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Grammar:A Turning-Point?

Debra Myhill

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Grammar – or not?

Formal grammar teaching: naming of parts; rules; parsing…

USA, UK, New Zealand, Australia and Canada all abandoned grammar teaching in the sixties;

Mainland Europe: grammar has remained part of the language curriculum

England and Wales:

National Curriculum in 1995 explicitly included grammar

National Strategies – strong emphasis on grammar

Australia: now including grammar in their first National Curriculum

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Grammar AnnexThe grammar of our first language is learnt naturally and implicitly through

interactions with other speakers and from reading. Explicit knowledge of grammar

is, however, very important, as it gives us more conscious control and choice in

our language. Building this knowledge is best achieved through a focus on

grammar within the teaching of reading, writing and speaking. Once pupils have

been introduced to a grammatical concept, they should be encouraged to apply

their learning by using that grammar in their own speech and writing and noting

where it is used in the speech and writing of others. Young pupils, in particular, use

more complex language in speech than in writing, and teachers should build on

this, aiming for a smooth transition to sophisticated writing.

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Which pair of pronouns is best to complete the sentence below?

The teacher split …………….. into teams. …………….. were batting; the other team was fielding.

Tick onethey Them us We her She them I

Different Views of Grammar Learning grammar rules; Correcting grammar errors; De-contextualised exercises; A focus on error and accuracy.

OR

Developing knowledge about language; Using metalanguage to talk about language; Making connections between grammar and writing; A focus on meaning and effects

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What’s the Problem? No clearly articulated rationale for grammar in the curriculum;

Public/political/professional disagreement;

Robust research showing that teaching grammar has no impact on quality of

writing;

A growing emphasis on grammar in English-speaking countries.

If grammar is embedded within the teaching of writing, does it improve

students’ writing?

Contextualised Grammar Teaching

A rhetorical view of grammar – exploring how language works

Investigating how language choices construct meanings in different

contexts

The teaching focus is on writing, not on grammar per se

The teaching focus is on effects and constructing meanings, not on the

feature or terminology itself

The teaching goal is to open up a repertoire of infinite possibilities, not

to teach about ‘correct’ ways of writing

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The Exeter Research Project A randomised controlled trial with a complementary qualitative study

One class of Year 8 students in 32 schools

Initial test of teachers’ grammar knowledge

16 schools randomly allocated to intervention; 16 to comparison groups

Lesson observations

Teacher interviews

Student interviews

Pre and post intervention writing test to measure improvement

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The Intervention

Designed 3 schemes work (1 per term) focusing on a different written genre: Narrative

Fiction; Argument; Poetry

Each unit matched the Framework for English

Grammar features which were relevant to the writing being taught were embedded into the

teaching units

Intervention group had detailed teaching materials for each lesson

Comparison group addressed same learning objectives, same resources and produced

same written outcomes, but had no lesson plans

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Results?

Statistically significant positive effect for intervention group

Intervention group improved their writing scores by 20% over the year

compared with 11% in the comparison group.

The grammar teaching had greatest impact on able writers

But able writers in the comparison group barely improved over the year

Teachers’ subject knowledge of grammar was an influencing factor

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Key Teaching Principles

Links are always made between the feature introduced and how it might enhance the writing being tackled;

Grammatical metalanguage is used, but it is explained through examples; Discussion is fundamental in encouraging critical conversations about language

and effects; The use of ‘creative imitation’ offers model patterns for students to play with and

then use in their own writing; The use of authentic examples from authentic texts links writers to the broader

community of writers; Activities support students in making choices and being designers of writing; Language play, experimentation, risk-taking and games are actively encouraged.

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Making ConnectionsLinks are always made between the feature introduced and how it might enhance

the writing being tackled

The goal in embedding attention to grammar within a writing curriculum is to support writing development, not to learn grammar;

Understanding ‘effects’ is part of beginning to understand the writer’s craft and the possibilities open to a writer;

Considering how grammatical structures create meaning in specific contexts reinforces the importance of context

Making meaningful connections between writing and grammar avoids redundant learning, such as complex sentences are good sentences

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing fairy talesLearning Focus: the simplicity of noun phrases in fairy tales

Connections between grammar and writing: Fairy tales draw on oral narratives and written versions retain many of the

patterns of oral language. These helped listeners to follow and remember the story. Nouns and adjectives are often used very simply.

Repetition of adjectives

Eg long, long ago; far, far away, a dark, dark wood. Short noun phrases with just one adjective

Eg wicked stepmother; enchanted forest; handsome prince; golden apple Predictable ‘stock’ of nouns and adjectives Eg beautiful; evil; castle; king; forest; princess; 13

Using Grammatical MetalanguageGrammatical metalanguage is used, but it is explained through examples

Hearing the terminology used in relevant contexts may support learning;

Being able to use the terminology allows for more succinct talk about writing but the terminology may be a barrier for some students;

Providing examples allows students to access the structure and discuss its effect even if they don’t remember the grammatical name.

Seeing examples is more concrete learning compared with the abstract learning needed with terminology

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A Classroom ExampleContext: writing a persuasive speechLearning Focus: how modal verbs can express different levels of assertiveness

or possibility in persuasionResource with modal verbs listed: can; could; may; might; must; shall; should; will; ought to

TASK: Imagine that you are Roy Hodgson talking to the England team before the penalty shoot-out in the Euro 2012 match against Spain. Write a short ‘pep talk,’ arguing that it’s still possible to win, using some of these modal verbs to predict what might / can / will happen in the shoot out.You could start: ‘We can win a penalty shoot-out.’

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Writing ConversationsDiscussion is fundamental in encouraging critical conversations about language

and effects Constructive exploratory talk enables learning to develop;

Teacher input is important in initiating learning but understanding cannot be transmitted from teacher to student;

Talk fosters discussion about choices, possibilities and effects;

Talk may be the key to moving students from superficial learning about grammar (eg add adjectives to create description) to deep learning (eg some adjectives are redundant because the noun is descriptive);

Talk gives ownership to writers in making writerly decisions.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Fictional Narrative

Learning Focus: how short sentences can create tension in narrative

TASK:

In pairs, read the extract from Peter Brenchley’s Jaws and find the three shortest sentences he uses. Discuss why he might have chosen to make these three sentences so short? What part do they play in the narrative structure of this incident? What effect might they have on the reader?

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Creative imitationThe use of ‘creative imitation’ offers model patterns for students to play with and

then use in their own writing

Imitation is a scaffold which allows students to try out new structures or new ways of expressing something;

As a scaffold it fosters both success and experimentation;

Imitation may help to embed new structures cognitively within the student’s writing repertoire;

Creative imitation is a first step in generating original combinations.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Argument WritingLearning Focus: how using an imperative opening sentence followed by an

emotive narrative can act as an effective hook for a persuasive argument which follows.

TASK:Picture the scene. There are dogs running wild around a courtyard littered with muck and machinery. There are dogs rammed in cages, noses pressed against the bars. There are dogs whose fur is hanging in great clumps, with bare skin and running sores. The noise of barking and yelping is deafening, but in one cage a golden labrador lies silent, head on its paws, looking at the yard with melancholy eyes.

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Authentic TextsThe use of authentic examples from authentic texts links writers to the broader

community of writers

Writers need to explore what real writers do and the choices they make;

Using authentic texts makes meaningful links between being a reader and being a writer;

Using authentic texts allows teachers to choose texts which will motivate and engage their students;

Using authentic texts avoids the pitfalls of examples artificially created to exemplify a grammar point which have no resonance of truth.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Poetry

Learning Focus: how noun phrases can evoke vivid images

Activity:

Using a Roethke’s poem, Boy on Top of a Greenhouse, students analyse how the poem is entirely comprised of a series of expanded noun phrases with no finite verb. The noun phrases build a detailed picture of the scene and the absence of a finite verb creates a sense of a frozen moment in time. Students use this as a model for writing their own poem.

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Making Design ChoicesActivities support students in making choices and being designers of writing

Making choices gives more autonomy to the writer and less to the teacher; Choice-making fosters ownership and authorial responsibility; Making choices more visible opens up the writing process, making real the

idea that writing is a complex act of decision-making Encouraging writers to see that choices are available to them avoids

formulaic writing or checklist approaches; Awareness of the importance of choices makes writers more aware of a

repertoire of infinite possibilities.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Argument

Focus: How sentence length and sentence structure can be used to create rhetorical effect in the closing of a persuasive argument.

TASK:

Students are given the sentences from the final paragraph of a persuasive speech, each sentence on a separate strip of paper. They are given two sets of the same sentences. In pairs, they create two version of the ending of the argument and discuss the different ways the two versions work. Finally they choose and justify the choice of their preferred version.

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Playful Experimentation Language play, experimentation, risk-taking and games are actively encouraged

Playfulness helps writers to see the elasticity of language, the possibilities it affords;

Experimentation and taking risks are at the heart of creativity;

Writers need opportunities for constructive ‘failure’;

Able writers often play safe and avoid trying out new ways of writing;

Playfulness is engaging.

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A Classroom ExampleContext: Writing Poetry Focus: how varying sentence structure and sentence length can create

different emphases in poetry.

TASK:Using an exploded version of Sylvia Plath’s Mirror presented alphabetically as a word grid, students are asked to generate pairs of sentence, experimenting with the possibilities outlined below:◦ Beginning with a non-finite verb, adverb or prepositional phrase◦ Using a short verbless sentence◦ Using a one word sentence◦ Using repetition of a single word or short phrase.

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Metalinguistic knowledge

Effective teachers in our study:

always linked the linguistic feature to a specific context-relevant effect or

purpose, thus making meaningful connections between the grammar under

focus and the writing;

responded to students’ own writing sensitively, asking questions which invited

students to consider the writing choices they were making, or by drawing out

explicitly effective choices in the writing;

had sufficient metalinguistic knowledge to notice relevant aspects of reading

texts or students’ writing to draw to learners’ attention.

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International Perspectives ‘Whereas traditional approaches conceive of grammar as a set of structures

which can be assessed as correct or incorrect, Halliday sees language as a resource, a meaning-making system through which we interactively shape and interpret our world ’and ourselves’ (Derewianka and Jones 2010)

supporting learners’ ability to think grammatically about language (Williams 2004 2005; Macken-Horarik 2010),

understanding grammar’s potentiality as a meaning-making resource (Schleppegrell; Coffin 2010). (2010:9).

understanding ‘the interwoven relationship between what we say and how we say it’ (Micciche 2004).

developing a ‘a repertoire of infinite possibilities’ (Myhill et al)

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Schemes of Work

Published by NATE: free to NATE members; £7.50 each to non-members.http://www.nate.org.uk/page/grammarschemes

d.a.myhill@ex.ac.uk