3Unit 1 Present

The verb to be and contractions The verb to have Present Simple The negative form verb to be, Present

...Simple Tags- short answers verb to be, Present

...Simple The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous The Present Continuous The Affirmative Imperative The Negative Imperative Verbs without a continuous form Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions Always + Present Continuous

Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past

Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past ...Simple) Regular and Irregular Verbs The Present Perfect Differences between Present Perfect and

...Preterit* (Past Simple) The Present Perfect Continuous For /Since / Ago 'Ever' / 'Never' Expressions with the Present Perfect The Preterit Continuous* (Past

...Continuous) Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Used To

Unit 3 Future

The Near Future be + -ing* (Present ...Continuous for Future) The Future Will Future Continuous Will be doing The Future Will + To be going to Future Perfect Will have done The Future with be + Infinitive

Table of contents

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.

4Unit 4 Modals

Can ability and likelihood Can perception and knowledge Can, could, to be able to Should and Ought to: advice Should and Ought to: probability Must and have to Using must for obligation Strong probability using must Absence of necessity May and Might Shall Would like: expressing wishes Modal Auxiliaries Near certainty in the past:

...must have/ cant have

Unit 5 Questions

Questions without interrogative words Interrogative Words How long... Past Interrogatives Question Tags Which / What How long..(for)/ Since when' Short Questions

Unit 6 Articles and Nouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles The Plural Names of Countries: Capitals Countable and Uncountable Nouns Exclamations with what a Construction of Compound Nouns The use and omission of the Definite articles with geographical names Nouns without singular forms Negation of the indefinite article

5Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns No / None The Possessive More uses of the Possessive The Indefinite Possessive Use of Pronoun one Demonstrative Pronouns Here/ There Some and Any How much / How many As much as / As many as Some / Any: singular or plural? Eitheror Either. or / Neither .nor Everybody / Nobody Everybody / Somebody / Nobody Each other / One another Different meanings of all A little / A bit Use of both

Unit 8 Relative Clauses and Dependent Clauses

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs That and Dependent Clauses When that may be left out To hope + Dependent Clause

Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs

Possessive Adjectives Too / Too Much Placement of Enough Also / As well / Too Adverbs of Time / Frequency The Adverb that Yet / Not yet Still / Yet Compound Adjectives Adjectives ending in ing and ed Adjectives ending in ing The Past Participle as an adjective Adverbs of Degree Adverbs and Adjectives Uses of so The placement of even Even though / Even if Quite / Quite a few

6Unit 10 Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparing equals using as..as Regular and Irregular Comparatives Regular and Irregular Superlatives The more . . . the more A use of the comparative

Unit 11 Prepositions

Prepositions of Time Prepositions of Place Final Prepositions Verbs + prepositions

Unit 12 Conjunctions

Conjunctions Use of so to express a goal So that + may or can Similarity: like and as

Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and Infinitives Use of be used to Use of get used to Verbs: Reactions and Preferences Verb + Infinitive Clause Verbs expressing a wish to act Expressions followed by the gerund Verbs introducing a second action

Unit 14 Conditionals

Present Conditional* and Sequence ...of Tenses with if* (Zero, First, Second) The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional) The Perfect Conditional using should

Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes

Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive Wishes and Regrets

Unit 16 Passive

The Passive Voice The Impersonal Structure

Unit 17 Reported speech

The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported ...Speech)

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.

7Unit 20 Other

There is/are Time Have or make without to To let When / while + Present How + Adjective or Adverb Had better / Would rather Expressions of Preference Words ending in ever Whether Emphatic 'do Verbs expressing impressions

...and feelings I am told

Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs

The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal ...verbs) Phrasal Verbs

Unit 19 Expressions

To get + Adjective To look forward to Kind of followed by a noun To be likely To be left / To have left For the sake of Expressions with to have Baseball Expressions To be at stake Expressions of Increase

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.

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1Present The verb to be and contractionsThe verb to be expresses existence, action, or occurrence.Conjugation of to be Contraction of to be Use + examples

( as a stative verb)I am Im I am a student.You are Youre Im a student. He /She /It is Hes / Shes / Its We are Were He is my brother.They are Theyre Hes my brother.

Negative to be Negative contraction to be Question I am not Im not Am I?You are not Youre not or You arentHe /She /It is not Hes / Shes / Its not or He / She / It isnt Is he/ she/ it?We are not Were not or We arent Are we / you / they?They are not Theyre not or They arent

The verb to haveThe verb to have is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.The verb to have Negative to have Question I I dont have Do + I + have?You You dont have youHe /She / It He/ She/ It doesnt have weWe We dont have theyThey They dont have Does + he + have? she it

Examples Examples ExamplesI have 2 brothers. I dont have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?He has 2 brothers. He doesnt have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?

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Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple questionI work I dont work Do + I + work? You work You dont work youHe /She / It works He / She /It doesnt work weWe work We dont work theyThey work They dont work Does + he + work? she it

Examples Examples ExamplesI work everyday. I dont work everyday. Do you work everyday?He works everyday. He doesnt work everyday. Does he work everyday?

Third person (He / She / It) You must always add an s to the verb.SpellingVerbs ending in: s / sh / ch pass : passes finish : finishes add es Verbs ending in : y study : studies try : tries add iesExcept when the verb is preceded by a vowel. play : playsAlso do : does go : goes

We use the present simple for:

things that are true in general

things that happen sometimes or all the time

to describe regular actions, events or habits

Present Simple

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The Negative FormThe negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non occurrence of an action.Structure Examples

The verb to be I am notAdd : not or nt to contractions You are not He /She /It is not We are not They are not

They are not my friends. (arent) He is not my brother. (isnt) Present Simple I dont work.Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You dont work. or dont He / She /It doesnt work. We dont work. does not (he, she, it) They dont work. or doesnt I dont play football on the weekends. He doesnt go to university.

Tags short answersWhen we answer a question with yes or no, it is usually followed by a tag which is a repetition of the verb to be or an auxiliary. The verb to beAm I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, youre not. / you arent. Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, Im not.Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, hes not. / he isnt. Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, shes not. / she isnt. Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, were not. / we arent. Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, theyre not. / they arent.

Present SimpleDo I like football? Yes, you do. No, you dont.Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I dont.Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesnt.Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesnt.Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we dont. Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they dont.

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The Present Simple and Present Continuous The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place. Use Examples

The Present Simple - Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast. - When talking in general - Facts He often has English class. - Often used with adverbs of frequency sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits. often, always, never etc.

The Present Continuous - The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so . at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but perhaps she isnt learning exactly at the time of speaking)

He is having English class at - Now the moment.

- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand.

Im eating.

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The Present Continuous

Present continuous: something is happening now / at the moment / currently

Past Now Future

Im working.

Hes playing football.

Theyre watching television.

Structure + ExamplesThe verb to be + verb ingI am (not) verb-ing I am working.He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter. We/you/they are (not) verb-ing Were having dinner.

Question: What are you doing now? What is he doing now?

It is raining.

Spelling Verbs that end in e drop the e , add ing Make making, write writing, come coming, dance dancingVerbs that end in ie change to yingLie lying, die dying, tie tying

Im eating.We are running.

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The Affirmative Imperative

You can use the imperative form to give an order, a warning or advice.

Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples you (singular + plural) Infinitive without to Be Quiet! Walk down the streetI, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in infinitive without to the dictionary. Let + noun phrase + Let Mark sit there. infinitive without to Lets (us) go to the beach. Let them do what they want.

The Negative ImperativeThe negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT perform a specific action.

Negative Imperative Structure Examples you (singular + plural) Do not (dont) Dont be quiet! + Infinitive without to Dont walk down the streetI, he, she, we, they Do not (dont) let + object Dont let me fall asleep. pronoun + infinitive without to Do not (dont) let + noun phrase + Dont let the children fall asleep. infinitive without to

Sit down.

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Verbs without a continuous form Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms. Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.

Mental and emotional states To believe To doubt To feel (= have an opinion) To imagine To know To (dis)like To love To hate To prefer To recognize To remember To see (= understand) To suppose To think (= have an opinion) To understand To want To wish To realize

Use of the senses To appear To hear To look (=seem) To see To seem To smell To sound To taste

Communicating and causing reactions To agree To deny To impress To please To satisfy To mean To disagree

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Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.Verbs of perception When they express voluntary actions To see To hear To feel To smell To taste

Im seeing Lynn tomorrow. I see what you mean. NOT Im seeing what you meanStative verbsExpressing notions of belief, To think (to reflect) preference, feelings or an What are you thinking about? intellectual activity. . NOT to think ( have an opinion) What are you thinking of it? What do you think of it?

Always + Present ContinuousAlways is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the present continuous in these situations: Use ExampleTo express a repeated action which Youre always running late! has an effect on the speaker.

To talk about unexpected or Compare: unplanned events. When Alice comes to see me, I always meet her at the station. (a regular, planned arrangement) Im always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket. (accidental, unplanned meeting)

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2Present Perfect and Past Simple The Preterit (Past Simple)

USE

To talk about completed actions or finished events that

happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)

I watched television yesterday.

For regular verbs add ed For regular verbs ending in y , drop the y , add ied

I watched I didnt watch Did you watch? You watched You didnt watch he/she/itHe/she/it watched He/she/it didnt watchWe watched We didnt watch weThey watched They didnt watch they

ExamplesI watched television last night. I didnt watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?

Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore you must memorize them.

Here are some important irregular verbs:begin began fall fell leave left sell soldbreak broke find found lose lost sit satbring brought fly flew make made sleep sleptbuild built forget forgot meet met speak spokebuy bought get got pay paid stand stoodcatch caught give gave put put take tookcome came go went read read(red) tell tolddo did have had ring rang think thoughtdrink drank hear heard say said win woneat ate know knew see saw write wrote

Regular Verbs:

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Irregular VerbsFor the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -edHowever, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.

Here are some common irregular verbs:

Verb Past Tense Past Participlebe was/were beenbegin began beguncatch caught caughtchoose chose chosendo did donedrink drank drunkeat ate eatenfall fell fallenfly flew flowngive gave givenhave had had

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The Present PerfectThe Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.

StructureI/you/we/they have + past participleHe/she/it has + past participle

Have I/you/they/we + past participle.?Has he/she/it + past participle?

Past Participlesgo gonehave hadtake takeneat eatendrink drunksing sung

Uses ExamplesShows there is a connection with now. -Where is your key? I dont know. I have lost it. An action in the past has a result now. (I cant find it now.)

-Is Sally here? No, she has gone to the mall. (She is at the mall now.)Describes an action that started in the -I have tried to learn French, but havent succeeded. past and continues in the present. -I have always studied a lot in university. Shows that an action has -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.recently happened. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident. - (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book! happened recently)

They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out. (=They are not at home now)

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Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect

Uses ExamplesPast Simple I saw three movies last week.When the time period has finished (the action has finished in a specific time period in the past).Present Perfect I have seen three movies this week.When the time period has not finished (the week has not finished, so more actions in this time period may take place).

Past Simple Martin has crashed his car last year.To indicate old information Present Perfect Martin crashed his car again.When giving recent news

Past Simple I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)When the time of the action is clear Present Perfect I have already seen that movie.When the time of action is not specific (no specific day or date of the action)

Past Simple For I lived in Victoria for five years.For is used in the past simple when we want to indicate the period of time that the action occurred but has already finished.Present Perfect I have lived in Victoria for five years.For and since are used when we want to indicate the period of time that the action has been occurring, though the action has not finished yet.

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The Present Perfect ContinuousWe use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until this moment in the present.

Uses ExamplesDescribes an action that has recently -Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.stopped and has a connection with now. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have you been doing?Describes an action that has been -I have been learning English for three years.repeated over a certain amount of time. -She has been playing basketball since she was 6 years old. -They have been traveling to Europe every summer since 1995. It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and it is still raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for two hours.

We often use the present perfect continuous in this way, especially with How long, for and sinceThe activity is still happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.

Structure

I/you/we/they have

been + verb ing

He/she/it has

been + verb ing

Have I/you/they/we

been + verb ing .?

Has he/she/it

been + verb ing ?

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For / Since / Ago

For, since, ago

=to say how long something has been happening.

Use ExamplesFor = a period of time two hours a week 20 minutes 50 years five days a long time six months ages

I have been studying English for 3 years.

Since = the start of a period 8 oclock 1977 Monday Christmas 12 May lunchtime April they were at school

I have been studying English since 2000.

Ago = expression of time + ago six weeks agois usually used with the past tense a long time ago two days ago

I studied English 5 years ago.

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Ever Never

Structure ExamplesQuestion Ever Used in present simple and present perfect Do you ever play tennis?Auxiliary + subject + ever + main verb Have you ever been to Argentina? Affirmative Ever Shes the nicest person Ive ever met.Used with if or superlative (superlative) Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to Paris. (if)Negative Negative I never drink and drive.Never + verb in affirmative Ive never been to Argentina.

Ever=at some/any time

up to now

Never =not ever

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Expressions with the Present PerfectThe Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.

Structure + Use ExamplesWe can use these expressions with the present perfect: Today All dayThis week This yearAlready Just Yet Lately Recently In the last two months All my life So farEver NeverThey refer to a period of time that is not yet over or is recent. We cannot use these expressions with the present perfect: Two months ago One year ago Last week Yesterday When I was a childThey refer to a time in the past that is over.

Hes been in a bad mood all day.Ive visited my grandmother 2 times this week.Ive just started the class.I havent studied in the last two months.I havent heard about it so far.

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The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)

Preterit Continuous =

to say that someone was in the middle of doing something at a certain time.

Its 6 oclock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television.At 4 oclock she wasnt at home. She was playing tennis.

Sarah 4 Oclock

Sarah 6 Oclock

Positive Negative Question

she/it was + verb ing I/he/she/it was not (wasnt) + verb ing Was I/he/she/it + verb ing?

We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (werent) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?

It was raining. It wasnt raining. Was it raining?

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The Past Perfect For actions that happened before related past events or times.

Structure I/we/they/you + had (=Id etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.) He/she/it + had (= hed etc.) + past participle

Use Examples1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.before a given time in the past. 2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.continuing until some later time in the past.

Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they didnt see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11 oclock.

So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasnt there. He had gone home.

Bye

Paul

Hello

Half an hour later

Sarah

12 12

34

5

9

1011

678

12 12

34

5

9

1011

678

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The Past Perfect Continuous

Structure I/you/we/they had been + verb ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)He/she/it had been + verb ing

I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)He/she/it had not been + verb-ingHad I/you/they/we been + verb ing .? (helping, playing, talking, etc.) he/she/it been + verb ing ? Uses ExamplesTo show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.else happened.To show cause and effect. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions

that were unfinished when another action took place.

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Used To

Structure + Use ExamplesI/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + to be + used to + verb + ing+ object.Is used for expressing habits or things I am used to reading before going to sleep.which you are comfortable with or accustomed to.For expressing a point in the process of I have gotten used to walking to work.becoming accustomed to something.For expressing actions that were habitual I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.in the past and implies that the action no longer takes place. In this sense it is used as a modal auxiliary.

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3Future The Near Future be + ing / Present Continuous for Future The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place at a specific time in the future.

Structure Use ExamplesTo be + verb-ing for the future What are you doing (tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?

I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.You are (not) eating arrangementsHe/she/it is (not) eatingWe are (not) eatingThey are (not) eating

The Future WillWe use will for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)

Subject + will + infinitive (without to)

I/we/you/they will (ll) beHe/she/it will not (wont) eat etc. winWill I/we/you/they be? He/she/it win? etc. eat?

Examples: I will be at home tomorrow. Will you be at home this evening?

We use will when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.Its cold in here. Ill close the windowWhat would you like to order? Ill have the beef please.

Im playing tennis tomorrow

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The Future Continuous Will be doing

Structure Use Exampleswill + be + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will be watching the game. It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her actions in the future. to call me? A: Sure, Ill be seeing her this evening, so Ill tell her then.

The Future Will vs. To be going to

Structure Use ExamplesWill + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.I, you etc.+ will + verb (infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the Its cold in here.I, you etc.+ will not (wont) moment of speaking. Ill close the window+ verb (infinitive without to)

To be + going to + infinitive I am (not) going to + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.(infinitive without to) (Ive decided to do something, my intention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.

We also use to be going to when there is evidence in the present that something is going to happen in the future. It is clear now that it is sure to happen.

Example: There is a black cloud in the sky.Its going to rain.

Its goingto rain.

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The Future Perfect Will have done

Structure Use ExamplesWill have + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your before another action in the future. English by the time you come back from the USA.I, you etc.+ will + have To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month. the future.

The Future with be + infinitive

StructureTo be + infinitive with toThis is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations: Use Examples A planned or agreed action

Present: To be (present) + infinitive with to Were to see them tomorrow.Past: To be (past) + infinitive with to I was to become a priest. (but I didnt)(This is a planned or agreed action that was not done.) An action which should be done Whats to be done? An imposed action / a strict order Youre not to read that letter.

Instructions and directions for use The medicine is to be taken twice a day.To be + passive infinitive

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4Modals Can ability and likelihoodStructure Use Examples

UseCan ability - to be able to do something. Example: He can carry the bag.Can likelihood / possibility Example: Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.) It cant be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)

StructureI / we / you / they + can + verb he / she / it cannot (cant)

QuestionCan + I / we / you / they + verb he / she / it Example: Can you swim?

30 Kg.

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Can - perception and knowledge

Use Can ability / knowledge

- to know how to do somethingExample: I can play the guitar.

Can perception - with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel. Example: I can see Sarah coming.

StructureI / we / you / they + can + verb he / she / it cannot (cant)

QuestionCan + I / we / you / they + verb he / she / it

Example: Can you swim?

I can playthe piano.

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Can, Could, To be able toThe modal can has the following form

Present Can

I can speak 5 lang

uages.

Cant

He cant sing very well.

Past Could

When I was a child I could play t

he piano.

Couldnt

I couldnt go to class yesterday

because I was sick.

Infinitive To be able to

Ask Catherine about your proble

m. She

might be able to help you.

Future Will be able to

I will be able to meet with you la

ter.

Will not (wont) b

e able to They wont be a

ble to leave early because

they have to finish their homewo

rk.

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You shouldntwatch TV so much

I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to he, she, it Examples: Its a good film. You should go and see it. Tom shouldnt go to bed so late.

I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to he, she, it Examples: Carol ought to buy some new clothes.You ought not to eat so much.

should or ought to + have + past participle=

to express regret or reproach

We should have gone to the mountains.They ought to have invited her.

Should and Ought to: probability

Structure Use ExampleShould subject + should + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.infinitive without to desirable or probable

Ought tosubject + ought to + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought toinfinitive without to pass the exam.

Should and Ought to: adviceUse

To give adviceShould / ought to = It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do. Should not / ought not to = It is not a good thing to do.

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Must and Have to

Must = a need or obligation to do somethingStructure ExampleI, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Mustnt = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.Must notStructure ExampleI, you, we, they + mustnt + infinitive without to You mustnt smoke in the elevator.He, she, it + mustnt + infinitive without to

Have to = a need or obligation to do something. Structure ExampleI, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.

Dont have to = NO obligation to do something. It is optional.Doesnt have to Structure ExampleI, you, we, they + dont have to + infinitive You dont have to do the homework if you dont without to want to.He, she, it + doesnt have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional) without to

NO SMOKING

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Using must for obligation

Must =

a need or obligation to do something.

I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Mustnt =

an obligation NOT to do something.

I, you, we, they + mustnt + infinitive without to You mustnt walk on the grass. He, she, it + mustnt + infinitive without to

Please keepoff the grass

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Strong probability using must

Must =

strong probability or near certainty.

Structure Example Subject + must + verb (infinitive without to) You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.

Negative:Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without to) You cant be Maggies mother; youre not old enough!Subject + cant + verb (infinitive without to)

The past form is:

must + have + past participle

It expresses near certainty

in the past.

Example: He must have gone out.

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Absence of necessityTo say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use neednt and dont have to. It shows an absence of necessity.

Structure ExamplesSubject + neednt + infinitive without to You neednt bring your bike; its not that far.Subject + dont / doesnt need to + infinitive without to You dont need to bring your bike.This expresses the opinion of the speaker.

Subject + dont / doesnt have to + infinitive without to You dont have to do your homework.This can imply the speakers opinion or not.

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May and Might To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use neednt and dont have to. It shows an absence of necessity.

Use ExamplesMay I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later. may not without to) is about 50% possible. He may call her.

Might I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting. might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.

The uses of may and might above are to talk about the present or future. These other structures are also possible.

may/might + be + verb ing to talk about present or future

I may be working at that time. He might be having lunch.

may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain events in the past

She may have been asleep.She might have left it in the shop.

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Shall In British English, shall can be used for will to express the future. In American English, it is not often used.

Use shall with I/ weI shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late) Shall we go to the museum later?

Do NOT use shall with you/they/he/she/it

Tom will be late. (not Tom shall be)

Shall can express obligation. This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (must, have to).It is used in legal texts and official rules.

Examples: 1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount within three years.2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.

Would like: expressing wishes

Would like expresses a wish or desire.

Would like + infinitiveExample: I would like to go to the movies.

Would like + noun or noun phraseExample: I would like a drink.

Interrogative would like more polite form of (do) wantExample: Would you like a coffee?

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Modal Auxiliaries A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus to form.

Modal Use ExampleCan Ability He can play the piano. Negative: cannot / cant Past: could Future: will be able to Permission Can I leave the room?Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could (to make suggestions) stay with Jane. Permission Could I open the window?May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later. 50% possible. Permission May I open the window?Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting. than 50% possible.Must Obligation You must go to the bank Negative: mustnt You mustnt go to the bank. Youve been travelling all day, Deduction you must be tired. Negative: cant Youve been sleeping all day, you cant be tired.

Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture Something you could have in university. done but did not do / did not attempt to do.May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Pollys very late. She may something happened or have missed her train. was true in the past.Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing something happened or was up there. You might have true in the past. killed yourself. BUT did not happen.

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Near certainty in the past: must have / cant haveWhen we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.

Structure Usesubject + must have + past participle Deduction Near certainty in the pastExample: John wasnt in class yesterday. He must have been sick.

Structure Usesubject + cant have + past participle A deduction about something that didnt happen in the past. Example: I saw John in the pub. He cant have been sick.

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5Questions ExamplesThe Verb to be

To be + subject Are you married? Is John a policeman?Am I? Are you? Is he / she / it? Are we? Are they?

Present Simple

Do + subject + verb Does he study English? Does Do they have television?

Do you / we / they? Does he / she / it?

Questions without interrogative words

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Interrogative Words Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place, reason, etc. that an action occurs.

Interrogative word Use

Example

Who refers to people Who is he?

Who do you know?

Which refers to people or things Which do you p

refer tea or coffee?

when there is a choice

What refers to things What sport do

you play?

How refers to manner or means How do you spe

ll your name? (manner)

How do you go to work? (means)

Why asks about reason Why dont you li

ke her?

Where refers to location Where is the mu

seum?

When refers to time or date When does the

store open?

When do you leave?

Whose refers to possession Whose pen is th

is?

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How long

How long is used to ask

questions about duration.

Structure Example How long + to be How long + is/are + noun How long is your vacation? How long are the books?

How long + present simple How long + do/does + How long do you take to subject + verb eat breakfast? How long does it take to get to work?

Beginner level should only study the two structures above. Below are some examples of how long with other tenses.

Structure ExampleHow long + preterit (past simple) How long + did + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?

How long + present perfect How long + have / has + How long have you had that car? subject + past participle

How long + present perfect How long + have / has + How long have you been continuous subject + been+ gerund studying English?

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Past Interrogatives

The verb to be

Was / were + subject

was I? Where was Ann yesterday?

he? Was the weather good?

she? it?were we? Were they e

xpensive?

you? they?

The Preterit (Past Simple)

Did + subject + verb

I you What did

you do yesterday?

he Where did he go on holiday?

Did she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?

it we they

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Questions TagsQuestion tags are mini-questions placed at the end of a sentence.

A positive sentence A negative question tagA negative sentence A positive question tag

Examples

The verb to beYoure a doctor, arent you? He is not here today, is he?

Present SimpleThey work together, dont they? She doesnt eat meat, does she?

Present ContinuousHe is studying English, isnt he? Youre not meeting Jim, are you?

Preterit/ Past Simple He went on vacation, didnt he? They didnt work yesterday, did they?

Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.

Goes down

Goes up

You arent really asking a question; you are only inviting the listener to agree with you.Example: Its a beautiful day, isnt it? Yes, lovely.

You are asking a real question.Example: You didnt see Mary, did you? No, Im afraid not.

The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.

If your voice -

Its a beautiful day, isnt it?

Yes, lovely.

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Which / What

How long..(for) / Since when

Structure ExamplesHow long + have/has + subject + Q: How long have you been waiting for?been + verb -ing + for? A: I have been waiting for over an hour.

We use for when we say a period of time.(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)

Since when + have/has + subject + Q: Since when has it been snowing?been+ verb ing A: It has been snowing since yesterday.

We use since when we say the start of a period of time.(8 oclock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)

Which, What =

both are used for choices. They are often used interchangeably.

What - a choice between or among things. What books do you prefer?(usually objects) What kind of services do you want?

Which a choice between or among a Which do you prefer: romance novels orlimited number of things/possibilities science fiction?(usually objects and people) Which of these shirts is yours?

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Short QuestionsIn informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.

Here are some examples:

Short Questions Possible complete form

Any thoughts? Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?Suggestions? Do you have any suggestions?Ideas? Can you give me some ideas?Any problems? Have you been having any problems?Objections? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?Anything serious? Are the problems serious?Louder, please? Could you speak a bit louder, please?Sorry? Sorry? I didnt hear what you said.

These are questions formed with

incomplete sentences.

You can only use them when the

context has been clearly established.

They ask for feedback, check understanding, ask for clarification, ask for

advice / suggestions, make requests and verify

agreement.

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6Articles and Nouns Definite and Indefinite ArticlesAn article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one.

Language Use ExampleThe indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher. A - a noun in a general context.

The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher. The

Language Use ExampleThe indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.A with consonants.

The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) or vowels sounds Its an honor.

Exceptions: an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our) a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

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The Plural

Plural rules ExamplesTo make a noun plural add s a flower two flowers a book two books

For nouns ending in: s / sh / ch / x es bus : buses dish : dishes box : boxes church : churches

Also: potato : potatoes tomato: tomatoes

For nouns ending in:

y ies baby : babies party : parties

but ay / ey / oy ys day : days monkey: monkeys

For nouns ending in:

f / fe ves shelf : shelves wife: wives

Some nouns have irregular endings man men woman women foot feet child children person people

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Names of Countries: Capitals a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

Names of countries have capital letters.

Hes a friend from France.

They live in Spain.

I am from the United States!

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Countable and Uncountable Nouns a university (pronounced yuniversity) A noun can be

orcountable uncountable

Countable nouns You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man (a) house Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea

Examples I have a car. I have two cars.

Uncountable nouns You cannot say one/two/three etc. water rice Uncountable nouns only have one form. money You cannot use a/ an + uncountable nouns. salt music Uncountable nouns are always singular.Examples I have money. I have some money.

Exclamations with what a

What a /an (+adjective) + singular countable noun What a rude man! What a nice dress!

What (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun What beautiful weather! What lovely flowers!

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Construction of Compound Nouns

A compound noun =

two nouns joined together.

One noun modifies the other.

Example:

tooth, paste: toothpaste

Compound nouns can be written in these ways:There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must check a dictionary for the correct form.1. The two words are joined together.Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom

2. They are joined using a hyphen.Example: check-in

3. They appear as two separate words. Example: full moon

Other Examples:

ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather

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The use and omission of the

Use ExamplesThe We use the before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair. uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs) thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door. (a particular chair)

No the When we are talking about things or Im afraid of dogs. (not the dogs) people in general, we do not use the. Children learn a lot from playing. (children in general)

No the We do not use the with names of people, I visited Europe last year. countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe) islands, cities, mountains.

The But we do use the in names with I live in the USA. Republic, Kingdom, States, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland. seas, rivers and canals. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.

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Definite articles with geographical names

Use ExamplesNo the Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.

The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies, the Philippines

The But we do use the in names with Republic, The United States, The Republic Kingdom, States. of Ireland, The United Kingdom

The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU

No the The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park, and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey

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Nouns without singular formsSome plural nouns have no singular forms.

Nouns referring to objects composed of Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts, 2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas

When used as a countable noun, usepair of

Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings

Negation of the indefinite article The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:

Structure ExamplesWith a singular countable noun: I havent got a pen./ I dont have a pen. Not..a

With plural countable nouns and There arent any buses here.uncountable nouns It doesnt require any equipment.Notany

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Subject Pronouns

7Pronouns and DeterminersSubject Prono

uns

IYou (singular

)

He

She

It

We

You (plural)

They

Object Pronouns

Object Pronouns Examples Use(subject (object pronoun) pronoun)I me Ann knows me. We use:You you Ann knows you. a verb +He him Ann knows him. object pronounShe her Ann knows her.It it Ann knows it.We us Ann knows us.They them Ann knows them.

Its nice.I Iike it.

Theyre nice.I like them.

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Possessive Pronouns

(possessive pronoun)I my mineyou your yourshe his hisshe her herswe our oursthey their theirs

We use my/your etc. + a nounMy hands are cold.

We use mine/yours etc. without a noun Is this book mine or yours?

Possessive pronouns show possession and answer the question whose.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns Use ExamplesI myselfYou yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.He himself We use reflexive pronounsShe herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the resultsIt itself sentence are the same person of the test.We ourselves or non-person.You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.They themselves

Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs

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No / None

No Use ExamplesNo + noun When we want to - We have no bread. exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.

None Use ExamplesNone When no part of - Do you have any more pie? something is left. No, sorry, I have none.

When none exists, not even - When she returned to the a group of people or a small amount office, none of us of something. recognized her with her new haircut.

The Possessive

To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use s

Examples:

It is Johns birthday. (not the birthday of John) Its my mothers umbrella. Chiles economy is doing well.

friends and friends

My friends house = one friend (=his house or her house)

(singular)

My friends house = 2 or more friends(= their house)

(plural)

My house Our house

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More uses of the Possessive

The possessive s c

an also

be used with dates, d

urations

and distances.

We add s to a singula

r noun

and an apostrophe ()

to a

plural noun, for examp

le:

Dates Sundays weather Tomorrows flight Next years budget

Durations Three weeks vacation

Distances A hundred miles drive

The Indefinite Possessive

Use Structure Examples I met a friend of Lucys. We cant usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this newbefore another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your bosss?We can say my friend but not (s) a my friend. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)structures. determiner + noun + of Hows that brother of yours? + possessive (mine, yours, his, hers, Peter is a cousin of mine. ours, theirs) ( a, that = determiners)

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Use of the pronoun one

The pronoun one or ones is used after an adjective to replace: a countable noun already expresseda noun that hasnt been expressed

Would you like one? =Would you like a chocolate?

One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)

One (singular)

Which one? = which hat?

Ones (plural)

Which ones? = which flowers?

Thesechocolates are niceWould you like one?

This oneWhich one

do you want?

Which one do you want?

The white ones

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Demonstrative Pronouns: This, That, These, Those

The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation to the speaker.

This (singular) Refers to an object or person near the speaker

These (plural) Examples:

Is this Johns house? This is a nice surprise!

That (singular) Refers to an object or person further away

Those (plural) Examples:

Who owns that house? Thats nothing to do with me.

Position Examples:

a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.

b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.

c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?

d) Alone when the noun is understood. Ill never forget this.

Here / There

Here is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand).

There is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.

this that these those

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Some / Any

Use some / any to describe an undetermined quantity.

Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Some: in positive sentences, offers and requests.

I have got some money.Would you like some water? (offer) Can I have some bread? (request)

Any: in negative sentences and questions

I havent got any money.Do you have any information?

Any: to express total permission, possibility, or restriction.

Any: to express possibility or indifference.

Feel free to ask questions at any time.

Any of these designs are fine.

$ I have some money.

I dont have any money.

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A lot of, Much / Many

Use a lot of with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. I have a lot of work to do.

Use much with mass nouns in negative Ann doesnt have much time to see New York.sentences and in questions. How much coffee did you drink?

Use many with count nouns in negative I dont have many classes today.sentences, positive sentences and in questions. Did many people come to the party?

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How much / How many

How much/many = to ask questions about quantity

How much + uncountable nouns How much money do you want? How much time do you have?

How many + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have? How many books are there?

As much as / As many as

To compare two things that are the same.as much as Use with: Examples:

singular, uncountable nouns You have as much money as I do. (= the same amount)

not as much as You dont have as much money as I do.

as many as plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires.not as many as There arent as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires.

We can use as much as + as many as without a noun also.Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.

Its twice as much as the rent.(=Its twice as much money as the rent)

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Some / Any: singular or plural?

Some, any, none, all, most Examples:

When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.

When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.

Eitheror

A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use either after a negative verb.Either is always placed at the end of a clause. It means too / as well

Im not happy.Im not happy either. (not Im not too)

I cant cook.I cant cook either. (not I cant too)

Im not happy either.

Im not happy.

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Either. or / Neither .nor

Use Example

Either.or A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.

Either you come to class or you do the work at home.

Neither..nor To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French. Shes neither nice nor helpful.

Everybody / Nobody

Everybody (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.(all the people) All the people need friends.

Nobody (no one) singular Nobody is here.(no people) No people are here.

neither (not + either)

Either? or ?

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Everybody / Somebody / Nobody with question tags

Everybody, somebody, nobody are followed b

y singular verbs.

However, if they are followed by a question ta

g, the tag is in the plural.

Everybody (everyone) singular Ever

ybody needs

friend

s, dont they?

(all the people)

Somebody (someone) singular Some

body has to go

shop

ping, dont they?

( a person but we dont know who)

Nobody (no one) singular Nobo

dy really knows, do

they?

(no people)

Nobody + verb in the positive form. Example

: Nobody likes Mike.

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Each other / One another

Each other and one another can be used interchangeably.They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.

Each other and one another can be used in the possessive.

They took each others hands.We often meet at one anothers places.

John and Paul looked at each other. (= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)

Formerly, it was said that each other was used for a relationship between two subjects whereas one another was used for a relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however, most do not observe this distinction.

Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects) The children are sitting opposite one another. (More than two subjects)

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Different meanings of all

All = all of something limited.

It is used with uncountable or plural countable nouns.

All + noun All cities have the same problem.

All (of) + the All the children at this school are tall. this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine. my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.

Personal Pronounspersonal pronoun + all Have you read these books? Ive read them all.all of + personal pronoun Ive read all of them.

with Subject PronounsSubject (pronoun) + all + simple verb The girls all left.Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / to be + all We will all have some juice. They are all ready to go.

With a singular countable noun = every

Every student in the class passed the exam.Every country has a national flag.

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A little / A bitA little / A bit = a small quantity

Structure Use ExamplesA little Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air. It can also replace the noun to Do you want some coffee? avoid repetition. A little, please.

A bit of Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.

A little Adverb of degree. Were a little busy today.

A little + adjective This tooth aches a little.

Verb + a little

Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.(negative connotation)

A bit Often replaces a little as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?

A few Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you. It can also replace the noun to avoid How many science fiction novels repetition. do you have?Few A few. (negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.

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Use of both

Both = two elements

With nouns I want both books. Both shirts are good.

With determinersBefore a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.my, your, those etc.) both and both Both (of) the books.of are possible.

With object pronouns(me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Both of them are my sisters.Use both of before the pronoun. She has invited both of us.Both can be put after object pronouns. She has invited us both.

With verbsBoth goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.other verbs. We both want to go.

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8Relative Clauses and Dependent Clauses Relative Pronouns and AdverbsRelative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A clause is part of a sentence. A relative clause tells us which person or thing the speaker means.

The woman who lives next door is a doctor. relative clause

A relative clause joins two sentences:

I met a woman. She speaks two languages. she who

I met a woman who speaks two languages.

WHO peopleI know a lot of people who live in London.

THAT things or peopleThe man that lives next door is very friendly.Barbara works for a company that makes computers.

WHICH thingsEmma lives in a house which is 500 years old.

WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.)A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.

WHERE a placeThat is the hotel where Tom got married.

WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause) The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. ( I wanted to see her)

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There are two types of relative clauses.

Defining Relative Clauses

The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

The relative clause tells you which person or thing the speaker means.

We do NOT use commas.

Non- defining Relative Clauses

My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.

The relative clause does not tell you which person or thing the speaker means. (We already know which thing or person is meant.) This is extra information about the person or thing.

We use commas.

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That and Dependent ClausesA dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an independent clause.

When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by that or a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent clause is in the present also.

Reported SpeechWhen that is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see reported speech)

Relative Clauses (Omission of that)That is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.

*see relative pronouns and adverbs for an explanation on the difference between a defining and non-defining clauses.

Subject or Object Pronoun?

Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.

the apple that is laying on the table

Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.

the apple (that) George laid on the table

Examples of when that can/ cannot be omitted.

We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.that + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

This morning I met somebody (that) I hadnt met for ages. that + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.

Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.that + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.

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When that may be left outThat may be left out in the following situations:.

Reported speech After many reporting verbs that can be James said (that) he was left out. feeling better. Examples: said, thought, suggested

However, that cannot be dropped after James replied that he was certain verbs feeling better. Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed

After adjectives In that clauses after some adjectives, Im glad (that) youre all right. that can be left out.

Conjunctions That can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that) in some common two-word she doesnt hear you. conjunctions such as: I was having such a nice so that time (that) I didnt want to suchthat leave. now that providing that provided that supposing that considering that assuming that

Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun that Look! There are the when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in *See that + dependent clauses Brighton

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To hope + Dependent Clause

Structuree Examples

To hope + future She hopes hell come.

I hope you wont have any prob

lems getting home.

To hope + present simple He hopes the traffic is all right.

(refers to the future) I hope the water is not too cold

.

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9Adjectives and Adverbs Possessive Adjectives A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close relationship.

Possessive adjectives Examples Use(subject pronoun) We use:I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a nounYou your You like your job. to show possessionHe his He likes his jobShe her She likes her job.It its It likes its food. (The dog)We our We like our jobs.They their They like their jobs.

my hat our hats your hat

her hat their hats

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Too / Too much/ Too many

Too / too much / too many =

More than you want, more than is good.This is a negative concept.

Structure ExamplesToo + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.

Too much + uncountable nouns There is too much sugar in my tea.

Too many + plural countable nouns She has too many books.

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Placement of Enough

He cant reach the shelf. Hes not tall enough.

Enough =

sufficient, adequate

Structure ExamplesAfter adjectives and adverbs Im not tall enough. You drive fast enough.

Before nouns and noun phrases There isnt enough time.

After verbs (including past participles) He doesnt work enough. Ive eaten enough.

Also / As well / Too

Also As well Too Before a verb and after to be At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for emphasis (with commas)

I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too. I, too, have a dog.

She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too. She, too, studies English.

She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too. She, too, is tall.

We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too. We, too, are Chinese.

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Adverbs of Time / FrequencyAdverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us how often we do something.How often do you go to the mall? I sometimes go to the mall.

Adverb placement ExamplesBefore a verb I never go to the mall. I always play basketball on the weekends. She often practices English.

After verb to be I am always tired. She is usually late for English class.

neverseldom/rarely

sometimes*often

usuallyaways

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Adverbs An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell how, when or where the action took place.To make an adverb: Adjective + ly Examples:Accidently QuicklyAngrily SafelyBadly

Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early

Good (adjective) well (adverb)Your English is very good.You speak English very well.

Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add ily Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily

-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/ Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely

-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/ Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly

*Sometimes can also go before the subject.

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The Adverb that

Structure Use ExampleThat + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid? of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.

that as an adverb

Adverbs of MannerAdverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object. Examples:The train stopped suddenly.I opened the door slowly.

Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:

Adjective Adverb-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)

-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)which is a noun)

-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.

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Yet / Not yet

Yet = until now

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.Bill hasnt come yet.

Use ExamplesYet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane? She isnt here yet.

Yet is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet? No, not yet..

Bill will behere soon.

Wheres Bill?Hes very late.

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Still / Yet Still =

something is the same as before

An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now. Example: I had a lot to eat but Im still hungry. (= I was hungry before and Im hungry now)

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.Bill hasnt come yet.

Yet =

until now

THE RAIN HASNT STOPPED

Bill will behere soon.

Wheres Bill.Hes very late.

Use ExamplesYet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane? She isnt here yet.

Yet is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet? Not yet.

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Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives work together to modify the same noun.

The second part of the compound adjective may be:

An adjective ice-cold

A present participle heartbreaking

A past participle well-deserved

A noun + ed old-fashioned

Irregular(Do not follow the second-handstructures above)

HEART BREAKING

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Adjectives ending in ing and ed

Ending in ing Use ExamplesSubject + verb to be + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. Theyre terrifying.adjective + ing in ing, it means that the particular person or thing causes a particular effect.

Ending in ed Use ExamplesSubject + verb to be + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am alwaysadjective + ed ed, it means that the terrified when I see one. particular person or thing experiences a particular effect.

Adjectives ending in ingSome adjectives are made by adding ing to the verb.

Adjectives ending in ing

Tells you about the situation

Examples: My job is boring.The news was shocking. It was surprising that he passed the exam.

Adjectives ending in ed

Tells you how somebody feels.

Examples: Im bored with my job.We were shocked when we heard the news.Everyone was surprised that he passed the exam.

Examples:

Disgust disgusting Bore boring Interest interesting Depress depressing Surprise surprising

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The past participle as an adjectiveSome past participles can be used as adjectives.

Regular Verbs add ed or d Examples: worked, finished, boiled

Irregular Verbs No general rules

Some common irregular past participlesbreak broken drive drivenwrite written eat eatenfall fallen forget forgottengive given see seentake taken know knownfly flown drink drunkswim swum throw thrown

Examples:That is a broken cup.We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.

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Adverbs of DegreeDescribe the strength or intensity of something that happens. Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.

They answer these questions: How much ..? or How little...?

Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity totally somewhat hardly completely somehow scarcelyentirely fairly barelythoroughly ratherabsolutely kind of definitelypositively

+++ +almost slightly very a bitextremely a littlereallyquitepractically

Use / Structure ExamplePlace the adverb before the adjective or The water was extremely cold.adverb they are modifying

Place the adverb before the main verb She has almost finished.

Examples:Im really enjoying working on this project. The exam was fairly easy.He has barely worked this year.

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Adverbs and Adjectives Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:

Adverb Adjective

Other uses

good well

difficult with difficulty

public publicly

deep deep (place)

deeply (feeling)

direct direct

directly (=soon)

hard hard

hardly (=seldom)

high high (place)

highly (figurative)

late late

lately (=recently)

most most

mostly (=usually)

near near

nearly (=almost)

pretty pretty (=rather)

prettily

short short

shortly (=soon)

The following adjectives are

daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly

, little,

also used as adverbs

long, low, monthly, much, straight,

(without modification)

weekly, yearly,

adverbs are also used to give extra

information

about adjectives (or other adverbs).

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Uses of so

Structure + Examples

So + adjective or adverb = an exclamation Youre so kind!Dont be so sensitive!

that clauses sothatIt was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing)He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.

Substitute wordSo can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.We thank you for flying with us and hope youll do so again.

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UseWe use even to say that something is surprising or unusual.

Example Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.

Use We can use even + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)

Example I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.

Position of even

Even + nominal group* / pronoun + verb Even my sister will be there.Even you can come.

Auxiliary + even + verbI dont even know you. I have even invited John.

*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way characterize that noun.

The placement of even

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Even though / Even ifEven if and even though mean basically the same thing: although. They have the following distinct meanings:

Structure Use ExamplesEven though Concession. Even though youre my Describes a reality that friend, I cant trust you. seems to contradict main clause. Even though she tried her best, she fell twice.

Even if Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend, A contradiction of some hypotheses. I wouldnt trust you. All conditional forms can be used. He wont transfer to Africa, even if they double his salary.

Quite / Quite a few

Use ExamplesQuite = less than very but more than a little Its quite cold. Youd better put a coat on.

Quite goes before a/an Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)

Quite a few = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities. Example: I have quite a few letters for you.

Quite also means completely.Example: Are you sure? Yes, quite sure. (= completely sure)

With theses adjectives, quite means completely:sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious unnecessary extraordinary impossible

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10 Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparing equals using asas

Structure as + adjective / adverb + as

Use To compare two people or things according to a common trait.

ExamplesMy brother is as tall as my dad.Im as old as you are.

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Regular and Irregular Comparatives S

Im 92.Im 93.

Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with than, or you can use a conjunction like but.

1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.old older

2 syllable adjectives ending in y add -ier English is easier than Russian.easy easier

2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.beautiful more beautiful

old older

Spelling RulesWords with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)

Example: hot hotter big bigger fat fatter

Irregular Comparativesgood betterbad worsefar farther/furthermuch/many morelittle less

5040KGKG

heavy heavier

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Regular and Irregular Superlatives

Box A is bigger than Box B. Box A is bigger than all the other boxes. Box A is the biggest box.

Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use the, because there is only one superlative.

1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.

old the oldest

2 syllable adjectives ending in y add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.

easy the easiest

2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family. (before the adjective)beautiful the most beautiful

Spelling RulesWords with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.

Example: hot hottest big biggest fat fattest

Irregular Superlativesgood the bestbad the worstfar the farthest/ the furthestmuch/many the mostlittle the least

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The more . . . the more

Structure the + comparative..............., the + comparative

Parallel progression: we use comparatives with the....the.... to say things change or vary together.

ExamplesThe younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language. The more I learn, the more I know.The older I get, the happier I am.

A use of the comparative

Structure Examplesthe + comparative The younger generation (as opposed to the older generation)

Use Sometimes a comparative may express an This class is for the more intelligent studentsopposition between 2 elements without actually (as opposed to the slower students)stating both elements (the second element is implied)

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Prepositions of TimeA preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the moment/day/time/date of the action.

Preposition Use ExampleAt Time I start work at 9 oclock. I go to bed at midnight. The shops close at 5.30.

On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays. Specific dates My birthday is on May 25 . New Years Day etc. I go home on Christmas Day.

In Months My birthday is in June. Seasons I take vacation in the summer. Years I was born in 1980.

By To show ending date or period. I need to finish the report by Friday. It will be ready by the summer.

Fixed expressions: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the eveningButon Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.

At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American) At nightAt the moment

11 Prepositions

MT W TFSS

May

18152229

29162330

310172431

4111825

5121926

6132027

7142128

th

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Prepositions of Place A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.

AtGeneral location

Precise point in larger space

InInside of a place

Country, city, district something is located in

OnSurface

at the cornerat the bus stopat the doorat the front desk

in the gardenin Londonin Francein a car

on the wallon the ceilingon the dooron a page

Here are some prepositions of place.

on above over in front of

behind under belowbeside

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A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.

Final Preposition

Verb + prepositionSome verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.

Examples: Listen toLook atLook for (search for, try to find) Look after (take care of) Talk about Talk to Worry aboutPay for Depend onComplain about Go to

Go for

Go on

Go in

In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:

Interrogative questions (when the question word is the object of the preposition)

Relative clauses(when the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition)

Infinitive clauses

What are you looking at? What kind of music do you like to listen to?

This is the house that I am talking about.Thats what Im worried about.

Ive got lots of music to listen to.She has nothing to complain about.

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12 Conjunctions ConjunctionsA conjunction is a word that joins the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.

Frequently Used Conjunctions: Examples:And - To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applications andsequential to another. waited by the phone for a response.

-To suggest that one idea is the result of Kevin heard the weather report andanother. packed his camping gear.

- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has aanother. pleasant personality.

-To suggest an element of surprise. Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers from severe pollution.

-To suggest that one clause is dependent Use your credit cards frequently, andupon another, conditionally. youll soon find yourself deep in debt.

-To suggest a kind of comment on the My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test first clause. and that didnt surprise anyone.

Yet -To suggest addition, more of something. She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.

-Despite, even though The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly its all true.

-To indicate that something can eventually occur. They may yet win the game.

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Nor-Used with neither for negative sentences. He is neither young nor ambitious.

-Used with other negative expressions. That is not what I meant, nor should you misinterpret my statement.

But- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still on the first clause. seems able to live quite comfortably.

- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the assignment in class.

- To use with the meaning of with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.the exception of.

Or- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or youachieved, excluding one or the other. can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)

- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,of alternatives. or we can eat hamburgers.

- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the clause. country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.

- To suggest a restatement or correction There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon,of the first part of the sentence. or so our guide tells us.

- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for class participation.

- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldnt keep askingthe use of an imperative. her to design the uniforms each year.

ForThough used as a preposition, we can use for John thought he had a good chance toas a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for get the job, for his father was on thethe preceding clause. companys board of trustees.

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So

- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in largewith a comma. gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds when he is at the beach.

- To indicate as well or in addition. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his uncle, sister, and his aunt Sally.

- At the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the childkind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

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Use of so to express a goal Examples: Im saving money so I can travel in the summer.She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.

So that + may or can Objectives are expressed using so that followed by:

Structure Example

Present simple Hell take a taxi so that he arrives on time.

May / might can / could He stayed after school so that he could help me with my homework.

Will / would I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldnt forget.

In an informal style, that is often dropped.

Example:Ive come early so I can talk to you.

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Similarity: like and as

UseWe can use like or as to say that things are similar.

Structure ExampleLike - is similar to a preposition Like + noun / pronoun You look like your sister. He ran like the wind.

We can use like to give examples Shes good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.

As- is a conjunction As + clause (subject + verb) They did as they promised.

As comes before nouns designating He worked as a taxi driver.tittles and functions

Like and as can both be used as prepositions but have different meanings.

Like = similar to As = in the position of, in the form of

Compare: As Brenda Casey is the manager of a company. As the m

anager, she has to make many

important decisions.(As the manager = in her position as the manager)

Like Mary Stone is the assistant manager. Like the manager (Brenda Casey), she also has to

make important decisions.(Like the manager = similar to the manager)

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Gerunds and InfinitivesThe infinitive (to + verb) is used: To say why you do somethingI go to the gym to get some exercise.

To say why something exists Heres an example to help you.

After too and enoughIts too cold to go swimming. The gerund (verb ending in ing) is used: After prepositions (see below) Hes made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.

As non-count nounsClimbing is safer than it looks

PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite without since

13 Gerunds and Infinitives

If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.

Verbs Followed by an InfinitiveShe agreed to speak before the game.

agree consent hope prepare tryaim continue hurry proceed useappear dare intend promise waitarrange decide leap propose wantask deserve leave refuse wishattempt expect long remember be able fail mean say beg forget neglect shoot begin get offer stop bother happen ought strive care have plan swearchoose hesitate prefer threaten

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Verbs Followed by an Object and an InfinitiveEveryone expected her to win.advise choose have order sendallow command hire pay teachask dare instruct permit tellbeg direct invite persuade urgebring encourage lead prepare wantbuild expect leave promise warnbuy forbid let remind challenge force motivate require Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object.

Verbs Followed by a GerundThey enjoyed working on the boat.admit delay get through practice riskadvise deny have quit spend (time)appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggestavoid escape