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ARTICLE

The Spiral of Knowledge Development:Professional Knowledge Developmentin PlanningBRIDGET DURNING, JULIET CARPENTER,JOHN GLASSON & GEORGIA BUTINA WATSON

Abstract

This paper explores knowledge development in professional planners in England, in both the

public and private sectors. Through an exploration of how they engage and interact with a rapidly

expanding knowledge base, the paper identifies how knowledge and expertise are developed that

thereby inform their professional practice. It identifies the role, position in the career and level of

expertise of the planner as influential to the drivers for knowledge development and the tools and

techniques employed. It proposes that the level of expertise in professional planners should be seen

as a spiral rather than a linear transition, and that the planning professional will move in and out

of this spiral during their career in response to the changing demands of their professional

practice. This paper adds to the body of academic work on the subject of practical knowledge

development in planners, which is so far limited in the peer-reviewed literature.

Introduction

This paper is set within the context of professionals working within a system thathas been in a constant state of flux over the past 40 years. Dissatisfaction withplanners and a planning system that was seen as having become too powerful inthe 1960s and 1970s led to a rescripting of planning (Haughton et al., 2010). The1980s and 1990s have been described as troubled times for planning (Durning &

Glasson, 2004), with fundamental changes such as abolishment of a section oflocal government in England and the consequential disappearance of part of theplanning system it was responsible for (Cullingworth & Nadin, 2006). During theperiod of the New Labour Government in the UK (1997 2010), furthersignificant changes were imposed on the planning system, including: devolutionand decentralization; new acts in the devolved regions (in England, the Planningand Compulsory Purchase Act, 2004 and the Planning Act, 2008); new systems ofworking such as introduction of regional spatial strategies, local developmentframeworks, local action plans, Infrastructure Planning Commission; plans andinitiativesfor example, the Sustainable Communities Plan (Office of the Deputy

Bridget Durning, School of the Built Environment, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP,

UK. Email: [email protected]

Planning Practice & Research, Vol. 25, No. 4,pp. 497516, August 2010


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Prime Minister [ODPM], 2003), which required interpretation as to what theymeant and how they could be integrated into the new planning system; plus severalreviews (for example, Barker, 2006; Killian Pretty Review, 2008), whichconsidered why the new system was not working and providedrecommendations for further changes. The prefix zeigeist of planning in theUK (Allmendinger & Houghton, 2009a, p. 2544) is currently spatial planning,although the definition of this form of planning is contested and constantlychanging (Haughton et al., 2010). There is no sign that there is any immediateperiod of stability on the horizon as the new (2010) UK Conservative/LiberalDemocrat coalition government has stated that it intends to continue with thispattern of changing the English planning system by rapidly abolishing regionalplans and in the longer term . . . radically reforming the planning system (HMGovernment, 2010, p. 11).

This constant flux and lack of clarity means that professional planners working

in the English planning system are being constantly challenged as to what theyknow and how well they know how to deliver their professional practice. In thispaper we explore how planners in both the public and private sectors developknowledge and expertise, which thereby informs their professional practice. Wedo this by exploring how they engage and interact with a rapidly expandingknowledge base, what structures the choice of sources used, what tools andtechniques they use and how their professionals skills are supported by knowledgedevelopment. The paper is based on research undertaken by the authors andfunded by the Royal Town Planning Institute.

In the following section of the paper we set the context by briefly considering

the arenas in which professional planners in England currently practice and thenpresent the methodology for the research. We then explore the findings from theresearch (including a review of literature on professional knowledge developmentand key findings from the empirical research) and present our theory on the Spiralof Knowledge Development.

Exploring Knowledge Development in Professional Planners in England

Arenas of Practice

The arenas for planning practice are dependent upon the system within which theyoperate. Traditionally, planners in England have worked mainly in the publicsector (particularly local government, i.e. city, district, metropolitan or unitaryboroughs, county councils) in roles that essentially involve regulating land usethrough plan-making, development control, public consultation and moderatingadversarial processes (Kitchen, 2007; Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009b). Withchanges to the system these arenas have expanded and the public sector nowincludes organizations such as regional development agencies (although many ofthese may be abolished under the 2010 elected coalition government), NationalPark Authorities, which provide a planning function within the park boundaries,and regulators such as the Environment Agency (Royal Town Planning Institute,

2009). The rise of spatial planning and its promulgation that it will go beyondtraditional land use planning to bring together and integrate policies for the

Bridget Durning et al.


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development processes, due to the relatively short timescale for the research (sixmonths), published work relating to continued professional development was notconsidered.

Based on the literature review, five key aspects were identified as of relevanceto the study and development of the theoretical framework:

. Knowledge development and information acquisition in individuals.

. How knowledge and skills development are related.

. The influence of other factors on knowledge development in individuals.

. Methods of promoting learning and knowledge development.

. Constraints/barriers to learning.

The literature in relation to each of these aspects is considered in the followingsections.

Knowledge Development and Information Acquisition in Individuals

In developing the framework, the focus was primarily on professional practicerather than, for example, knowledge development during formal education. Inrelation to this, the work of Eraut (1994) was key. Eraut considered that threeperiods of professional practice could be identified: initial, middle and long term.

The Initial Period extends from the time when the professional obtains theirinitial qualification to up to 3 years into their practice. Eraut refers to thepractitioner during this period as a novice professional, and identifies it as

probably the most influential in developing the particular personalized pattern ofpractice that every professional acquires (1994, p. 11). This is similar toobservations made by Lave and Wenger (2002) in their discussion of learningwithin apprentices (which may be considered to be the newly qualifiedprofessional planners, who needs to develop further the skills learnt in the initialacademic training) and understanding the role communities of (professional)practice can make in framing the learning environment. They argue thatapprentices are peripheral participants to practice that is occurring around them(the community), and that the practice of the communities creates the potentialcurriculum . . . which may be learned by newcomers with legitimate peripheralaccess (Lave & Wenger, 2002, p. 112). This therefore allows participation inpractice to be a way of learning as newcomers are both absorbing and beingabsorbed in the culture of practice (Lave & Wenger, 2002, p. 113).

Erauts Middle Period is identified as a key time for undertaking a variety ofprojects that involve learning continually on the job, although he observes thatthe learning which occurs from each project may not contribute greatly to theprofessionals knowledge unless the project is different from that normallyundertaken. Nor, he suggests, may it contribute to their understanding on thetheory of their practice unless they reflect on the activities and outcomes. Hetherefore proposes that during this period the knowledge base may be static ordeveloping quite rapidly (Eraut, 1994, p. 10), depending on the nature of the

individual (i.e. ability to reflect on practice) and the work they are doing (routineor variable).



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Eraut associates the Late Period with a time when the professional may not beexpanding their expertise or knowledge, and even proposes that this is a periodwhen knowledge can decay. During this period he suggests that the professionalneeds to undertake regular reflection, self-evaluation and [have a] disposition tolearn from colleagues (1994, p. 155) through, for example, consulting withcolleagues on outcome of routine activities. Tremlett and Parik (1995) echo thisand observe that most individuals have a generally passive attitude to learningand only consider undertaking further learning when approached or encouraged bytheir employers. The need for reflective practice, particularly in relation toplanners, is also echoed by Schon (1983) and Kitchen (2007).

Engaging in professional practice also results in different types of knowledge.Eraut identifies two types of knowledge held by most people: propositionalknowledge, which enables practice (e.g. a manual on how to drive a car); andpractical know-how, which underpins practice and cannot be separated from it

(e.g. the ability to drive a car). This also relates to the notion of tacit knowledge(Polyani, 1967). Eraut also proposed a third type of knowledge particularly relatedto professionals, which he termed process knowledge; that is, knowing how toconduct the various processes that contribute to professional action (1994, p. 107).

Eraut further considered the factors on which learning in professional practicerelies and again identified three as key: publications, people (such as workcolleagues), and practical experience. He particularly highlights the significance ofpersonal contacts that, he proposes, those in practice will rely on more thantraining courses or publications for knowledge. Others, such as Percy-Smith et al.(2002), also identify the reliance on factors close to the individual for professional

learning (in this case, reliance on close sources of information such as in-houseresearch). Another factor of relevance here is how professionals acquire and dealwith information. Erauts work is based on observations of professional practicesuch as medicine and teaching, although he also draws slightly on observations ofengineers and architects. Based on these observations he suggests that manyprofessionals are not thoroughly trained in methods of inquiry. He proposes that inorder for professionals to be able to acquire information in an efficient andeffective manner, they need to have: an existing knowledge base in the areaconcerned; some kind of conceptual framework to guide their inquiry; skills incollecting information; and skills in interpreting information.

Durning and Ferguson (2009) also identify the limited consideration given inthe literature to the explicit need for professional planners to be able to process andsynthesize information. This is also noted by others such as Krizek et al. (2009)and Percy-Smith et al. (2002), who observed that professional planners often donot have the skills to be able to effectively interpret and use information such asthe findings from primary research. Eraut (2004) proposes that there are (again)three modes that professionals adopt to interpret information: instant; rapid anddeliberative. The latterwhich he proposes includes planning, problem-solving,analysing, evaluating and decision-makinglie at the heart of professional work(Eraut, 1994, p. 112). According to Eraut, the ability to acquire and evaluateinformation is probably more important than the retention in memory of an

increasingly obsolescent block of propositional knowledge (1994, p. 113).Kitchen also makes a similar suggestion when he proposes that the most

Professional Knowledge Development in Planning


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behaviour that can be difficult to change. To change or reconstruct routinebehaviour involves a great deal of unlearning, which he observes can lead theindividual to experience . . . disorientation and alienation . . . and unless . . . givenconsiderable psychological and practical support over a long period, they willrevert to their old familiar practice (Eraut, 1992, cited in Eraut, 1994, p. 112).Rydin (2007) also notes the negative impact of routinized behaviour on plannersability to develop knowledge.

The Influence of Other Factors on Knowledge Development in Individuals

One factor that may be influential in knowledge development is the personalcharacteristics of the individuals themselves (Tremlett & Parik, 1995; Watson,2002; Boisot & MacMillan, 2004). Watson (2002) suggests that, due to theinfluence of the interpretative predilections and normative values of the individual,

all technical knowledge contains some bias.As referred to previously, the conditions of the working environment (for

example, Morton & Lacey, 2006) and the nature of the work undertaken can alsobe influential on knowledge development. In the public sector, the focus ofplanning practice is, for example, on policy development, implementation andservice improvements; whilst in the private sector (e.g. planning consultancy), thefocus can include factors such client need and commercial viability of theirorganization. These differing environments can provide differing challenges toknowledge development. The bureaucratic characteristics and strong departmentalculture of local government can be restrictive to changes in practice, focusing on

how the same things can be done better rather than differently (Common, 2004).Allmendinger (2009), however, suggests that it is the professional status of theplanner and the relationship with their employer (the state) that limits the extentto which they can reflect and change their practice. Morton and Lacey (2006), in astudy on knowledge management in local government, identified a number ofinfluential factors on whether an organization seeks to manage and learn fromknowledge generated within it. They conclude that a corporate approach isrequired to ensure that there is an open culture and willingness to learn fromprevious experience, rather than a closed culture that is reluctant to shareinformation and learn from successes or mistakes. This also reflects the previousconclusions of authors such as Eraut (1994) and Tremlett and Parik (1995).

As highlighted previously, planning professionals in both the public and privatesectors often have to work with or engage with many other professional groups(Egan, 2004; Allmendinger & Haughton, 2009b). However, Temple (2004)identified a number of challenges to working inter-professionally, includingprofessional territoriality; organizational structures; stereotypical views of otherprofessions; issues associated with power and control; legislative frameworks; lackof resources; and lack of communication. Becher and Trowler (2001), in exploringprofessional knowledge development in academic staff, identify three factors asrelevant when considering the characterization of practice in disciplines in relationto knowledge development: organization (e.g. in what ways are individuals and

departments working lives organized?), cognitive (what are the epistemologicalfeatures of the area of work?), and social (what are the features of the community



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of practice?). Emphasizing the importance of the cognitive aspects, a study intoresearch and its relationship with knowledge creation in built environmentdisciplines (Durning & Temple, 2004) also highlighted the differences that canoccur between the other built environment disciplines in terms of the contrastingmodes of knowledge creation through application of research: planningessentially a social science with knowledge created through the application ofconceptual research; architecture and urban designdesign subjects withknowledge developed through the application of abstract inquiry; and technicalsubjectssuch as construction and real-estate management with knowledgedevelopment through research undertaken as problem-solving inquiry.

Methods for Promoting Learning and Knowledge Development

Due to a number of constraints on the research (including timescale and funders

requirements), a review of generic literature on continued professional develop-ment, life-long learning and the tools and techniques used to promote learning anddevelopment in the workplace was not undertaken. However, a number of studieswere identified through the targeted literature search that had researched orevaluated methods for promoting learning and knowledge development in areasapplicable to planning professionals. These studies, which were often evaluationsof initiatives aimed at improving practice in local government, found that anumber of methods were successful in promoting knowledge development.

Singh et al. (2002), in a survey of UK local government, and Rashman et al.(2006), in an evaluation of a government scheme to improve local government

practice, both identify the benefits of informal and peer-to-peer mentoring. Twoother studies (ODPM, 2005b; Turner et al., 2006) draw out the benefits ofnetworks, which echoes the conclusions of Eraut (1994) and Lave and Wenger(1991) on the reliance placed on others for knowledge development. Turner et al.(2006) also identify the benefit of mentoring and support from peers as keybenefits of networks.

Rashman et al. (2006) and ODPM (2005b) also considered the value of formallearning activities on knowledge development in local government. Theinvestigations explored what participants expected to learn from attendingevents associated with these initiatives and also what they anticipated they wouldlearn (i.e. their aspiration of what, in addition to the explicit learning outcomes,they would gain from attending events). The studies report that the expectedlearning was generally successfully achieved but that the anticipated learninggenerally did not occur, and therefore the formal learning activity could be seen asproviding no added value. However, the evaluations noted that attending theseevents was seen as valuable for other reasons and again the value of networkingwith peers was key. In terms of sources of learning that could be used to supportany actions following on from the formal events, respondents replied that sourcesinternal to their own organization would be used more than external sourcesechoing a point made by others, including Eraut (1994) and Percy-Smith et al.(2002) on reliance by the individual of close sources for knowledge development.

However, the studies also reported this appeared to vary with roles, with thosewith more operational roles more likely to turn to external resources than those



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with strategic rolesthis time echoing the point made by Alexander (2005) andBecher and Trowler (2001) on the importance to knowledge development of therole undertaken.

Constraints/Barriers to Learning

Although for many the benefits for undertaking learning are perceived to be jobsatisfaction, a pay rise, promotion or a new job, most individuals have a generallypassive attitude to learning and only consider undertaking further learning whenapproached or encouraged by their employers (Tremlett & Parik, 1995). Factorssuch as cost, provision of childcare facilities and obtaining time off work areperceived as barriers (ODPM, 2005b; Rashman et al., 2006). The ODPM studyalso draws out the importance of an organization not just being supportive ofknowledge development and learning of individuals, but of ensuring that learning

requirements flow from organizational priorities.Time is considered by many authors as a significant inhibiting factor: not just

whether training is undertaken, but also on practice (Eraut, 1994; Rydin, 2007).Likewise the opportunity to deliberate and reflect on the appropriateness of aparticular action may also be a casualty, with waiting clients, loaded in-trays andcalls for efficiency gains, plans get cobbled together in a hurry, decisions aremade on the hoof (Eraut, 1994, p. 149).

Theoretical Framework on Professional Knowledge Development

Based on findings from the literature review and the scoping focus groups, it wasclearly apparent that the role of the individual is important in how knowledgeis developed and in shaping the drivers for knowledge development. This role maybe framed by the discipline, the organization, or the level of experience ofthe individual. A theoretical framework was therefore derived focusing onthe different aspects of the role. This framework is presented in Figure 1 anddescribed in the following section.

The framework takes as its starting point the move from completing initialtraining and the receipt of academic qualifications (Formal Qualifications/InitialTraining) to integration into practice (Professional Practice), although for some theinitial training may be part-time and therefore there may not be a distinct move:training and practice may be concurrent.

Once in Professional Practice, the professionals establish their expertise andskills in the first few years through knowledge development activities, supportedby their peers and peripheral learning through apprenticeship. They may receivesupport through formal networks and through mentoring. The drivers for theknowledge they need to gain will be influenced by the roles they undertake, theorganizations they work in and any external driving forces (Drivers for KnowledgeDevelopment).

Subsequently, assuming they are provided with the appropriate environmentand opportunities for knowledge development (Opportunities for Knowledge

Development) coupled with the skills and personal attributes to access knowledge,reflect and deliberate, their knowledge will develop and their expertise,



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competence and skills level rise (Increase In Expertise and Skills). If, however,they are faced with barriers (Barriers to Knowledge Development), then furtherknowledge development is curtailed; and unless encouraged to reflect on theircontinuing practice, it may begin to stagnate and not develop further. In addition,should they be faced with a rapidly changing environment, such as the impositionby external drivers of changes to the profession, they may simply fail to adapt andcontinue in their old practice (Limitations on Development of Expertise andSkills).

Empirical Data Collection

Due to the constraints of time and resources, we were limited in the number ofresearch subjects that could be investigated. For the focus groups, we selected atotal of four organizations: two commercial practices offering urban spatialplanning consultancy services to developers and two local governmentdepartments responsible for urban/spatial planning policy within their districts;all were located in the South-East of England. The two consultancies weredeliberately different in terms of size, whilst the two local government

departments were chosen as contrasting rural and urban authorities. Focus groupswere set up to include professionals with a range of different experiences and the

FIGURE 1. Theoretical framework. Source: Authors own data.



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follow up in-depth interviews were carried out with two practitioners in each case,both experienced and inexperienced.

In addition, as these four detailed case studies could only provide snap-shots ofpotential wider issues, we also enlisted 10 volunteers to complete reflective diariesover a 1-month period. The aim of the diaries was to access detailed records of theinformation sources that planning professionals use on a day-to-day basis, as wellas their reflections on how they harness these resources in their work. Thevolunteers were based throughout the UK, recruited through an article in Planningmagazine. Responses to the article were reviewed by two researchers, andvolunteers were selected to be invited to take part, based on aiming to have aneven representation of geographical, experiential, and role factors as possible. Inaddition to limitations on the number of research subjects that could be included inthe research, there were also limitations with the methodology, particularlythrough asking research subjects to reflect on their own behaviour and practice,

which potentially could introduce bias into the results. Nevertheless, throughcareful questioning in the focus groups and interviews, this bias was minimized. Inaddition, the variety that the four focus groups, eight in-depth interviews and 10diaries provided, with a mix of public, private and voluntary sector organizations,and participants different levels of professional experience, offered a rich sourceof information with which to test the theoretical framework.

The questions we sought to explore with the research subjects were as follows:

. What sources of information are used in daily practice and how are theyaccessed?

. What informs the choice of source and method of access?

. To what extent is primary date accessed and how useful is it?

. What are the most effective ways of developing overall knowledge base andexpertise?

. How does knowledge gained inform practice?

. To what extent does information obtained and knowledge developed draw onand input into non planning practice?

. What are the barriers/constraints faced to developing professional knowledge?

These were supplemented by further questions relating to the following:

. What roles are undertaken on a daily basis?

. How do individuals frame problems and then access, evaluate and useinformation and apply knowledge gained to inform practice?

. How have these factors changed over time at different stages in their career?

. Which of the sources of knowledge (printed and web-based) and knowledgedevelopment activities/processes are important/used most frequently?

For the reflective diaries a pro-forma was provided with a series of questions.These asked the diary-keeper to reflect each day on occasions during the day:when they had been uncertain on how to proceed over a planning issue; when they

had been very successful in a particular situation; when they had beenunsuccessful. A series of sub-questions were provided to guide them in reflecting



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on, for example, the actions taken, knowledge drawn on, sources of informationused, and so on.

Transcripts of the focus groups and the completed diaries were subjected tocontent analysis in order to identify concordant and discordant responses, to assessthe significance of the responses and to draw out key findings.

Findings from Empirical Data on Professional Knowledge Development inPlanners

The empirical data were considered in relation to each of the research questions.Overall, two key issues were considered to come to the fore: how planners sourcedinformation to aid knowledge development, and how that knowledge developmentsubsequently occurred. These are discussed in detail in the next two sections,followed by an overall discussion of the findings.

Sourcing Information

The focus groups and interviews all suggested that the selection of information forknowledge development is generally based around what can be easily accessed. Inlocal planning authorities, this is linked to the requirements of tight governmentissued delivery agendas, whilst in the private sector the motivation is likely to bethe pressure for high turnaround of projects.

Work colleagues are commonly used as a first port of call to identify sources ofrelevant information, or to identify those with existing knowledge or relevant

experience who could provide relevant information. Networks of contacts areheavily relied upon to access knowledge, both within their organizations andoutside; for example, in other neighbouring local authorities or through theirprofessional body continuing professional development (CPD) events. Thesenetworks of contacts are built up over time and may be within their discipline,outside their discipline, or specialists or other contacts that form part of thecommunity of practice within which they operate. Novice professionals or thosetasked with undertaking activities that were novel to them, rely more on colleaguesand formal networks, as these provide opportunities for advancing theirknowledge and developing skills. More experienced professionals use informalnetworks of contacts, as their need is more for instant just-in-time knowledge.Alternatively they have established, or routine, sources of information to whichthey refer. As one local authority respondent commented:

In the town planning policy world, the changes in the legislation havebeen so significant that we actually need to have regular discussionswith colleagues . . . by colleagues I mean opposite numbers in otherlocal authorities, and in associations of planners, and with governmentoffice and the GLA [Greater London Authority] in order to establish aconsensus about what the implications are of different aspects of thislegislation and how that pertains to particular policy areas like the

development of housing, or the development of some other aspect of theenvironment, because everybodys learning at the same time and its



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actually as I say creating a consensus about what the best solutions areas we go along. And Im sure that will be an intuitive process over time.(Interview LPA2.001)

The Internet now forms one of the major sources of information used byplanners. However, although it has made information searching quicker, theInternet has made sense-making practices harder, due to the overload ofinformation obtained, the poor navigability of many websites and the lack ofquality assurance in terms of the information provided. The overload of informationin terms of advice, best practice and guidance was seen as a limitation to practice.Individuals tended to make their own assessment of the reliability of informationobtained, although this varied with experience, with novice professionals relying oncolleagues to aid with interpretation and assessment of information. As onerespondent commented:

over recent years that mental map [of key information] has become soconfused . . . you do rely on osmosis and colleagues and picking the phoneup to somebody . . . it used to be youd know exactly where to look, thereyou go, theres the answer but now there are so many different sorts ofinformation and research and guidance. (Interview PP2.001)

Developing Knowledge

The research participants generally considered that initial formal education does

not provide the practical experience necessary to move straight into practice. Thenovice professional has to rely on colleagues and mentors both within theirorganization and in (initially) formal networks of contacts in the wider communityof practice to assist them in their practice. The extent to which this need formentoring, support and other skill development was recognized by organizationsvaries, some being more pro-active than others. The extent to which formallearning (e.g. conferences, seminars) contributes to practice through knowledgedevelopment was also considered variable. Events considered to be most usefulwere those with a highly practical base that could immediately inform practice. In-house seminars or focused information and knowledge-sharing events wereconsidered useful, but commitment from the individual and the organization wasneeded to get over the barrier of lack of time for training. Personal motivation washighlighted as an important driver in knowledge development:

I would say the most useful knowledge and practice Ive gained is whatIve learnt in my personal time, rather than in work time. (InterviewLPA2.002)

Several research participants who held more senior roles highlighted the importanceof having generic skills, such as brokering, communication, diplomacy, negotiationand team leadership. The knowledge and expertise in these skills were acquired on

the job, by learning from past mistakes, but post-initial training was also useful insome cases.



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While the research to some extent confirmed a split into novice and expert inrelation to knowledge development, analysis of the reflective diaries suggested thatthis division could be complex. There were a number of examples from the diariesof experts needing to learn new skills and, in a fast-moving policy environment,development knowledge and expertise in new areas of practice. Rather than seeingknowledge development as a continuum, from initial training to retirement, it wasapparent that practitioners are required to retrain and re-skill as their careers evolveand as new areas of practice emerge. One diary provided a particularly goodexample of a reflective practitioner, who reviewed activities regularly and theskills needed to deliver them, and sought to enhance skills through appropriatemeasures (short courses, conferences, etc.). The specialist, working in a multi-taskenvironment, undertook training and attended CPD events to maintain up-to-dateknowledge. Use was made of a wide range of sources for information, withparticular importance given to websites and discussions with colleagues. The role

involved bidding for work and undertaking both short-term and long-termprojects, often requiring learning on the job and possibly the development of newskills.

Discussion of Findings in Relation to Theoretical Network

The findings from the empirical data collection confirmed many of the aspects ofthe theoretical framework. The framework suggested that the move from initialeducation into practice was a distinct step and that the first few years ofprofessional practice were significant in terms of knowledge development (Eraut,

1994; Lave & Wenger, 2002). This is confirmed by the empirical data: in bothlocal government and private practice, the move into practice requires a significantincrease in knowledge development on the part of the individual. Novicepractitioners spend time looking for information and find sense-making more timeconsuming. They rely on experienced colleagues for assistance through mentoringand learning on the periphery of the practice of others. This contrasts with themore experienced practitioner who relies on a network of contacts, both internal totheir organization and external, for support in knowledge development.

The theoretical framework suggested that knowledge development is dependentupon a range of projects being undertaken, and this is also borne out in theempirical data. The findings also confirm the importance of Alexanders (2005)contingent concept, with variations in approach to knowledge/understandingbeing contingent on who is learning and what role they occupy. Some rolesprovide more opportunity for skills development (e.g. policy development in localgovernment) compared with others that are seen as more procedurally bound (e.g.development control). The importance of learning through experience also comesout strongly in the early and mid stages of career development.

The theoretical framework also confirmed that planning professionals adhere toErauts conclusions that professionals rely on people, publications and practice forknowledge development. The type of publication has changed in recent timeswith the Internet and web-based publications becoming more significant over the

past decade at all stages of career. The choice of sources of information isinfluenced by a number of factors, including the level of experience of the



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individual, the role they undertake, the community of practice in which theyreside, as well as organizational and individually imposed barriers. The sourceschosen are those most relevant to the issue at hand (e.g. asking a colleague orcontact who has dealt with a similar matter, looking on a website to find an answerto a problem, or referring to standard and routine texts).

Later stages of practice are suggested by the literature review and theoreticalframework to require the need for reflection; otherwise, practice stagnates. Thefindings from the empirical data were inconclusive regarding this issue, with somemore senior respondents less likely to consider the importance of reflection,although there were cases from the reflective diaries of the experienced reflectivepractitioner who considered that training and CPD were important for careerdevelopment, even at later stages. This would concur with the contested ability ofplanners, particularly those in the public sector, to be able to reflect (Common,2004; Allmendinger, 2009). The most useful knowledge development events for

these experienced planners were those with a highly practical base that couldimmediately inform practice. In-house seminars or focused information andknowledge-sharing events were considered useful, but commitment from theindividual and the organization was needed to get over the barrier of lack of time fortrainingagain confirming the conclusions of Eraut (1994) and Tremlett and Parik(1995). At all career stages, the research showed that the use of formal learningpractices is not very high, essentially due to time restrictions.

Skill development is considered to occur essentially through practice. Thesupport of the organizational context, both in terms of resources and attitudes todevelopment, is very important. There is evidence that some organizations are pro-

active in identifying and supporting skill development (e.g. mentoring and in-house seminars) whereas others leave it up to the individual.

The empirical data also confirm the importance of personal motivation in thechoice of sources of information. The data showed that individuals have a base-load of knowledge that, depending on practice and role undertaken, needs to besupported with peaks of just in time knowledge. When constrained by time, thechoice of sources of knowledge will be those that can provide the just in timeknowledge. This again confirms a conclusion from Eraut (1994) that busy peoplerely on personal contacts for information and, as Eraut (1994) and Percy-Smithet al. (2002) note, the importance of the ability to identify and interpret researchand the preference for close-at-hand sources of information.

The links between knowledge development and sectoral integration within thebuilt environment, and possibly other professions, was shown to be dependent onthe practice undertaken. There does not seem to be a general or inherent culture ofcross-disciplinary learning and exchange, but rather it is based around specificprojects or issues that force professionals from different backgrounds anddisciplines to come together and exchange ideas. Indeed, most researchparticipants felt that a lack of understanding of the vocabulary of other disciplineswas a hindrance to practice. One organization that took part in the research wasparticularly pro-active in engaging with other disciplines, but these tended to beother built environment organizations that were progressive and willing to

engage with other disciplines. A culture shift was considered to be needed in alldisciplines to escape the silo mentality.



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There are therefore strong parallels between the theoretical frameworkdeveloped from the literature (Figure 1) and the findings from the empirical data.The research has highlighted the links between knowledge development andexperience. It has also shown the importance of the role and tasks undertaken.Therefore, the development of expertise should not be seen as a linear route, butrather as a spiral (with novice at the centre, spiralling out as experience develops)that a professional will move in and out of at various points in the career. Theempirical research confirmed that whilst the role and stage of career influences theprocesses used for knowledge development, there may be times when new skillsand knowledge are needed, even by those in the middle and later stages of theircareer. The expert may then become a novice in a particular context and hencethe practitioner may move into and out of the spiral a number of times during theircareer. The research has also shown how different methods of knowledgedevelopment to inform practice are appropriate at different levels of experience.

These, we propose can be mapped onto the spiral (see Figure 2).

FIGURE 2. Spiral of knowledge development. Source: Authors own data.



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This model, which we have termed the spiral of knowledge development, aimsto show what knowledge development processes or interventions are appropriateat various times and at different stages of professional development. We proposethat a professional planners experience can be considered to increase fromnovice to expert with intervening stages of expert novice and novice expert.Within this progression, the spiral shows how situated and peripheral learning isimportant in the early stages of career development, whilst the use of networks ismore significant at later stages. Experiential learning is important at all stages.Two examples of how the spiral could be interpreted are provided by the examplegiven in Box 1.

Box 1 (source: Authors own data)

The Experienced Transport Planner

This person may be classed as an Expert as, in their day-to-day activities, he/she

relies on tacit knowledge supplemented by discussions with colleagues in informal

networks and knowledge gained through working on different tasks to complete

projects successfully. He/she would map onto the diagram at the outer point of the

spiral. Formal learning opportunities, such as conferences and formal networks

would not be taken up by this individual. He/she may use the Internet for

information, but would mainly rely on his/her own established sources.

However, in the drive to deliver (e.g. the Sustainable Communities Plan), he/she

may be faced with a requirement to deliver a community that aims to be vibrant,harmonious and inclusive. Personal knowledge on what constitutes such a

community and how transport planning can be influential in its delivery may be

limited and there would be a need to develop new knowledge in order to inform

personal practice. He/she would not have any tacit knowledge or a network of

relevant contacts that could help. In this situation, the individual would be classed as

a novice and would map onto the diagram at the Novice point on the spiral. The

knowledge development processes used at this stage would involve learning through

experience (undertaking the role) or from working with experts in this field where

he/she can act as an apprentice or benefit from formal mentoring. There would be

reliance on explicit knowledge (i.e. information that gives clear instruction) and the

individual would probably immediately use the Internet to seek information, but

would also benefit from formal learning (seminars and conferences).

As their knowledge develops, he/she moves along the spiral, progressing up

through being an expert novice, where the individual is developing know-how. He/

she is less reliant on information that gives clear instruction and is increasingly able

make his/her own interpretations. Formal learning environments are becoming less

important, as is the need for mentoring or acting as an apprentice.

If the individual continues to work in this role, their knowledge will increase and

he/she will move into being a novice expert with more reliance on informal

networks of contacts for information and tacit knowledge to undertake work. He/she

could mentor more novice colleagues. However, if the role changes and theindividual is required to undertake new tasks, he/she may move back down the spiral



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Conclusion

Those working as planning professionals in England have been working in asystem under constant flux for the past 40 years and there is no sign of anystability in the system for a significant period of time still to come. This lack ofstability means that professional planners are being constantly challenged as towhat they know and how well they know how to deliver their professionalpractice. In this paper we have explored how planners in both the public andprivate sectors develop knowledge and expertise that thereby informs theirprofessional practice. Through an exploration of how they engage and interactwith a rapidly expanding knowledge base, what structures the choice of sourcesused, what tools and techniques they use and how their professional skills aresupported by knowledge development, we have shown that a number ofknowledge development processes are used to inform practice. Which process isused is dependent on the level of expertise of the individual and the role ofprofessional practice they in which they are acting. As roles change, the level of

expertise can change; and even those in the late stage of a career can spiral back toa more novice level and consequently change the knowledge development

and again rely on formal networks and formal learning opportunities to develop

knowledge.

The Urban Designer

Expert Urban Designers, who would map onto the outer point of the spiral of

knowledge development, will rely on their tacit knowledge, discussions and team

working with other built environment professionals (informal networks and

experiential learning) when delivering their practice. They will have informal

networks that they will use (e.g. local communities and other key stakeholders)

when designing and providing solutions for creative and innovative place- making.

When working on projects that involve creating (for example) an inclusive and

sustainable community, urban designers coming from the planning background

would be generally knowledgeable about what constitutes such a community, and so

may still plot onto the spiral at Expert, and use the same knowledge developmentprocesses. However, urban designers with slightly different backgrounds (e.g. with

an architectural or other design-based professional background) may be less

experienced and knowledgeable about the community issues depending on the roles

they had previously undertaken. They would therefore map onto the spiral further

down possibly as novice or expert novice. In order to gain the relevant

knowledge to inform their practice of creating an inclusive and sustainable

community, they would use internal and external mentoring and team working. They

would also rely on specific formal learning opportunities such as seminars and

workshops organized by (for example) Urban Design Group and the Commission

for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE). As their knowledge develops

they move up the spiral towards becoming an expert, with a corresponding change

in the knowledge development processes they would subsequently engage with.



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processes they use. As knowledge relating to their practice increases, they willspiral up again. A professional planner may move in and out of the Spiral ofKnowledge Development at many times in their career.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Professor Paul Blackmore, Director of Kings LearningInstitute, Kings College London, for his advice and input to the original research.They acknowledge the permission of the Royal Town Planning Institute to usematerial from an unpublished report written by the authors as the basis for thepaper.

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