a

( a b o v e G h a j n R i h a n a ) T a ' G i f r a P w a l e s T a ' T a b i j a

B u n u h h a i a G h a r Z i b l a I l - Q a s s i s

( W a r d . j a ) G h a r i b 1 - A h f a r T a ' S a f s a f a

B u q a G h e m i e r i S a n M a r t i n

( P w a ' . e s ) T a ' H a l T m i n [ t a l - ] P w a l e s

T a d - D a h l a H a z e r n a S a n M i k i e l

D e j r i l - B a q a r H b u l a t a ' W i e d Z e m b a q t a s - S a n t i

D e j r i l - B n i e t T a l - H o f r a S a n t a L u d i j a

D e j r i s - S a f T a ' K u r s u t a ' 1 - I m t a r f a

( B u s k e t t ) T a l - L u n z j a t a S a n t a M a r i j a

D e j r i s - S a f s a f T a l - M o g h z a t a l - P w a l e s

I t s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d t h a t a t l e a s t 6 3 l o c a l i t i e s w i t h g n i e n a n d 3 6 w i t h g h a j n p l a c e - n a m e s a r e n o t r e c o r d e d t o h a v e h a d a n y v i r i d a r i a o r e v e n v i n e a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m . P e r h a p s i n s u c h p l a c e s p r e f e r e n c e w a s g i v e n t o t h e g r o w i n g o f c a s h c r o p s l i k e c o t t o n o r c u m i n i n s t e a d o f f r u i t o r v e g e t a b l e s w h i c h c o u l d o n l y h a v e h a d a l o c a l a n d v e r y l i m i t e d m a r k e t i n a c o m m u n i t y w h e r e p r a c t . c a l l y e v e r y o n e h a d a c c e s s t o a s t r e t c h o f l a n d o r t o t h e h u m b l e a n d u b i q u i t o u s f . g t r e e s s o o f t e n t o b e f o u n d s h e l t e r i n g b e s i d e t h e r u b b l e w a l l s t h a t e v e n t h e n p r o t e c t e d t h e f i e l d s f r o m w i n d a n d w a t e r e r o s i o n ( 1 5 8 ) .

V e r y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n h a s s u r v i v e d o n t h e t y p e s o f f r u i t t h a t g r e w i n M a l t a . I n 1 5 3 3 Q u e n t i n w r o t e t h a t t h e o r c h a r d s i n M a l t a h a d p a l m - t r e e s w h i c h w e r e s t e r i l e , o l i v e t r e e s a n d v i n e s a s w e l l a s f . g - t r e e s a n d e v e r y o t h e r k i n d o f

G o z o , see G . W e t t i n g e r , ' T h e P l a c e - n a m e s a n d t h e P e r s o n a l N o m e n c l a t u r e o f G o z o , 1 3 7 2 - 1 0 0 ' , O r i e n t a l Studies p r e s e n t e d t o B e n e d i k t S . J . I s s e r l i n , ( L e i d e n , 1 9 8 0 ) .

1 5 8 . I t s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e L a t i n o r I t a l i a n d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e n o t m e a n t t o b e f u l l y d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e p l a c e - n a m e h u t f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r t o a n a s p e c t o f m o m e n t a r y i m p o r t a n c e . T h u s t h e s e p l a c e s m i g h t b e d e s c r i b e d q u i t e t r u t h f u l l y a s f i e f s w i t h o u t a n y i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t v i r i d a r i a , e t c . , i n t h e i r e c o n o m i c f u n c ­t i o n .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 2 9

f r u i t , i n f a c t a l l t h e f r u i t - p r o d u c i n g t r e e s w h i c h g r e w i n I t a l y ( 1 5 9 ) . U n ­f o r t u n a t e l y f r u i t i s n e v e r i n c l u d e d i n t h e m o r e o r l e s s d e t a i l e d p r i c e l i s t s w h i c h s u r v i v e f r o m c a . 1 4 5 0 o n w a r d s , a n d e v e n m e r e r e f e r e n c e s t o f r u i t a r e s c r a p p y i n t h e e x t r e m e , e x c e p t t h a t t h e r e w e r e o r a n g e g r o v e s a t D e j r i s - S a f i n 1 5 4 9 ( 1 6 0 ) . O l i v e t r e e s w e r e c e r t a i n l y q u i t e r a r e .

F L A X

I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t M a l t e s e f l a x ( i n M a l t e s e k i t t i e n ) , w h i c h h a d e a r n e d i t s e l f a w e l l - d e s e r v e d r e p u t a t i o n i n R o m a n t i m e s ( 1 6 1 ) , d e c l i n e d i n i m p o r t a n c e d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e M i d d l e A g e s , t h o u g h i t s t i l l c o n t i n u e d t o b e p r o d u c e d i n r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a m o u n t s right d o w n t o t h e e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( 1 6 2 ) . I t f i g u r e d r e g u l a r l y i n t h e i n c o m e o f t h e r o y a l s e c r e t o b a c k i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d e a r l y f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e c o r d s t h o u g h w h e n e x p l i c i t f i g u r e s a r e g i v e n i t w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y f a r s m a l l e r a m o u n t s t h a n t h o s e f o r c o t t o n : i n f a c t i n t h e y e a r 1 3 7 2 o n l y e i g h t y r o t u l a o f f l a x w e r e r e c e i v e d b y t h e s e c r e t o , a n e g l i g i b l e q u a n t i t y c o m p a r e d t o t h e 6 5 c a n t a r a o f u n g i n n e d c o t t o n ( 1 6 3 ) . O n 2 6 J a n u a r y 1 4 7 9 F r e d e r i c u s d e P o n t r e m u l o a n d h i s w i f e b e q u e a t h e d t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t y ( 1 6 4 ) :

s. v i r i d a r i u m s i t e d a n d p l a c e d i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e j . l a n d o f G o z o i n t h e d i a t r i c t o f T e u n i t c a l l e d di bin xible [ i e . o f S i b i l i a ' s < o n ] w i t h a h a n d a i n g u l a r i t a r i g h t s e t c . w i t h w h i c h i t u s e d t o b e l e a a c d a n d e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e w a t e r e d l a n d s [ t e r r i t a q u a t i e i i i ] s i t u a t e d t h e r e c a l l e d ittacui [ i e . t h e i r r i g a t e d l a n d ] w h e r e a q u a t i c c o t t o n ( i e , f l a x ] i s u s u a l l y p r o d u c e d . . .

O n 1 6 J u l y 1 5 2 2 M a t h e u s D a r m a n i a o f M d i n a l e a s e d t o f o u r i n h a b i t a n t s o f A x i a c ( 1 6 5 ) :

a p o o l o f s t a g n a n t w a t e r w h e r e f l a x i s r e t t e d c a l l e d i n o u r w o r d s [ i e . i n o u r l a n g u a g e ] menca de gadir [ r e a l l y M e n q a t a ' l - G & a d i r ] , s i t u a t e d o n t h e i s l a n d o f M a l t a i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f G h a d i r f o r t h e retting o f f l a x s o l e l y f o r t h e p r e s e n t s e a s o n , t h a t i s f o r t h e T e n t h I n d i c t i o n a t t h e [ r e n t a l ] p r i c e o f 3 u n c . 1 8 t r .

1 5 9 . H . C . R . V e l l a , op. cit., p p . 3 0 - 3 3 . 1 6 0 . T e s t i m o n y o f S i m o n G a u c h i , 1 1 D e c e m b e r 1 5 4 9 : C a t h . M u s . M d C E M A O v o l

2 9 , f o l . 8 3 . 1 6 1 . S e e J . B u s u t t i l , T h e M a l t e s e T e x t i l e I n d u s t r y i n A n t i q u i t y ' , M e l i t a H i s t o r i c a v o l

V , N o . 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) . 1 6 2 . ' u n a m p e n s a m l i n i m a l t e n s i a ' , 1 4 O c t o b e r 1 5 0 0 : C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C E M , R A , v o l . I ,

f o l . 1 . F o r t w o f i e l d s a t L u q a g r o w i n g b a r l e y a n d f l a x ; c o n t r a c t , 6 M a r c h 1 5 0 0 N o t . C . C a n c h u r . N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 , f o l . 8 8 v .

1 6 3 . D o c . i n H . B r e s c , T h e " S e c r e z i a " a n d t h e R o y a l P a t r i m o n y ' , p . 1 5 7 . 1 6 4 . W i l l o f t h e n o b l e F e d e r i c u s d e P o n t r e m o l o a n d h i s w i f e F r a n c i a . 2 6 J a n u a r y 1 4 7 9 :

c o p y i n d e e d s o f N o t . D o m e n i c o P o r t e h i , N A V , R 3 9 9 / 7 , f o l . 2 9 6 v . 1 6 5 . C o n t r a c t : N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 .

30 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

T h i s l o c a l i t y s e e m s t o b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t i n d i c a t e d b y t h e n a m e Sancti G e o r g i i gadir, d e s c r i b e d o n 4 A p r i l 1 5 4 0 a s ' I o n s m a d e n d i l i n i ' ( 1 6 6 ) , a n d w i t h h a y n c h i t e n o r G h a j n K i t t i e n , flax f o u n t a i n o r s p r i n g , d e s c r i b e d o n 2 7 J u n e 1 5 5 9 m e r e l y a s a ' v i r i d a r i u m a r b o r i b u s p l a n t a t u m i n c o n t r a t a t a s a n c t J e o r g i t a l g a d i r i ( 1 6 7 ) . e s p e c i a l l y a s t e l g a d i r w a s i t s e l f r e f e r r e d t o o n 9 J u n e 1 5 4 2 a s ' l u a b u n a t u r i s e u s t a g n o n i d i l u l i n o ' ( 1 6 8 ) . T h o u g h M a l t a i s g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a d r y p l a c e , o t h e r g h a d i r p l a c e - n a m e s a r e r e c o r d e d a t B i r G h i z a , H a l T m i n n e a r Z e j t u n a n d H a l S a f i , a n d g f w d i r a a t H a l K b i r , H a l F u q a n i , H a l S a f l i e n i , W a r d i j a t a " S a n t ' l e r m u a s w e l l a s M e l l i e h a B a y i n M a l t a a n d a t Q o r t i n i n G o z o , a n d t h e s a m e w o r d s f o r m c o m p o n e n t p a r t s o f s e v e r a l o t h e r p l a c e - n a m e s ( 1 6 9 ) : G h a d i r B i r F e r h a , G h a d i r i l - B u r d i a t L i j a , G h a d i r M a r s a x l o k k , G h a d i r Q u m i a t B r o l l i , G h a d i r i r - R o q g h a , G h a d i r t a t - T o r r i t a ' S a n T u m a s a t H a l S a f i , p e r h a p s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e o n e a t H a l S a f i a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , G h a d i r i t - T r i q a t H a z - Z e b b u g , G h a d i r e t i l - H m i r a t T a b r i j a a n d G h a d i r e t i x - X u r r a f . T h e r e w a s a l s o a r e t t i n g p l a c e c a l l e d G h a j n S e l m e t w h i c h w a s d e s c r i b e d a s ' t h e r e t t i n g p l a c e o f t h e d i s t r i c t o f B e n w e r r a d ' ( 1 7 0 ) . O t h e r r e t t i n g p l a c e s a r e p r o b a b l y r e c o r d e d b y p l a c e - n a m e s i n menqa, w a t e r e n c l o s u r e o r p o o l , mnejqa, s m a l l w a t e r e n c l o s u r e o r p o o l , a n d mnejqat, s e v e r a l s m a l l w a t e r e n c l o s u r e s o r p o o l s . A t H a l M i l l i e r i n o t o n l y w a s t h e r e a f i e l d c a l l e d i l - M e n q a b u t , a s h o r t d i s t a n c e a w a y t o w a r d s Z u r r i e q , t h e r e w a s a n o t h e r c a l l e d i l - K i t t e n i j a , t h e f l a x -f i e l d . W i t h M a l t a ' s t h e n v e r y i m p e r f e c t d r a i n a g e s y s t e m f o r s t o r m w a t e r o n e c a n e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e i n s u c h p l a c e s o f s t a g n a n t w a t e r , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e h e a d o f t h e n u m e r o u s p o r t s , b a y s a n d i n l e t . A s l a t e a s 1 5 8 1 t h e g o v e r n ­m e n t w a s s t i l l l e a s i n g o u t f o r t h r e e y e a r s ' l o c u m d i c t u m l ' b o n a t o r e d e M a r s a -m u x e t d e t t o i l M i s i d e , s i v e l o c u m u b i s o l e t i n f u n d i l i n u m ' , f o r t h e s u m o f f i v e u n c i e ( 1 7 1 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s t e n c h p r o d u c e d i n t h e r e t t i n g p r o c e s s w a s m i s t a k e n a s t h e c a u s e o f m a l a r i a , a n d t h e r e t t i n g p o n d s w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e g i s l a t e d o u t o f e x i s t e n c e . A s e a r l y a s 2 8 J u l y 1 5 1 9 a p u b l i c p r o c l a m a t i o n f o r b a d e t h e r e t t i n g o f flax i n u n u s u a l l o c a l i t i e s a n d w i t h i n o n e m i l e o f i n h a b i t e d p l a c e s , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e s p r i n g s o f G n i e n i s - S u l t a n , G h e r i e x e m a n d t h e B i s h o p ' s f i e f ( 1 7 2 ) . I n 1 5 2 6 t h e v a l l e y o f t h e b i s h o p ' s f i e f a n d L a u r e n t i S p r i n g a t T a b r i j a w e r e b o t h e x p r e s s l y f o r b i d d e n f o r r e t t i n g , t h e f l a x a l r e a d y

1 6 6 . C o n t r a c t , 4 A p r i l 1 5 4 0 : N o t . P . d e A l a y m o . N A V , M a . 7 7 9 . f o l . 4 7 . 1 6 7 . N o t . A n t . C a s s a r , N A V . R 1 6 0 / 1 , f o l 5 2 1 v . 1 6 8 . N o t . J u l i a n o M u i c a t , N A V , R 3 7 6 / 6 , f o l . 5 5 3 v . 1 6 9 . F o r r e a s o n s o f c o n v e n i e n c e p r e c i s e r e f e r e n c e s f o r t h e s e p [ a c e m n a m e s w i M n o t b e

g i v e n h e r e b u t i n m y " E a r l y M a l t e s e a n d G o z i t a n P l a c e - n a m e s ' , i n c o u r s e o f p u b l i c a t i o n . 1 7 0 . C a t h . M u s . , M d . . C E M , R A , 1 5 4 1 - 4 3 , f o l . 1 5 9 v . 1 7 1 . S u m m a r y o f c o n t r a c t , 2 1 F e b r u a r y 1 5 8 1 , d e e d s o f N o t , G i u s e p p e M a m o , i n N L M ,

L i b r , M s . 7 0 4 A , n o t a r i a l n o t e s , f o l . U v . 1 7 2 . P r o c l a m a t i o n , 2 8 J u l y 1 5 1 9 : N L M , U n i v . 1 2 , f o l . 1 2 5 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 3 1

i n t h e w a t e r h a v i n g t o b e r e m o v e d w i t h i n s i x d a y s ( 1 7 3 ) . P r e s u m a b l y p a r t l y a t l e a s t a s a r e s u l t o f s i m i l a r l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e g r o w i n g o f f l a x w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d c o m p l e t e l y o n b o t h M a l t e s e i s l a n d s ( 1 7 4 ) .

A N I M A L H U S B A N D R Y

F a r m a n i m a l s , b o t h l a r g e a n d s m a l l , p l a y e d a m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f M a l t e s e a g r i c u l t u r e . A f t e r t h e g r e a t M o o r i s h i n v a s i o n o f 1 4 2 9 b o t h i n M a l t a a n d I n G o z o c o m p l a i n t s w e r e m a d e t h a t t h e m o r t a l i t y a n d c o n s e q u e n t s c a r c i t y o f f a r m a n i m a l s w a s m a k i n g i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e f i e l d s t o b e w o r k e d a n d s o w n ( 1 7 5 ) . I n 1 4 6 9 t h e g r e a t l a c k o f r a i n b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e c r o p s o f w h e a t a n d c o t t o n ( 1 7 6 ) ,

a n d w h a t i s w o r s e i a thi» g r e a t i t e r i l i t y . t h e l i k e o f w h i c h i n t h i a i i l a n d [ o f G o z o ] h a i a l m o t t n e v e r b e e n s e e n , c a t t l e a n d o t h e r a n i m a l s , n o t f i n d i n g p a s t u r e , d i e d a n d p e r i i h e d . w i t h o u t w h i c h a n i m a l s c u l t i v a t i o n a n d p l o u g h i n g c a n n o t b e c a r r i e d o u t , a n d i t u t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e «ame A n d r e a s t h e p e t i t i o n e r t o c u l t i v a t e t h e • a i d t e r r i t o r y f o r t h e p r e s e n t a n d f o r f u t u r e y e a r s , a s h a r d l y a n y c a t t l e h a v e s u r v i v e d .

O x e n a p p e a r v e r y o f t e n i n s u r v i v i n g c o n t r a c t s o f s a l e , I n w i l l s a n d i n v e n t o r i e s , a n d t h e y s e e m t o h a v e b e e n t h e m a i n d r a u g h t a n i m a l s u s e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f o r p l o u g h i n g t h e f i e l d s a n d p r o b a b l y f o r t r e a d i n g t h e w h e a t o u t o f t h e c h a f f i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r w i n n o w i n g , a s s i s t e d b y s u c h o t h e r m a j o r a n i m a l s a s t h e f a r m e r m i g h t h a v e .

M a l t a h a s a l w a y s p o s s e s s e d f a i r l y l a r g e a r e a s o f k a r s t i c t a b l e - l a n d s s u i t ­a b l e o n l y f o r v e r y r o u g h g r a z i n g ( 1 7 7 ) . I n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e s e a r e a s , t h e n s t i l l j u s t a b o u t e n t i r e l y u n e n c l o s e d , w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e c o m m o n p r o p e r t y o p e n t o t h e a n i m a l s o f a l l . T o t h e m c a n b e a d d e d l a r g e a r e a s o f s l i g h t l y b e t t e r l a n d w h i c h h a v e s i n c e b e e n t u r n e d i n t o a r a b l e , a r e a s l i k e M i z i e b i r - R i h a n d a r o u n d M e l l i e h a , m o s t o f w h i c h , h o w e v e r , h a v e r e v e r t e d b a c k t o g r a s s . E v e r y v i l l a g e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n w i t h i n r e a c h o f a s t r e t c h o f s u c h c o m m o n l a n d , a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y i s w e l l b r o u g h t o u t b y t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e i r s t r e n u o u s e f f o r t s t o p r e v e n t t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f p o r t i o n s

1 7 3 . P r o c l a m a t i o n , 3 A u g u s t 1 5 2 6 : ibid., f o l . 4 1 4 v . 1 7 4 . O n a n t i - m a l a r i a l e g i s l a t i o n i n M a l t a s ee P . C a s s a r , M e d i c a l History of M a l t a ( L o n ­

d o n , 1 9 6 5 ) , C h . 1 7 . 1 7 5 . C a p i t o l i o f M a l t a , 3 0 O c t o b e r 1 4 3 2 : G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i , p . 3 9 0 ; c a p i t o l i o f G o z o ,

3 1 O c t o b e r 1 4 3 2 a n d 4 M a y 1 4 3 8 ; i b i d . , p p . 3 2 3 , 3 2 7 . 1 7 6 . P e t i t i o n o f A n d r e a s d e B i s c o n i s t o t h e B i s h o p ' s c o u r t , 2 1 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 9 : C a t h . M u s . ,

M d . . C E M , A O . v o l . 4 . f o l . 4 2 6 . 1 7 7 . S e e H . B o w e n - J o n e s , J . C . D e w d n e y , W . B . F i s h e r , M a l t a , Background for Develop­

ment ( D u r h a m , n . d . . c a . I 9 6 0 ) .

3 2 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

o f s u c h l a n d b y p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , w h e t h e r f e l l o w p e a s a n t s o r t h e s u b s t a n ­t i a l l a n d h o l d e r s o f M d i n a . P r o t e s t s w e r e m a d e a s e a r l y a s 1 4 1 0 i n t h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n e x t e n s i v e s e t o f p o p u l a r g r i e v a n c e s ( 1 7 8 ) : a l l s u c h a l i e n a t e d l a n d w a s t o b e r e s t o r e d t o p u b l i c o w n e r s h i p . I n 1 4 3 6 t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e h a m l e t o f T a r g e l ( i e . T a r x i e n ) c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e s p a c i i o r o p e n g r a z i n g g r o u n d s a n d o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g u n i n h a b i t e d v i l l a g e o f A l l u m h a d b e e n l e a s e d b y t h e r o y a l o f f i c i a l s t o s o m e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e C a s t l e - b y - t h e - S e a a n d o t h e r s , r e n d e r i n g i t d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e m t o t r u s t t h e i r a n i m a l s o u t o n t h e g r a z i n g l a n d s b e c a u s e o f i n e v i t a b l e a c c u s a t i o n s o f t h e i r s t r a y i n g o n t o t h e s e l a n d s ( 1 7 9 ) . T h e y w e r e a b l e t o o b t a i n a r e v o c a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l l e a s e o f t h e l a n d s a n d a r e - g r a n t i n g o f i t i n t h e i r f a v o u r . O n l y t e n y e a r s l a t e r , s o m e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Z u r r i e q o b t a i n e d t h e r e v o c a t i o n o f s i m . l a r g r a n t s o f p u b l i c l a n d , e v e n t u a l l y g e t t i n g a n o r d e r f r o m t h e v i c e r o y t h a t t h e s e c r e t o , A n t o n i o D e s g u a n e s , h o l d e r o f t h r e e f i e f s a n d s e v e r a l o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s , s h o u l d t a k e a c t i o n o n t h e m a t t e r ( 1 8 0 ) . I n 1 5 2 6 N i c o l a u s C h a n t a r o f t h e s a m e v i l l a g e a c c u s e d A n g a r a o I n g u a n e s , r e a l l y J a c o b u s A n g a r a i D e s g u a n e s , g r e a t g r a n d s o n o f A n t o n i D e s g u a n e s , n o t o n l y o f a l i e n a t i n g i n h i s f a v o u r o f a p o r t i o n o f t h e c o m m o n l a n d o f t h e v i l l a g e b u t o f e n v e i g l i n g h i m i n t o h i s h o u s e a n d t h e r e i n c a r c e r a t i n g h i m a n d b e a t i n g h i m u p m e r c i l e s s l y w i t h a s t r a p a n d a c a n e f o r h a v i n g o p p o s e d h i m ( 1 8 1 ) . I n 1 5 2 9 D e s g u a n e s w a s s t i l l b e i n g o p p o s e d b y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e f o u r v i l l a g e s o f t h e p a r i s h o f S t . C a t h e r i n e , i e . Z e j t u n , f o r h i s t e n u r e o f L i p p i a . o r i g i n a l l y o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e r o y a l g o v e r n m e n t b y h i s s o n - i n - l a w D i e g o Z a v a g l i o ( 1 8 2 ) . I n 1 5 2 7 s e v e r a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f B i r k i r k a r a c a u s e d t h e p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s t o c a n c e l a l i e n a t i o n s o f c o m m o n l a n d o f t h a t v i l l a g e t o i n d i v i d u a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e s a m e v i l l a g e ( 1 8 3 ) .

A n t o n i D e s g u a n e s i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y r a i s e d a f u r o r e o f o p p o s i t i o n b y h i s p e r s i s t e n t e f f o r t s t o a p p r o p r i a t e a n d e n c l o s e , w i t h r o y a l p e r m i s s i o n , e x t e n s i v e p o r t i o n s o f c o m m o n l a n d m o s t l y m t h e n o r t h a n d w e s t

1 7 8 . C a p i t o l i , 1 4 1 0 : C a t h . A r c h . . M d . , C a t h . A r c h . . M s . 3 4 . fol. 1 7 4 . 1 7 9 . A . L u t t r e l l , ' A M a l t e s e C a s a l e ' , M e l t l a H i i t o r U a , V I , N o . 3 , 3 2 2 - 3 2 4 . 1 8 0 . T h e magitter Racionalis o f S i c i l y t o t h e s e c r e t o o f M a l t a A n t h o n i o D e s g u a n e s , 1 0

J a n u a r y 1 4 4 7 : N L M , U n i v . 4 . d o c . 1 8 . T h e d a t e h a a b e e n e a t a b l i a h e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e 3 n d i c t i o n a l n u m b e r o f t h e y e a r ( t h e T e n t h ) a j i d t o m i s s e r J o h a n n i S a b i a

a* Regiu comm'issaritt a i n c e t h e l e t t e r o f a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e l a t t e r i a d a t e d 2 7 D e c ­e m b e r 1 4 4 5 : A S P , P r o t o n o t a r o , v o l . 3 7 , tela, l l l v - 1 1 2 .

1 8 1 . T h e V i c e r o y t o t h e t o w n m a y o r o f M a l t a a n d h i a j u d g e , 6 M a r c h 1 5 2 6 : C a t h . M u s . M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M a . 2 8 , p p . 4 0 0 - 4 0 3 . S e e a l i o N L M , U n i v . 1 2 , f o l . 4 2 9 v , m e e t i n g o f t h e t o w n c o u n c i l , 9 M a r c h 1 5 2 7 .

1 8 2 . T h e V i c e r o y t o t h e o f f i c i a l * o l M a l t a , 8 M a r c h 1 5 2 9 : C a t h . M u a . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h , . M a . 2 8 . p p . 4 4 0 - 4 4 4 .

1 8 3 . N L M , U n i v . 1 2 , fol. 4 4 6 r v . N u m e r o u a a i m i l a r i n c i d e n t i o c c u r r e d i n o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 3 3

o f t h e i s l a n d . I n 1 4 5 8 t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s c o m p l a i n e d t h a t h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f M i z i e b i r - R i h w a s e x t r e m e l y p r e j u d i c i a l t o t h e c o m m u n i t y ( 1 8 4 ) :

t h e a a i d M e s a e r A n t o n i n [ D e a g u a n e a ] a h o u l d n o t a n d c a n n o t . . . m a k e u s e o f t h e • a i d a p a c e a a c c o r d i n g t o h i a o w n w i l l t o t h e g r e a t h a r m o f t h e r e p u b l i c , a s i t i s v e r y p r e j u d i c i a l t o t h e s a i d c o m m u n i t y i n g e n e r a l a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e c a u s e t h e r e a t o f t h e o t h e r a r e a s c a b l e d di l a M i i i a c h a . w i t h o u t w h i c h t h e p e o p l e o f t h e s a i d I s l a n d c a n n o t s u r v i v e o w i n g t o t h e t h o r n s f o r f u e l a n d p a s t u r e f o r a n i m a l i t o b e f o u n d t h e r e , t h e p e o p l e c o u l d t h e n c e f o r t h m a k e l i t t l e u s e o f i t b e c a u s e t h e s a i d a r e a o f M i z i e b i r - R i h . . . i a a c r o s a t h e r o u t e t o t h e s e a r e a s o f M i i i a c h a a n d l a r g e n u m b e r s o f b e a s t s u s u a l l y p a s s b y f o r p a s t u r e , a n d a f t e t m i s s e r A n t o n i o o b t a i n e d M i z i e b i r - R i h n o n e d a r e d k e e p t h e i r b e a s t s i n t h e d i s t r i c t o f t h e s a i d M e l l i e h a i n o r d e r n o t t o g e t i n v o l v e d i n a c c u s a t i o n s o f d a m a g e s s i n c e i t i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h o s e h a v i n g a n i m a l s i n t h o s e p l a c e s n o t t o d o h a r m t o t h e a a i d l a n d s o f M i z i e b i r - R i h , a n d t h u s t h e i s l a n d s u f f e r s i n n o t h a v i n g e v e n m e a t a t t h e b u t c h e r s ' a s i t u s e d t o h a v e b e f o r e t h e c e s s i o n o f t h e s a i d a r e a .

M e s s e r A n t o n i D e s g u a n e s a l s o g o t h i m s e l f i n t o t r o u b l e i n t h e s a m e y e a r 1 4 5 8 o v e r h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f c o m m o n s a t W i e d G e r z u m a b e c a u s e ' i n i h e s a i d a r e a s i t w a s u s u a l f o r l a r g e n u m b e r s o f a n i m a l s t o b e l e d b y t h e i r o w n e r s f o r p a s t u r e a n d w a t e r i n g ' ( 1 8 5 ) . H i s a m b i t i o n s w e r e i n h e r i t e d b y h i s n u m e r o u s p r o g e n y b o t h a t M i z i e b i r - R i h a n d a t G h a j n Z e j t u n a , w h e r e t h e y e x t e n d e d o n e o f t h e b o u n d a r i e s w i t h o u t a u t h o r i z a t i o n a r o u s i n g i m m e d i a t e p r o t e s t s ( 1 8 6 ) .

A s o n e c a n s e e , f r e q u e n t d i s p u t e s w e r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e o v e r a n i m a l s a l ­l e g e d l y s t a y i n g f r o m t h e i r p r o p e r p a s t u r e s i n t o t h e s o w n a r e a s b e l o n g i n g t o a p r i v a t e p e r s o n . T h e s e m a t t e r s w e r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e b a f u i o , w h o e a r n e d a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c o m e i n f e e s a n d m u c h u n p o p u l a r i t y . A s e a r l y a s 1 3 6 6 t h e b a i ' u i o w a s i n s t r u c t e d t h a t h e h a d t o f o l l o w t h e n o r m a l c u s t o m o f e x a c t i n g a f e e f r o m t h o s e o n b e h a l f o f w h o m h e t o o k a c t i o n a n d n o t f r o m t h o s e a g a i n s t w h o m h e p r o c e e d e d o n w h o m , n o d o u b t , f i n e s w e r e e v e n t u a l l y i m p o s e d ( 1 8 7 ) ; t h e c o m p l a i n t s h a d a p p a r e n t l y b e e n m a d e b y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e t o w n , t h e v i l l a g e s , h a m l e t s a n d o t h e r p l a c e s o f M a l t a a n d G o z o . I n 1 4 3 2 t h e baiulo w a s t o l d t h a t t h e f i n e s h e i m p o s e d w e r e t o b e p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e h a r m d o n e b y t h e s t r a y i n g a n i m a l s ( 1 8 8 ) . I n 1 4 5 8 c o m p l a i n t s w e r e m a d e t h a t t h o s e t o w h o m t h e o f f i c e o f b a u i f o h a d b e e n f a r m e d o u t w e r e p e r m i t t i n g u n r e l i a b l e

1 8 4 . C a p i t o l i , 2 F e b r u a r y 1 4 5 8 : G i a m b r u n o A G e n u a r d i , p . 4 3 2 , 1 8 5 . I b i d . , p . 4 3 3 . 1 8 6 . T o w n C o u n c i l . 2 8 M a y 1 4 7 9 : N L M , U n i v . 1 1 , f o l s . 3 9 7 b l s v - 3 9 8 v . 1 8 7 . 1 7 A p r i l 1 3 6 6 : A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 9 , f o l . 4 9 v . 1 8 8 . C a p i t o l i , 3 0 O c t o b e r 1 4 3 2 : G i a m b r u n o 4 G e n u a r d i , p . 3 9 2 . O w i n g t o t h e d a m a g e a n d

d i s r u p t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e M o o r i s h i n v a s i o n o f 1 4 2 9 t h e o f f i c e o f baiulo o f M a l t a w a s s u s p e n d e d f o r a y e a r o n 5 F e b r u a r y 1 4 3 0 e x c e p t f o r t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f o w n e r s o f s t r a y i n g a n i m a l s : C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M s . 2 8 , p . 5 0 .

G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

m e n t o i m p o s e t e n t i m e s t h e d a m a g e d o n e o n o w n e r s o f s t r a y i n g a n i m a l s ( 1 8 9 ) . I n 1 4 7 5 i t w a s s a i d t h a t t h e b a i u l o i m p o s e d p e n a l t i e s o n a n i m a l o w n e r s l e a v i n g i t f o r t h e m t o o b t a i n r e d r e s s f r o m t h e i r a c c u s e r s i f t h e y w e r e i n n o c e n t o f t h e c h a r g e a n d , i n s p i t e o f g o v e r n m e n t a t t e m p t s t o s t o p t h i s p r a c t i c e , s i m i l a r c o m ­p l a i n t s w e r e m a d e i n 1 5 0 7 a n d 1 5 2 6 ( 1 9 0 ) . A n o t h e r a b u s e o f t h e b a i u i o w a s t o k e e p a n i m a l s c a u g h t s t r a y i n g o n o t h e r p e r s o n s ' l a n d i n a n a n i m a l c o m p o u n d a t M a r s a i n s t e a d o f t h e o n e a t R a b a t f r o m w h e r e t h e y c o u l d m o r e e a s i l y b e r e c o v e r e d b y t h e i r o w n e r s ( 1 9 1 ) .

S t o c k - y a r d s o r a n i m a l f a r m s a r e f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e d o c u m e n t a ­t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d b y p a r t i c u l a r w o r d s l i k e m a n d r a , m n a j d r a , mandretta o r reception ( c p . M a l t e s e r a z z e f t ) . T h e s e w e r e m a i n l y t o b e f o u n d i n t h e h i l l y p a r t s o f t h e i s l a n d , i n a n d a r o u n d u n i n h a b i t e d v i l l a g e s , n e a r t h e c o a s t s a n d p l a c e s o f m a r g i n a l c u l t i v a t i o n . T h e y f r e q u e n t l y a l s o m a d e u s e o f a n y a v a i l a b l e c a v e s i n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d ( 1 9 2 ) .

C u r c a r a q u o d a m p e c i o l o t e r r e c a n n i s p l a n t a t o i n c o n t r a t a m u x a i r i ( i e . M g a r r , M a l t a ) , s u b t u s c h u r c h a r a m u r o c i r c u m d a t o

D e j r i l - B a q a r d u a s m a n d r a s i n c o n t r a t a d i . . . G n e j n a , i l - m a n d r e t t a s e u v i n i o l a v i t i b u s i n c o n t r a t a l a c h f a r G h a r M e j m u n e t H a l T m i n d u a e c l a u s u r a e s i m u l c o n i u n c t a e c u m u n a

a r e a e t s e x c l a u s u n c u l a e s e u m a n d r i s s e c u m c o n i u n c t i s e t c u m u n a d o m o . . . a c u n a c . s t e r n a i n c o n t r a t a h u e d I z z i u

G h a r t a l - Q a l l e l i j a l o c u m s i v e r e c e p t u m c u m s u i s m a n d r i s , g r u c t i s e t a l i i s i n c o n t r a t a C a l l e i i a

G h e r i e n P a l e r m o m a n d r e t t a e e t c r i p t a e ( a t P w a l e s ) H a l D r a g u m a n d r e e t c a s a a r a c h a ! D r a g u H a l G h u l l o c u m r u s t i c u m c u m s u i s m a n d r i s , g r i p t i s , s p a c i i s a t W i e d

H a z r u n H a l T m i n C h i r b a s e u m a n d r e t t a

1 8 9 . V i c e r o y o l S i c i l y t o t h e t o w n m a y o r o l M a l t a a n d h i s j u d g e , 2 5 A p r i l 1 4 5 8 : l a t e c o p y i n N L M , L i b r . M s . 4 9 4 , f o l s . 3 4 v - 3 5 v .

1 9 0 . C a p i t o l i , 6 J u n e 1 4 7 5 : C a t h . M u s . , M d . . C a t h . A r c h . , M s . 3 4 , f o l . 2 3 8 v . V i c e r o y ' s l e t t e r t o t h e t o w n o f f i c i a l s o f M a l t a , 2 8 F e b r u a r y 1 5 2 6 : C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M s . M i s c . 2 8 , f o l s . 2 0 8 - 2 0 9 .

1 9 1 . P r o c l a m a t i o n , 2 3 J u n e 1 5 2 1 : N L M , U n i v . 1 2 , f o l . 2 7 6 v . S e e a l s o t h e p e t i t i o n o f H y e r o n i m o a n d B e r n a r d o C a m e n s u l i o f M d i n a , a n d t h e m a g i s t e r i a l d e c r e e , 1 5 D e ­c e m b e r 1 5 8 7 : N L M , U n i v . 1 4 , f o l . 6 8 7 r v . O n 1 5 M a y 1 5 2 2 t h e p r e t e n s i o n s o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f t h e b i s h o p ' s f i e f s a n d o f t h e i n c o m e o f t h e c a t h e d r a l t o p u n i s h t h e o w n e r s o f a n i m a l s t r e s p a s s i n g o v e r t e r r i t o r y o f t l i e b i s h o p o r t h e C h u r c h w e r e c o n ­f i r m e d i n a l e t t e r f r o m t h e v i c e r o y t o t h e c a p t a i n - a t - a r m s i n M a l t a : C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M s . 2 , f o l s . 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 .

1 9 2 . F o r p r e c i s e d o c u m e n t a r y r e f e r e n c e s see ' E a r l y M a l t e s e a n d G o z i t a n P l a c e - n a m e s .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 3 5

H i r b i t i l - K c e j j e n v i n e a e t m a n d r a e i n c o n t r a t a t a x e u k i H i r e b t a ' G a w h a r t r e s g a l e a e s i v e m a n d r a e c u m t r i b u s c i s t e r n i s L a t m i j a , i l - c l a u s u r a s e u m a n d r a i n c o n t r a t a t a b i a r e l c a r u f L h u d i , t a l - m a n d r a i n c o n t r a t a i l h u e d t a l c h i z e y e n M a n d r a t a ' B i e b i d - D j a r , i l - c l a u s u r a M a n d r a t a l - H a r r u b a , i l - m a n d r a i n c o n t r a t a t a l c h a r r u b e M g i e b a h m a n d r e t t a e i n c o n t r a t a g e b e l g u z a r a M g h a j l a q , 1 1 - m a n d r e t t a i n c o n t r a t a d o g u e d I n c h i t a M i x t a , i l - a n t r u m c u m m a n d r e t t i s c l a u s u n c u l i s e t p e r i l s t e r r a e i n

c o n t r a t a h a i n H a b d u n ( G o z o ) M n a d a r t a ' T a r t u s a , 1 - i d u a e c l a u s u l e t t a e s e u m a n d r a e i n c o n t r a t a

b u c a J a r M n a j d r a g a l c u l a i n c a s a l i g a r g u r ; c l a u s u r a i n c o n t r a t a e l m e r c h i l e t e

X a h a r a N e w w i e l a , t a ' c l a u s u r a c u m m a n d r a e t d o m u n c u l a i n c o n t r a t a d i r a c h a l

c h a r r a d

G o z o h a d q u i t e a f e w :

F o r n i l - G I r c l a u s u r a t e r r e m a c e r i i s c i r c u m d a t a c u m d o m o e t m a n d r i s i n c o n t r a t a s a n c t a a g a t h a

G b e j j e l , i l - m a n d r a e s i v e r e c e t t i i n c o n t r a t a t a F e r d e n G h a m m i e q , t a ' d o m u m r u s t i c u m c u m a r e a e t m a n d r e t t a i n c o n t r a t a

N a d u r H l e j b a , t a l - d o m u m r u s t i c u m c u m d o m i b u s , m a n d r i s e t c l a u s u r i s e t

d u a b u s a r e i s i n c o n t r a t a t a c a b e s a M i x t a , i l a n t r u m c u m m a n d r e t t i s c l a u s u n c u l i s e t p e t i i s t e r r a e i n c o n t r a t a

h a i n h a b d u n T o m t a ' S a n s u n t e r r a e e t m a n d r a e i n c o n t r a t a t a c a b e s a

M i x t a i s a w i n t e r i n g p l a c e f o r a n i m a l s . M u x e t i n M a r s a m x e t t p r o b a b l y r e f e r s t o s i m i l a r l o c a l i t i e s f o r a n i m a l s a n d n o t f o r s h i p s a s h a s b e e n i n f e r r e d b y o t h e r s s o f a r . T h e r e w a s a W i e d i l - M i x t a i n t h e e x t r e m e s o u t h o f t h e i s l a n d b e t w e e n G h a r H a s a n a n d B i n g h i s a a n d a n o t h e r s u c h w i n t e r i n g p l a c e n e a r B a q q a r i i s r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e p l a c e - n a m e R q a j j a " 1 - M i x t a . G o z o a l s o h a d a M i x t a t a ' K a l -m e t a t G n i e n M u s f a r .

I n 1 2 4 0 G i l i b e r t o A b a t e r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e r o y a l e s t a t e s o n M a l t a c o n t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g s e r f s w h o w e r e e m p l o y e d s o l e l y i n t h e r e a r i n g o f a n i m a l s ( 1 9 3 ) :

1 9 3 . G i l i b e r t o A b a t e ' s r e p o r t i s i n E . W i n k e l m a n n . Acta I m p e r i i I n e d i t a seculi XIII ( I n n s b r u c k , 1 8 8 0 ) , p p . 7 1 3 - 7 1 5 .

3 6 G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

q u i n q u a g i n t a q u i n q u e c u s t o d e s b o u r n e t v a c c a r u m d e c e r n p a s t o r e s o v i u m e t c a p r a r u m d u o c u s t o d e s i u m e n t o r u m t r e s c u s t o d e s a s i n o r u m

N o s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n o f a n y k i n d i s a v a i l a b l e f o r a n y l a t e r p e r i o d . I n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e r o y a l e s t a t e s h a d b e e n l a r g e l y a l i e n a t e d o r w e r e , i n a n y c a s e , l e a s e d o u t o n a r e n t a l o r c e n s u s p a y i n g b a s i s o b v i a t i n g t h e n e e d t o e m p l o y a n y o n e t o c a r e f o r t h e l i v e s t o c k . E x p o r t s o f a n i m a l s w e r e s u f ­f i c i e n t l y i m p o r t a n t t o b e m e n t i o n e d s e v e r a l t i m e s i n t h e c o m p l a i n t s s o r e g u l a r l y s e n t b y t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s t o t h e i r s u p e r i o r s a t P a l e r m o ; t h e y w a n t e d t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e e x p o r t d u t i e s o n a n i m a l s . I n 1 4 1 0 t h e y c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e o l d t a x h a d b e e n i n c r e a s e d i n e f f e c t b y f i f t y p e r c e n t , a n d t h e y a s k e d f o r a r e t u r n t o t h e o l d r a t e s ( 1 9 4 ) . I n 1 4 3 2 a c o m p l e t e e x e m p t i o n f r o m s u c h t a x e s w a s r e q u e s t e d f o r t h e a n i m a l s w h i c h w e r e t a k e n o u t o f M a l t a b y t h o s e w h o t r a v e l l e d t o S i c i l y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n w h e a t o r b a r l e y f o r t h e i s l a n d ' s i n h a b i t ­a n t s ( 1 9 5 ) . I n 1 4 3 9 t h e y a s k e d f o r t h e c o m p l e t e r e m o v a l o f t h e t a x e s b e c a u s e , w h a t w i t h f r e i g h t c h a r g e s a n d t h e e x p o r t d u t i e s , l i t t l e r e m a i n e d t o t h e o w n e r o f t h e p r i c e h e c h a r g e d t h e p u r c h a s e r ' a n d t h u s t h e s e a n i m a l s w o u l d r e m a n o n t h e i s l a n d a n d t h e r o y a l c o u r t w o u l d t h e r e f o r e g e t n o p r o f i t , n o r c o n s e ­q u e n t l y w o u l d t h e i r o w n e r ' ( 1 9 6 ) .

T h o u g h t h e o w n e r s h i p o f c a t t l e w a s f a i r l y w i d e s p r e a d , a s i s o n l y t o b e e x p e c t e d i n a n a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t y w h i c h r e l i e d e x t e n s i v e l y o n t h e u s e o f o x - l a b o u r , t h e l i m i t e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t s o m e l a n d ­o w n e r s , m o s t l y m e m b e r s o f t h e D e s g u a n e s f a m i l y , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e n o t a r i e s , l a w y e r s , s o m e p r i e s t s a n d o t h e r b e t t e r - o f f p e r s o n s , h a d a p r e - e m i n e n t , i f n o t a d o m i n a n t , s t a t u s a m o n g t h e M a l t e s e d e a l e r s m c a t t l e . T h e e a r l i e s t e i g h t s u r v i v i n g s a l e s o f c a t t l e ( 1 4 6 7 ) s h o w t h a t a l l e i g h t p u r c h a s e r s l i v e d c i t h e r i n t h e v i l l a g e s o r a t R a b a t : Q d i e r i ( o n e ) , S i g g i e w i ( t w o ) , Z e b b u g ( t w o ) , R a b a t ( o n e ) , L i j a ( o n e ) , a n d G r i g o r i ( o n e ) ( 1 9 7 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s e v e n o f t h e e i g h t s e l l e r s l i v e d a t M d i n a : J u l i a n u s F a r r u g i a ( t w o s a l e s ) , nobilis G o f r i d u s D e s g u a n e s ( f o u r , p o s s i b l y f i v e , s a l e s ) , a n d A n g e l u s M i c h a l l e f o f B i r k i r k a r a ( o n e s a l e ) ( 1 9 8 ) . A b o u t h a l f t h e s e l l e r s i n t h e e i g h t e e n c o n t r a c t s o f s a l e e x a m i n e d

1 9 4 . C a p i t o l i o f 1 4 1 0 i n C a t h Mu».. M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , M i . 3 4 , f o i l . 1 7 3 v . p u b l i i b c d i n A r e h i v u m Melitense, V I I I , p . 7 6 .

1 9 5 . C a p i t o l i . 3 0 O c t o b e r 1 4 3 2 : G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i , p . 3 9 1 . 1 9 6 . C a p i t o l i , 1 9 J u l y 1 4 3 9 : G i a m b r u n o & G e n u a r d i . p . 4 0 8 . 1 9 7 . C o n t r a c t * d a t e d 1 0 S e p t e m b e r ( t h r e e } . 1 5 S e p t e m b e r , 9 O c t o b e r , 14 O c t o b e r , 1 6

O c t o b e r ( t w o ) , a l l 1 4 6 7 : N A V , N o t . P . B o n e l l o . N A V . M i . 5 8 8 . f o l * . I I , 1 2 , 1 2 r v , 1 5 v , 2 5 , Z 8 v , 3 1 a n d 3 1 v respectively.

1 9 8 . J u l d a n u i F a r r u g i a : i b i d . , f o l - 1 2 ; G o f r i d u s D e s g u a n e s : i b i d . , f o i l . I 2 r v , 1 5 v , 2 5 , 3 1 v a n d p r o b a b l y 3 1 ; A n g e l u s M i c h a l e f : i b i d . , f o l . 2 8 v .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 3 7

f o r t h e p e r i o d 1 4 8 6 - 1 5 3 0 a l s o l i v e d a t M d i n a , t h e r e s t r e s i d i n g i n o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e v i l l a g e s : T a r x i e n , M u s t a , K i r k o p , N a x x a r , M q a b b a ( t w i c e ) a n d Q d i e r i ( 1 9 9 ) . T h e p u r c h a s e r s b e l o n g e d t o R a b a t ( t h r e e o f t h e m ) , Q d i e r i , M i l l i e r i , A x a q , Z e b -b u g ( t w o ) , N a x x a r ( t w o ) a n d G o z o ( t w o ) , t h e o r i g i n o f t h e r e m a i n i n g f i v e re­m a i n i n g u n k n o w n . P r a c t i c a l l y n o n e o f t h e s a l e s i n d i v i d u a l l y i n v o l v e d m o r e t h a n t w o o r t h r e e h e a d o f a d u l t c a t t l e , a n d t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n t y p i c a l o f c a t t l e s a l e s i n a p e a s a n t c o m m u n i t y . A l m o s t a l l t h e b u l l s a n d o x e n w e r e s o l d o u t r i g h t t o t h e i r n e w o w n e r s .

M o s t o f t h e c o w s a n d t h e i r c a l v e s w e r e s o l d o n a h a l f - s h a r e b a s i s , h a l f t h e p r i c e b e i n g b o r n e a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y b y a n i n h a b i t a n t o f M d i n a , i n m o s t c a s e s a n o t a r y , l a w y e r , p r i e s t o r n o b l e m a n , w h o s e h a l f o f t h e p r i c e w a s o f f s e t b y t h e l a b o u r p u t i n b y t h e a c t u a l f a r m e r w h o s a w t o t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e c o w a n d i t s o f f s p r i n g , t o w n s m a n a n d f a r m e r s h a r i n g t h e p r o f i t s o n a n e q u a l b a s i s , t h e p a r t n e r s h i p h a v i n g t o l a s t f o r a s e t p e r i o d , u s u a l l y f o r f o u r y e a r s ( 2 0 0 ) . T h i r t e e n c o n t r a c t s o f t h i s t y p e h a v e b e e n e x a m i n e d ( 1 4 6 7 , 1 4 8 6 - 1 5 3 0 ) ( 2 0 1 ) . S l e e p i n g p a r t n e r s i n c l u d e d n o t a r y B a r t h o l o m e o d e S i l l a t o ( t h r e e c o w s ) ( 2 0 2 ) , n o t a r y I n g o m e s d e B r a n c a t o ( t w o c o w s i n G o z o , o n e c o w a n d o n e c a l f a t N a x x a r ) ( 2 0 3 ) , t h e n o b l e m a n N a r d u C a l a v a w h o b e l o n g e d t o a l e g a l f a m i l y ( o n e c o w a n d i t s c a l f a t M u s t a ( 2 0 4 ) , t h r e e c o w s e l s e w h e r e ) , t h e w i f e o f t h e n o b l e m a n J o h a n n t s d e H a b i c a ( o n e c a l f i n p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h B e r t u s M i n t u f o f

1 9 9 . C o n t r a c t * d a t e d 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 8 6 , 2 3 M a r c h 1 4 8 7 , 2 2 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 4 : N o t . J . S a b a r a . N A V . R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 2 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 9 9 ( t w o ) : idem, N A V . R 4 9 4 / 2 . 3 O c t o b e r 1 4 8 8 , 2 0 t f o t o b e r 1 4 8 8 : N o t . G r a c i a n o d e V a s s a l d o , N A V , R 4 6 4 / 1 , f o l * 5 v , 2 0 v ; 1 3 J a n u a r y 1 5 2 9 . 2 2 J a n u a r y 1 5 2 9 ( t w o ) , 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1 5 2 9 : idem, R . 4 6 4 / 4 , f o l * . I l l , 1 2 3 v , 1 2 6 v a n d I 5 6 v ; 2 8 M a r c h 1 4 8 7 : N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V . R 1 4 0 / 5 . fol. 5 0 v ; 2 6 J u l y 1 3 1 5 : idem, N A V , fol*. 1 6 3 v - 1 6 4 ; 1 2 A u g u i t 1 5 2 2 : idem, H 4 6 4 / 9 , f o l . U 3 v ; 9 O c t o b e r 1 3 1 7 , 2 7 J a n u a r y 1 5 1 8 , 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 3 2 2 : N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V . R . t>9.

2 0 0 . E x a m i n i n g t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n c i t e d i n t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a n d * u c c e e d i n g f o o t n o t e * o n e f i n d * t h a t 5 o x e n , 2 b u l l s a n d 1 c o w w e r e d e * c r i b e d a* b l a c k , 2 o x e n a n d 3 c o w * w e r e w h i t e , 3 o x e n a n d 2 c o w * w e r e r e d , 1 o x w a a o f o r a n g e c o l o u r , a n o t h e r 2 w e r e c h e * t n u t , a n d 1 w a s o f m i x e d c o l o u r , w h i l e I o x a n d 3 c o w * w e r e o b s c u r e l y d e s c r i b e d a s i d v ' b i r < ? ) , a n d a n o t h e r c o w i * h t d i c h e l l i ( ? ) . T h e c o l o u r o f t h e r e s t w a s n o t g i v e n .

2 0 1 . C o n t r a c t * d a t e d 1 A u g u s t 1 4 8 6 , 2 8 M a r c h 1 4 8 7 . 2 2 J u n e 1 4 8 7 , 3 1 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 4 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 0 J u l y 1 4 9 8 : idem, N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 ; 2 9 A p r i l 1 5 0 0 : idem, N A V . M s . 1 1 3 2 ; 4 N o v e m b e r 1 5 0 0 : N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 , f o l * 5 5 v e l $eq.; 1 6 J u l y 1 5 1 8 : i b i d , N A V . R 1 4 0 / 7 , f o l . I 9 2 v ; 2 7 J a n u a r y 1 5 1 8 , 1 9 F e b r u a r y 1 5 1 8 a n d 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 2 1 : J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 .

2 0 2 . C o n t r a c t , 2 2 J u n e 1 4 8 7 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 9 9 : idem, N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 ; 2 9 A p r i l 1 5 0 0 : idem, N A V , M * . 1 1 3 2 .

2 0 3 . C o n t r a c t , 2 1 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 4 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 2 7 J a n u a r y 1 5 1 8 : N o t . J . B o n d i n , N A V , R 6 9 .

2 0 4 . C o n t r a c t , 2 8 M a r c h 1 4 8 7 : N o t J . S a b a r a , N A V . R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 7 A u g u i t 1 4 9 9 : idem, R 4 9 4 / 2 .

3 8 GODFREY WETTINGER

Gozo (205), the prominent priest Nicolaus de Falzono (two cows and two calves in partnership with a farmer at Ghadir il-Bordi, north of Lija) (206). Such partnerships enabled the richer persons of Mdina to help the peasants in financing the relatively expensive and perhaps hazardous operation of cattle rearing in Malta where money was always scarce. However, half-sharing was also resorted to by older peasants planning their retirement. This most probably was the case when Lemo di Famagusta of Siggiewi leased out on 4 September 1467 on a half-share basis the whole of his farm to Paulus Axac of Zebbug, including seven oxen, a bull, a cow and its ca'.f, sixteen sheep and two goats, as well as the lands which he held on a share-cropping basis from various persons; lands which he held on a rental basis would be taken over on the same arrangement (207). Obviously, also, Lemo di Famagusta was one of the richer peasants of Siggiewi.

Horses were relatively scarce. Hardly any sales have been encountered in the notarial records, and horses were certainly very much less important than oxen in Maltese agriculture. In fact, horses are mentioned much more frequently in relation to their military use. Several of the fiefs, even back in the four­teenth century, were granted on condition of military service by one or more armed men on horseback in the king's forces: Dejr il-Bniet (one), Buqana (one), Hemsija (one) (208). In fact, militia and cavalry records provide most of the available information on horses, though the use of the word giumenta, a mare or female donkey, mule or horse used as a pack animal, complicates its precise interpretation (209):

Table 2. Horses and other equines indicated by the symbol 'C 1' in the militia lists of 1419/20 and ca. 1425

1419/20 ca. 1425 1419/20 ca. 1425 Tartarni/Dingli 6 Axac 3 3 Gumerinu 1 0 Gudia 4 6 Dragu/Gazara/Maricatu 4 7 Mitarxen 4 6 Bisse (Pessa) 0 1 Luqa/Farrug 1 4 Grigori/Samud 5 8 Mqabba 1 5 Naxxar 9 15 Safi 2 1

2 0 5 . C o n t r a c t , 1 A u g u s t 1 4 8 6 : N o t . J . S a b a r a . N A V . R 4 9 4 / 1 . 2 0 6 . C o n t r a c t , 4 N o v e m b e r 1 5 0 0 : N o t . C . C a n c h u r . N A V , R 1 4 0 / 1 , f o l s . 5 5 v - 5 6 . 2 0 7 . C o n t r a c t , 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 6 7 : N o t . P . B o n e l l o , N A V , M a . 5 8 8 , f o l . 9 r v . 2 0 8 . N L M , U n i v . 2 0 6 . f o l s . 2 2 3 v , 2 2 5 a n d 2 2 5 v . 2 0 9 . C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , Q u a d e r n i ( D i v e r s i , N o s . 3 a n d 6 . S e e G . W e t t i n g e r ,

' T h e M i l i t i a L i s t o f 1 4 1 9 - 2 0 : a N e w S t a r t i n g P o i n t f o r t h e S t u d y o f M a l t a ' s P o p u ­l a t i o n ' , M e l i t a H i s t o r i c a , V . t a b l e o n p . 8 5 h a s b e e n r e v i s e d i n t h i s p a p e r .

L A T E MEDIEVAL MALTESE AGRICULTURE 3 9

f '-ill S*i i --, j n n i i ,—- fr

uaiiej a/iviusta 2 6 Zurrieq 2 8 T 9 m q n n i / R 1 1 r / A i L r t Z l l J i l l 1 IL t / D U l u l 1 i B u b a q r a/Baqqari 0 1

4 A

o Millieri 1 1 A ( * . , i-,l 8 7 Lew/Qrendi 2 6

A i --x - t'l t V l f\ 1 1 F 1

o.ggiewi A O A

6 Birkirkara 6 8 Xluq 0 3 Kaprat 1 3 Kbir 4 5 Qormi 16 19 Tabuni 1 Zabbar 5 3 Qdieri 2 1 Temim Assant 1 1 Zebbug 5 9 Bisqallin 2 4 Rabat 5 9 Gwann/Buzbud 7 6 Civitas (Mdina)

Both lists omit the horses provided by the inhabitants of Mdina, particularly the fief-holders. This would explain the note at the end of the list of ca.1425 that the total number of horses was 214, though a careful count of the horses actually indicated gives a total of 171 only, the rest presumably belonging to Mdina (210). One has also to remember that though the symbol 'C 1' in both lists undoubtedly refers to 'Cavallus', a horse, the almost contemporary militia roster (1417, perhaps 1416) constantly speaks of j u m e n t a (211). In fact the cavalry lists of 1492 and 1529 use both words c a v a l l u s and j u m e n t a with obvious deliberation and care (212).

Table 3. 'Horses' kept by the well-to-do for defence purposes, by place of residence of their owners in 1492 and 1529.

1492 1529 cavalli jumenta jumenta cavalli jumenta

armata Mdina 64 1 32 Naxxar 2 4 10 Birkirkara 3 5 Balzan 3 Lija 5 Burdi 1 Attard 1 Qormi 1 2 2

2 1 0 . C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C a t h . A r c h . , Q u a d e r n i D i v e r s i , N o . 6 , f o l . 3 8 . 2 1 1 . T e x t p u b l i s h e d i n G . W e t t i n g e r , ' T h e M i l i t i a R o s t e r o f 1 4 1 7 ' , The Armed Forces of

M a l t a J o u r n a l , N o . 3 2 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 7 9 ] , 2 5 - 4 2 . 2 1 2 . T h e c a v a l r y l i s t o f 8 M a y 1 4 9 2 i s i n N L M , L i b r . M s 6 7 0 , f o l s . 2 0 - 2 1 v . T h a t o f 3 0

O c t o b e r 1 5 2 9 i s i n N L M , U n i v . 1 2 , f o l s . 5 2 3 - 5 2 6 .

40

B i r m i f t u h S a n t a K a t e r i n a ( Z e j t u n ) Z u r r i e q S i g g i e w i Z e b b u g

T o t a l s

— 9 — — 1 2 — 1 8

2 — 5 — — 2 6 9 2 6 1 5

G O D F R E Y W E T T I N G E R

— 15 — 1 8 — 1 1 — 1 5 — 2 3 2 7 8

T h e l i s t s o f 1 4 9 2 a n d 1 5 2 9 a r e n o t s t r i c t l y c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h a t o f t h e ' h o r s e s ' o f t h e m i l i t i a f o r c e s o f 1 4 1 9 - 2 0 a n d c a . 1 4 2 5 o r t h e r o s t e r o f c a . 1 4 1 7 . T h e f i g u r e s i n b o t h l a t e r l i s t s r e p r e s e n t g o v e r n m e n t e x p e c t a t i o n s f r o m p e r s o n s j u d g e d s u f f i c i e n t l y rich t o b e a b l e t o m a i n t a i n a h o r s e o r a r m e d m a r e ; t h e y d o n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r s o f h o r s e s o r m a r e s i n e x i s t e n c e . O n e n o t e s t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e b u r d e n o f v i l l a g e p e o p l e i n c r e a s e d v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t w e e n 1 4 9 2 a n d 1 5 2 9 . A l l l i s t s i n d i c a t e m o s t s t r o n g l y t h a t ( a ) h o r s e s s u i t a b l e f o r b a t t l e w e r e m a i n l y o w n e d b y p e r s o n s f r o m M d i n a , a n d ( b ) m a r e s , u s e f u l m a i n l y f o r l o g i s t i c a l p u r p o s e s , w e r e t o b e f o u n d c h i e f l y i n t h e v i l l a g e s , b u t w e r e c e r t a i n l y f a r f e w e r t h a n o x e n a n d c o m p l e t e l y i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e n e e d s o f p l o u g h i n g a n d o t h e r f a r m w o r k .

M u l e s a n d d o n k e y s w e r e t h e n o r m a l b e a s t s o f b u r d e n , t h e l a t t e r b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y n u m e r o u s a n d h a r d y . I n t h e c o m p l e t e l a c k o f s m o o t h r o a d s u r f a c e s , p a c k - s a d d l e s a n d p a n n i e r s r a t h e r t h a n c a r t s w e r e t h e n o r m a l m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t i n g g o o d s . M u l e s a n d d o n k e y s a p p e a r f r e q u e n t l y i n c o n t r a c t s o f s a l e , b u t s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s l a c k i n g . A r c h d e a c o n L a n z a D e s g u a n e s w a s riding a m u l e , n o t a h o r s e , i n 1 4 6 2 w h e n h e a s s a u l t e d D a n z a F r e n d u f o r c u t t i n g d o w n h i s p u m p k i n s o r l o n g m a r r o w s ( 2 1 3 ) , a n d t h e A u g u s t i n i a n f r i a r J o h a n n e s Z u r c h i , o n c e a p o o r m a n b u t i n l a t e r l i f e t h e w e a l t h y p r o p r i e t o r o f a v i n e y a r d w i t h s e v e r a l b e a s t s i n h i s s t a b l e , w o e i n f a c t riding h i s m u l e w h e n h e m e t w i t h a s e r i o u s a c c i d e n t i n 1 4 7 6 ( 2 1 4 ) . M u l e s w e r e m u c h i n d e m a n d e s p e c i a l l y f o r d r i v i n g t h e m i l l s t h a t g r o u n d t h e w h e a t a n d b a r l e y b e f o r e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f w i n d - m i l l s . O f c o u r s e , t h e y w e r e a l s o q u i t e s u i t a b l e f o r m u c h o f t h e w o r k i n t h e f i e l d s , b u t t h e r e o x e n w e r e f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t ( 2 1 5 ) .

P r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y o n e m u s t h a v e o w n e d a d o n k e y , a n d m o s t p e r s o n s w h o d i d n o t n e e d s t r o n g e r a n i m a l s f o r w o r k i n t h e f i e l d s w e r e c o n t e n t t o o w n o n e . D o n k e y s w e r e a l s o u s e d f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g g o o d s b y p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r r i e r s . O n 4

2 1 3 . A c c u s a t i o n o f A r c h d e a c o n L a n c e a D e s g u a n e s b y D a n r a F r e n d u , 8 J u l y 1 4 6 2 : C a t h . M u s . , M d . , C E M , A O , v o l . 1 , f o l s . 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 .

2 1 4 . P l e a d i n g s o l m a g i s t e r G a s p a r d e M o n b r o n , 1 6 A u g u s t 1 4 7 6 : i b i d . , f o l s . ] 6 7 - 1 9 2 v . 2 1 5 . M u l e s a r e r e f e r r e d t o i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l l s b o t h a t Z a b b a r a n d a t S a f i i n c o n ­

t r a c t s d a t e d 6 N o v e m b e r 1 5 0 3 a n d 1 3 N o v e m b e r 1 5 0 3 : N o t . C . C a n c h u r , N A V , R 1 4 0 / 2 . f o l s . 1 8 a n d 2 1 .

L A T E M E D I E V A L M A L T E S E A G R I C U L T U R E 1 1

A p r i l 1 4 9 7 L e m u s R a f i c a n o a n d J o h a n n e s N i c o l a u s d e B a r b e r i o e n t e r e d i n t o a p a r t n e r s h i p f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t o f g o o d s f o r a w h o l e y e a r e a c h p r o v i d i n g t w o a s s e s , t h e f o r m e r l e a d i n g t h e m i n p e r s o n a s s i s t e d b y a n e m p l o y e e o f t h e l a t t e r ( 2 1 6 ) . T r a v e l l e r s a r r i v i n g a t B i r g u f r o m a b r o a d c o u l d h i r e d o n k e y s f o r t h e i r w a l k u p t o M d i n a , e i g h t m i l e s i n l a n d . T h u s i n 1 4 6 6 N e r i u s d e l u P r e s t i o f M e s s i n a h i r e d a d o n k e y f r o m a p r i e s t a t B i r g u l e a v i n g i t a t t h e s t a b l e s o f h i s f e l l o w - c i t i z e n J a c o b u s F l o c c a r i a t R a b a t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d o n k e y h i r e d b y J o h a n n i s M a t h e u s C a l o g i r i ; b o t h d o n k e y s s u f f e r e d b u r n s t h a t n i g h t f r o m a f i r e t h a t d e v a s t a t e d t h e s t a b l e s ( 2 1 7 ) .

F o r e q u i n e s a s f o r b o v i n e s , m e t a y a g e a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e r e s t r i c t e d t o f e m a l e s o f t h e s p e c i e s d u r i n g t h e i r y e a r s o f f e r t i l i t y . F i v e s u c h c o n t r a c t s h a v e b e e n f o u n d f o r d o n k e y s f o r p e r i o d s r a n g i n g f r o m f o u r t o s i x y e a r s ( 2 1 8 ) . I n t h r e e o f t h e m t h e l a w y e r s N a r d u s C a l a v a a n d G r e g o r i u s X e r r i w e r e t h e s l e e p ­i n g p a r t n e r s ( 2 1 9 ) . A m o n g s e l l e r s o f d o n k e y s a p p e a r o t h e r l a w y e r s l i k e N i c o l a u s d e C a x a r o a n d A n d r e a s d e F a l c z o n o ( 2 2 0 ) . P e t e r C a x a r o i s a l s o r e c o r d e d t o h a v e o w n e d o n e ( 2 2 1 ) . N o b l e s a n d o t h e r w e a l t h y p e r s o n s k e p t m o r e e x p e n s i v e a n i m a l s l i k e h o r s e s o r m u l e s , b u t t h e noble G o f f r i d u s d e B u r d i n o i s r e c o r d e d t o h a v e b o u g h t a d o n k e y a n d i t s f o a l f r o m a f e l l o w c i t i z e n i n 1 4 9 5 ( 2 2 2 ) .

I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p i c t u r e a l r e a d y e x i s t e d o f e v e r y p e a s a n t f a m i l y k e e p i n g a f e w s h e e p a n d g o a t s , b u t w h o l e f l o c k s w e r e s o m e t i m e s o w n e d b y t o w n s - p e o p l e , c a n o n s o f t h e c a t h e d r a l , n o t a r i e s a n d o t h e r s , w h o h a d s p e c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s , r e c o r d e d b y n o t a r i a l d e e d , w i t h s h e p h e r d s w h o u n d e r ­t o o k t o c a r e f o r a l l t h e n e e d s o f t h e f l o c k a t a f e e p a y a b l e b y t h e l a t t e r n o r m a l l y o u t o f t h e p r o d u c e o f t h e h e r d a t a n a g r e e d p r i c e o r t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e t o w n a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e s h e p h e r d , o f c o u r s e , m u s t h a v e m a d e h i s l i v i n g o u t o f h i s p r o f i t s f r o m t h e s a l e o f t h e r e s t o f t h e p r o d u c e o f t h e h e r d .

2 1 6 . C o n t r a c t , 4 A p r i l 1 4 9 7 ; N o t J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 2 . 2 1 7 . C a t h . M a i . , M d . , C E M , A O , v o l . 9 , f o l . 2 3 1 , I S J u n e 1 4 6 6 , t h e y e a r b e i n g d e t e r ­

m i n e d b y i t s d n d i c t i o n a l n u m b e r a a g i v e n , t h e t h i r t e e n t h , a n d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e n a m e o f J a c o b u s F l o c c a r i a p p e a r s o n 3 1 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 7 i n t h e d e e d s o f N o t a r y P B o n e l l o : N A V , M s . 5 8 8 . f o l . 4 0 .

2 ' 8 . C o n t r a c t s d a t e d 9 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 7 : N o t . P . B o n e l l o , N A V , M s . 5 8 8 , f o l . 2 4 ; 2 2 J a n ­u a r y 1 4 8 7 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V . R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 2 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 0 7 : N o t . C . C a n c h u r , 3 1 4 0 / 3 , f o l . 1 2 5 ; 2 3 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 2 8 a n d 13 O c t o b e r 1 5 2 8 : N o t . G r a c i a n o V a s s a l l o N A V , R 4 6 4 / 4 , f o l s . 1 1 a n d 3 1 .

2 1 9 . C o n t r a c t d a t e d 9 O c t o b e r 1 4 6 7 : N o t . P . B o n e l l o , N A V , M s . 5 8 8 , f o l 2 4 - 2 2 J a n u a r y 1 4 8 7 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; a n d 1 3 O c t o b e r 1 5 2 8 : N o t G r a c i a n o V a s ­s a l l o . N A V . R 4 6 4 / 4 . f o l . 3 1 .

2 2 0 . C o n t r a c t s . 1 9 A p r i l 1 4 8 7 a n d 3 J u l y 1 4 9 5 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 ; 1 6 D e c e m b e r 1 4 9 5 : N o t . G r a c i a n o V a s s a l l o , N A V , R 4 6 4 / 1 , f o l . 3 2 .

2 2 1 . A S P , R e a l C a n c e l l e r i a , v o l . 1 3 0 , f o l . 5 1 3 v . 2 2 2 . C o n t r a c t , 1 1 M a r c h 1 4 9 5 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 494/1.

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H e r e o n e c a n s e e o n c e m o r e a n o t h e r w a y i n w h i c h t h e e c o n o m i c l i f e o n t h e f a r m w a s , i n f a c t , l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f M d i n a , w h o a l s o r e c e i v e d m u c h o f t h e p r o f i t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t s h o u l d a l s o b e s a i d t h a t w i t h o u t t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h e s h e p h e r d s w o u l d n o t h a v e h a d e n o u g h s h e e p a n d g o a t s t o t e n d . F r e q u e n t l y t h e s h e e p - f o l d i t s e l f a n d i t s a t t e n d ­a n t b u i l d i n g a l s o b e l o n g e d t o o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e t o w n p e o p l e . T h i s i s m a d e

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c l e a r b y t h e c o n t r a c t s o f 2 3 O c t o b e r 1 4 9 4 a n d 2 9 J u l y 1 4 9 6 w h e n N i c o l a u s d e C a x a r o o f M d i n a r e n t e d s u c h a p l a c e a t G h a j n R i h a n a l o h i s s h e p h e r d R a n d i n u s B u s u t t i l ( 2 2 3 ) . P a y m e n t w a s t o b e m a d e a t t h e r a t e o f 1 1 t a r e n i 4 d e n a r i i f o r e v e r y s h e e p a n d 8 t a r e n i f o r e v e r y g o a t , a r a t e t h a t w a s n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t f o u n d i n t h e o t h e r c o n t r a c t s , a n d w a s t o b e e f f e c t e d i n k i n d :

1 \ c a n t a r a o f s o f t c h e e s e i n t w o e q u a l l o t s a t t h e o f f i c i a l p r i c e 2 0 u b a r a o f s a l t e d b u t t e r , manteca 1 u b a r a o f a n o t h e r t y p e o f ' b u t t e r ' a t 1 5 g r a m p e r u b a r a 2 5 m a l e l a m b s a t 1 5 g r a n i e a c h 2 5 f e m a l e l a m b s a t 15 g r a n i e a c h 6 m a l e k i d s a t 1 5 g r a n i e a c h 2 f e m a l e k i d s a t 15 g r a n i e a c h a n y o t h e r s r e q u i r e d b y C a x a r o f o r c o n s u m p t i o n i n h i a h o u s e h o l d a t 1 0 g r a n i e a c h .

T h e l a m b s ' w o o ) w a s t o g o e n t i r e l y t o t h e s h e p h e r d , t h a t o f t h e w e t h e r s t o t h e o w n e r , t h a t o f t h e s h e e p a l s o t o t h e o w n e r e x c e p t f o r 6 p f s f ( i e . w i z n i e t ) w h i c h w e n t t o t h e s h e p h e r d . T h e l a t t e r c o u l d a l s o k e e p i n t h e s a m e f o l d 2 4 s h e e p a n d g o a t s o f h i s o w n t o g e t h e r w i t h t w o s o w s . F o r a n y o t h e r s h e h a d t o p a y o n e t a r e n o a h e a d f o r g r a z i n g r i g h t s t o C a x a r o , w h o a l s o s u p p ' i e d h i m w i t h a s t a t e d a m o u n t o f w h e a t a t t h e o f f i c i a l p r i c e , a n d l e a s e d h i m s o m e l a n d a d cuctaniam. I n 1 4 8 8 C a x a r o h a d k e p t a h e r d a t T a b r i j a , w e s t o f S i g g i e w i ( 2 2 4 ) .

T H E F A R M E R ' S W O R L D

I n a n a n a l y s i s o f a g r i c u l t u r e b a s e d m a i n l y o n l a n d - l e a s e s , c r o p s a n d f a r m a n i m a l s , o n e c o u l d e a s i l y l o s e s i g h t o f t h e f a r m e r h i m s e l f , o n w h o s e a c t i v i t y , s k i l l a n d f o r e s i g h t e v e r y t h i n g s o l a r g e l y d e p e n d e d . A c t u a l f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s a r e h a r d l y e v e r r e c o r d e d . O n e f r a g m e n t a r y s o u r c e s p e a k s o f ' u p ­r o o t i n g t h e c u m i n p l a n t s a n d g a t h e r i n g t h e m i n a n a s s i g n e d p l a c e ' f o r c l e a n i n g o f t h e u s e l e s s s t a l k s a n d l e a v e s , a n d o f t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d p l o u g h i n g o f t h e c o t t o n f i e l d s a n d o f r e m o v i n g o f t h e w e e d s g r o w i n g a m o n g t h e c o t t o n p l a n t s ( 2 2 5 ) . A t e n a n t i n a n o t h e r d o c u m e n t p r o m i s e d t o ' c u l t i v a t e , t e n d a n d i r r i g a t e p r o p e r l y t h e s a i d g a r d e n a n d n o t t o k e e p c r o p s h a r m f u l t o t h e t r e e s , a n d t o p l a n t e v e r y y e a r f o r t h e s a i d f o u r y e a r s [ o f h i s t e n u r e ] f i f t y s e e d l i n g s , a n d t o . . . g a t h e r t h e i r g r a p e s a t t h e p r o p e r t i m e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u s t o m o f M a l t a ' ( 2 2 6 ) . T h e n e w t e n a n t o f D e j r i s - S a f i n 1 4 9 9 p r o m i s e d t o p l a n t 2 5

2 2 3 . Ibid., u n d e r t h o s e d a t e s . 2 2 4 . C o n t r a c t . 4 M a r c h 1 4 8 8 : i b i d . 2 2 5 . C o n t r a c t , c a . 2 5 M a y 1 5 1 3 : N o t . G r a c i a n o d e V a s s a l l o , N A V . K 4 6 4 / 1 . f o l s . 7 4 v - 7 5 ;

t h e f r o n t p a r t o f t h i s d o c u m e n t i s h e a v i l y s t a i n e d a n d i l l e g i b l e . 2 2 6 . C o n t r a c t , 4 S e p t e m b e r 1 4 9 5 : N o t . J . S a b a r a , N A V , R 4 9 4 / 1 .

-1-1 GODFREY WETTINGER

seedlings every year at places indicated to him by one of the landowner's men (227). Court witnesses frequently described the farmer at his daily tasks. In 1529, for example, Bartholomeus Calleye testified that (228):

Nicolaus Veil* produced by Franciscus Gaudisii [as a witness] keeps a pair of oxen with which he works and ploughs together with the said Franciscus Gaudisi in the said benefice [lands]; he does not know however whether he has a share in the lease of the said benefice but the witness himself has seen him leading the said pair of oxen in the said benefice; Angelus Bertelli and Simon Sammut, winessea simi­larly produced by the said Franciscus, are alio partners who led their pairs of oxen and ftratio lo r u p e r l i (?) as partners according to the custom of Malta.

He also subsequently testified that 'he knew only that at the season one should sow cotton, that is in the month of March, he had seen the said Simon sow the [land of the] said benefice with cotton'. On 8 May 1530 Ysabella Muscat testified that (229):

Last February, that is on the first Sunday of that month, while she was going for a pail of water from the well called Biar de Lihudi [Jew's wells], after she filled her pail she saw the said Micheli together with the said priest Johanni Pisano ap­proaching. Micheli entered the field Ta Deguger and chased out the pigs which bo-longed to Nicolao Beiine and the said Don Johanni dismounted and helped him to drive the pigs out on to the road; once there, Micheli himself set them going on their way, handing them over to Don Johanni, who got on to his beast again and drove the pigs before him towards the village of Attard, the witness herself in the com­pany of the said Micheli Vassal do going to the village of Bordi where she stayed, whik Michaeli Surdo [nej went to the village of Lia where he lived.

On another occasion, Leo Gabeyr testified how (230):

In this island of Malta it was and is the custom for the a y r i [threshing floors] to be given to the watchmen before the harvest, sometimes in the month of March, sometimes before and sometimes slightly later, such that when harvest arrives the fanners, wanting to harvest the barley and collect the flax and other legumes, shall find the ayri ready, enabling them to carry and store their victuals of wheat, flax, beans and other products, and alter them the wheat, under the care and in charge of the watchmen, and he says that he knows this because the witness has seen and been present in all this for aU the time of his memory, being fifty years old or thereabouts.

227. Contract, 8 November 1399: idem, NAV, R 494/2. 228. Cath. Mus., Md., CEM, AO, vol. 8A, fol. 369. 229. /bid., vol. SB, fol. 652. 230. The date has not survived but it would seem to pre-date 15O0: ibid., vol. 3, fol. 394.

L A T E MEDIEVAL M A L T E S E AGRICULTURE 4 5

Michael Xerri said (231):

It is the custom of countrymen in this island, illiterate persons, to say and to be­lieve that the year is divided into two parts, that is, into winter and summer, and they count winter from when it starts to rain until it ceases, and summer from when it stops till September, that is what countrymen customarily think; the wit­ness himself believes, and has seen and heard it said, that the year is divided into four [parts], that is into autumn, winter, spring and summer.

He described how:

The previous winter had been hard and very rainy such that where it was dusty through little water the tenants prepared the land for cotton and in March tlwy could not work the land for cotton owing to the excess of water; he knew this as a tenant and farmer of five arable fields of liis own.

Jacobus Seychel in 1536 said that (232):

He himself, as one of the partners of Jacobo Galie, ploughed the lands called tal-Mentna, and sowed barley and then, at harvest time, they reaped it and carried the barley to the ayra belonging to Peter Chardun's sons, who were nephews of Lemo, and they left it there, keeping it separate [from the rest] until they could find out how much that land produced to enable Lemo to obtain his share of that produce, because Lemo said that half of it came to him, and they litigated over this in the bishop's court.

In 1527 Johannes Manjuni alias Gauchi said that (233):

Some fifteen years ago he was himself employed by the Reverend Don Amaturi [Zammit] on his farm, and as far as he could remember at that time that priest had, and kept, on hia farm six oxen and one cow and he knew nothing of the sheep whether he kept any, but he understood from others that he had kept sheep in the iheepfoW called Ta Rachal Nicoluz... At the time he was with Zammit he also kept a brown horse and a female donkey.

Slightly later evidence concerning farmers alive in 1530 provide information which is certainly relevant to pre-1530 years. Thus on 15 February 1544 Julianus Farruge of Mqabba testified that (234):

In this island of Malta there are several inhabitants of ihe villages, namely Georgio Farruge of Qrendi, Simuni Grima of Luqa and Pas Haius of Mqabba who, he thinks, are past sixty years of age and. in spite of their advanced age, np to

231. I b i d . , fol. 396. 232. Testimony, 3 November 1536: ibid., vol. 15, fol. 88. 233. Testimony, 23 July 1527: .bid., fol. 103. 234. I b i d . , vol. 23B, fol. 399.

46 GODFREY WETTINGER

now do all the work that may be necessary on the farm, working personally, plough, ing, sowing and doing anything else that may be required of them with their own hands.

Other witnesses, produced by adversaries in the dispute before the court, did not agree (235):

No person aged sixty is any longer capable of farm work, and cannot work by the day but can only perform some slight task, as farm work ia almost beyond the strength of young persons owing to its continued motion with one leg and one hand both on the plough, and he declared that one who was aged sixty or above can [only] work for an hour or two a day, (a fact] which he knew as one ex­perienced in farm work in Malta since the time be was sixty years old being now above that age.

This was spoken in court by Bertus Dingii of Siggiewi. Augustinu Camiileri of Rabat and Zaccarias Caruana of Xluq merely confirmed all he said in more extreme terms (236). Their testimony formed part of court proceedings con­cerning the amount of damages awardable to a farmer who had been beaten up and allegedly incapacitated for further work on the farm. A similar case involved Simon Gauchi in 1549 who said (237):

At the time of the said assult in which he was wounded he was the gardener in the orchard called Deir Ysaf [later known as Buskett] belonging to the archprieit of the cathedral of Malta, at which time his daily wage amounted to two tareni; in view of the fact that the major value of the tenancy and profit of the said orchard lay in oranges which, through the incapacity caused him by his injury, he was unable to hawk or collect the said oranges, and which oranges [therefore] matured and fell off and he did not have anyone who could see to their sale, and for this reason he said he lost much of the fruit.

What particularly troubled the farmer then, in Malta as elsewhere, was the price which he obtained for his products and that which he paid for seed, oxen, and the other things he needed for himself. People then believed in a 'just price*, defined as the current price for particular articles, almost all f.xed once a year in September by the town authorities. However, all sorts of excuses were found, and tricks adopted, for charging more than the estab­lished price. This frequently happened whenever a delay in payment happened, but was not felt to be thereby justified. In Gozo in 1449 Lanceas de Pontre-

235. I b i d . , fol. 363v. 236. I b i d . , fols. 363v-364. 237. Testimony, 11 December 1549: ibid., vol. 29, fol. 83.

L A T E MEDIEVAL MALTESE AGRICULTURE 4 7

mulo, years after his capture by the Saracens, was still spoken of by one witness of (238)

being a habitual usurer... In the year he was captured by the Saracens when ginned cotton was priced at nine or ten florins a cantaro cash, the said Lanza sold me one cantaro ol ginned cotton on credit for sixteen florins, which money I paid to his brother Johanni after his capture by the Moors.

But a worse case occurred whenever the farmer was forced by circumstances to sell his crop before it ripened in the field for delivery after harvest (239);

The said Lanceas de Pontremulo was in the habit of exacting usury... for two years before he fell into captivity of the Saracens, that is some sixteen years ago [ie. ca. 1433] he bought one cantaro of ginned cotton ante temfius, that is before it had ripened, for eight florins... he sold to the witness two or three cantara of ginned cotton on credit for sixteen florins

The laws of the Church in Malta as elsewhere condemned such practices most severely. Money obtained in that way had to be returned to its rightful owner, and 'burial was refused [in consecrated ground] to them and they cannot be buried unless they restored what they wrongfully obtained' (240). And for Frankinus Chantar, a peasant from the village of Xluq, 'usury is none other than when a person sells something at a higher price than what is currently required' (241).

In this regard extraordinarily instructive is the detailed accusation made by Don Amatore Zammit, the parish priest of Siggiewi, in 1523 against one of his parishioners, Petrus Pachi, a well-off farmer, the tenant-in-chief of the fief of Tabrija (242). Zammit said that for the previous twelve years people had been complaining that Pachi was a usurer, begging him to admonish him and ask for restitution. Pachi sold cumin at 24 tareni when it was worth 13, giving it in part payment for a field at that price. He also always sold wheat, barley, m a h t u t , and ginned cotton at a fourth dearer than what they obtained in

238. Testimony given by Petrus de Friderico on 9 December 1449: Cath Mua., Md.. CEM. AO, vol. 2, fol. 14.

239. Evidence of Antonius de Vagnolo, 9 December 1449: ibid., fols. I3v-14. 240. Pleadings in favour of notary Jacobus de Falczono. 4 February 1499: ibid, fol

HOv. 241. Evidence given on 23 July 1500: ibid., fol. 285v. 242. Papers of the case Jorlandus Dingii contra Petrum Pachi are in Cath. Mus., Md.,

CEM, AO, vol. 7A, fols. 109-119v and 136-173v. Amatore Zammit's accusation. March 1523: ibid., 149-150. Amatore Zammit formally denied that he was 'an enemy of the said Petrus or of anyone of his parish but he was against the bad life of the said Petrus because he was incorrigible': ibid., fol. 150v.

4 S GODFREY WETTINGER

the public square. In spite of frequent promises at the time of confession he never made any restitution. The parish priest therefore refused to accept first fruits or anything else from him and he also refused to confess him or offer him Communion as a man of bad conscience. Though he had accepted money from him on Sundays in order not to humiliate him before the whole con­gregation, he had always told him that he did not want anything from him so long as he practised usury, especial'y towards his workers. The latter he paid at the rate of one uncia for six months' work while others paid them two uncie, and he paid them in kind at a rate which in the end left them with only four florins (instead of six). Several poor men were engaged to hoe the cotton field for half a day's work: he kept them for an hour or more above the normal time, and hardly paid them what was due to them for their work. He refused to sell to poor men or women as others do at a price somewhat cheaper than normal wheat or other grain before its removal from the estate which he had leased from a Sicilian baron, but he stored it up until Christmas when it became scarce and he was then able to sell it at a substantially higher price. The fief itself produced some 300 salme the previous year. It was not enclosed and he charged four times the price for any damage done by straying animals.

It is true that the whole of this is an ex parte accusation by one who had been quarrelling with the accused at least since 1502 (243). Pachi denied the bill of charges when it was finally presented to him, even that he heret-ically said and believed that the excommunication uttered by the bishop or vicar of Malta had no validity since only that of the Pope really counted. He also denied that he had ever said that 'Whether he went to Paradise or to Hell, he would find people there!' (244) In spite of that, the charges, denials and counter-charges were obviously very much a real part of the everyday life of the farmers of Malta at the time (245).

243. On 14 December 1502 /unator Zamit accused Petrus Pachi of slandering him white be was saying mass in the church of St. Nicholas at Siggiewi, calling him. among other things, an excommunicate: Cath. Mus., Md., CEM, Registrant Actorum. vol. 1, fol. 51v.

244. Pleadings of Petrus Pachi in his defence, 24 April 1523: Cath. Mut., Md., CEM, AO, vol. 7A, fols. 166-I68V.

245. Enough documentation survives for brief accounts of such products as honey, canes, pigs and dried thorns for use as fuel. More also could also have been said about man­uring. But on vegetables, peas, beans as well as farm tools practically no records exist.