Risks, rewards and richness of off-shore oil drilling in the Gulf of

the St. Lawrence

Authors: Emily Farlam-Williams (100921417), Ibrahim Janjua (100907837) and Patrick Bourgon (100886931)

Course: ENSC 3509 – Group Project

Advisor: Jesse Vermaire

Figure 1: MacLeod Beach, Cape Breton Island, NS

Credit: Trudy Watts

Instructor: Kringen Heinen

AbstractFrom ecological, social and hydrological perspectives, the Gulf of the St. Lawrence in Eastern

North America can provide certain aspects that no other place in Canada can provide. The abundant life

in the Ordovician and Carboniferous periods have potentially led to significant oil deposits under the

Gulf. As well, the warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador Current influence the kind of wildlife and habitats

found. There is a gradient of ecosystems in the Gulf, including aquatic, marine, estuarine and terrestrial

habitats. On top of this, a large proportion of the flora and fauna found in the Gulf are considered at-

risk. However, the Gulf faces similar issues to that of other areas in the world: overfishing, degradation

of habitats, agricultural run-off, eutrophication of estuaries and climate change. It is important to

acknowledge how these are influencing the ecosystems in the region when looking at whether or not to

pursue oil drilling.

Previous attempts to find oil and gas have been unsuccessful. With that being said, the Old Harry

Salt Dome looks promising for having significant amounts of oil and gas deposits. Not much research has

been done at this point by oil companies due to the pushback from the public. This is because an oil

accident has the potential to impact the wildlife, the ecosystems and the fishing and tourism industries

in the Gulf. Even the exploratory phases have the potential to negatively impact the wildlife and can

overall be considered damaging to the environment. It is important to note that two of the most severe

oil-drilling accidents in recent history have occurred in the exploratory phase.

In this report, factors influencing the Gulf of St. Lawrence from the following perspectives will be

looked at in the context of off-shore oil drilling: geology, hydrology, ecology and socioeconomics. It is

important to acknowledge that these fields of research are interconnected and collectively contribute to

the uniqueness and overall significance of the Gulf.

AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank Kringen Heinen and Jesse Vermaire for providing so much help to us over the

semester. Emily would also like to thank her friends and family for their support.

Table of ContentsIntroduction

Section A (author: Patrick Bourgon) Geomorphology and Hydrology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence

Chapter 1 – Geomorphology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence

1.1 How the Gulf of the St. Lawrence formed1.2 Effects of glaciation

Chapter 2 – The Geology behind the Oil and Gas Deposits in the Gulf

2.1 Oil and Natural Gas Formation

2.2 The Sedimentary Basins

2.3 Oil Exploration in the Gulf

2.4 The Importance of the Old Harry Site

Chapter 3 – Hydrology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence

3.1 North Atlantic Current

3.2 The Labrador Current

3.3 Watershed of the Gulf: the St. Lawrence River

3.4 Conclusion

Section B (author: Emily Farlam-Williams) The Ecology and Biodiversity of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence

Chapter 4 – The Ecology of the Gulf

Chapter 5 – Major Types of Habitats in the Gulf

5.1 Terrestrial Habitats

5.2 Estuarine Habitats

5.3 Aquatic Habitats

Chapter 6 – Anthropogenic Pressures and How They Are Impacting the Region

Section C (author: Ibrahim Janjua) A Brief History of Settlement, Oil-Drilling and the Socioeconomic Impacts of Oil in the Gulf

Chapter 7 – Resources of the Gulf

7.1 Fishing, Tourism and their Importance to the Gulf

7.2: History of Offshore Oil Drilling in the Gulf

Chapter 8 -- Process of Oil and Gas Exploration

8.1 How the system works and the players involved

8.2 Seismic Surveying & Oil Drilling

Chapter 9 -- Impacts of Oil Exploration

9.1 Environmental Impacts and Mitigations for Each Stage

9.2: Socioeconomic Impacts

Conclusion and Future Areas of Research

Table of Contents – Figures Figure 1: MacLeod Beach, Cape Breton Island, NS (title page)

Figure 2: Maximum extent of ice coverage around the world during the last glaciation (p. 8)

Figure 3: The Milankovitch cycles and the times of the last glaciations (p. 10)

Figure 4: Map of the sedimentary basins in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (p. 15)

Figure 5: Map of the location of oil wells in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (p. 16)

Figure 6: Map of the pathway of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean (p. 17)

Figure 7: A map of the pathway of the Labrador Current (p. 19)

Figure 8: Drainage basin of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (p. 20)

Figure 9: the St. Lawrence Estuary and where it widens into the Gulf (p. 25)

Figure 10: The St. Lawrence River (p. 26)

Figure 11: A comparison of low tide and high tide at Hopewell Cape in the Bay of Fundy (p. 27)

Figure 12: Exploitation rate by commercial fisheries on Southern Gulf cod (p. 29)

Figure 13: The Basins of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (p. 30)

Figure 14: Oil exploration licenses in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (p. 34)

Figure 15: Seismic Surveys in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (p. 35)

IntroductionThe Gulf of the St. Lawrence has played a large role in the development of Canada since European

settlers first arrived on its shores in the 15th century. Even prior to that, it was extremely beneficial to

the Aboriginals in the area. The abundance of natural resources, most notably cod, led to the area

getting named “the River of Cod”. The many species of ground fish, including cod, quickly became the

heart of the economy as it was an important food source, a trade commodity and helped with the

industrial development and economic expansion between Europe and present-day Newfoundland (Lear,

1998). This led to a rise in the fishing industry and became a source of livelihood of its inhabitants for

several centuries. However, due to overfishing, the fishing industry has struggled in the past few

decades but has diversified greatly over the past few years. Today the main economic activities in the

area are tourism and fishing.

The Gulf not only has a unique ecosystem but also contains a lot of potential resources such as oil

and gas. Oil companies have been interested in the area ever since the technology to drill oil and gas

was developed. The two main stages of drilling is seismic surveying and drilling. Seismic surveying is

done first since drilling is expensive (Archambault, 2014) and it is important to know what the area has

to offer first. The process can go on from days to months, depending on the scope of the project. Drilling

is the only means to determine whether there is oil or gas. It is also one of the riskiest steps in the

exploratory cycle as two of the largest oil spills that have occurred have happened during the

exploratory drilling phase. Both stages have the potential to cause impacts on the marine life.

The oil and gas activity also affects society on an economical level since the job market starts to

open up in the oil industry (Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, 2015) and the fishing industry

may be negatively influenced if an event such as an oil spill occurs.

The Gulf of the St. Lawrence is fascinating both from a geological and hydrological standpoint. It was

created due to the last glaciation and is one the most significant features created by them. There are

two ocean currents that affect the hydrology and ecology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. They are the

warm Gulf Stream (also known as the North Atlantic current) and the cold Labrador Current (Hogan,

2013). The mixing of the cold and warm water provide a diverse amount of habitats for life to flourish in.

The St. Lawrence River is another body of water has a great effect on the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. It

brings in large amounts of freshwater into the Gulf which allows for the formation of estuaries

(Environment Canada, 2015). These are transitory zones of fresh water and salt water. The Gulf of the

St. Lawrence is one of the few places on Earth where estuaries can be found (Hogan, 2013). Looking at

the Gulf in its entirety, it is evident that there is a gradient of fresh to salt water and from cold to

warmer waters. It is reflected in the wide variety of flora, fauna and ecosystems.

In terms of how Canada has been protecting the ecology of the region, the Convention of

Biological Diversity was signed in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro and the Oceans Act was put into effect four

years later in 1996. The Oceans Act is significant in that it defines a requirement to protect the species

that live in marine habitats, the ecosystems these species live in and the overall health of the ocean. It

also acknowledges that these oceans are the common heritage of all Canadians. However, Canada is

experiencing what so many other regions in the world are struggling with, including invasive species,

overfishing and loss of habitat (Archambault et al., 2010).

Canada is already unique in the fact that its coastlines touch on three different major oceans:

the Pacific, Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. On a much smaller scale, the Gulf of the St. Lawrence in Eastern

Canada is unique in that it touches on three provinces as well as two states in the United States. As well,

the Gulf is ecologically rich, with the St. Lawrence River flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, there is a

gradient of fresh to salt water, creating a wide variety of habitats. Variable flooding conditions have also

helped in creating a myriad of habitats, both terrestrial and aquatic. Given the complexity of the St.

Lawrence area, especially the aquatic ecosystems, it is unlikely that a full understanding of both the

species and the communities that live there will ever be obtained (Desgranges and Jobin, 2003).

This paper will look at the geological history of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and how it led to the

possibility of oil deposits, as well as the hydrology of the region and the impacts it has on the

biodiversity, the history and economy of the Gulf. Finally, the positives and negatives of going ahead

with off-shore oil drilling in the region will be examined.

Chapter 1: Geomorphology of the St. Lawrence1.1 How the Gulf of the St. Lawrence formed What is an ice age?

An ice age is a period of extreme cooling on Earth. It is associated with the development of ice shelfs and

glaciers, along with the decrease of global sea level. Ice ages have great effects on northern latitudes

due to the encroachment of ice and the land becoming inhospitable for life. It also has an impact on sea

life, due to the changes in sea level. Many ice ages have occurred throughout geological time however

they became more extreme after the Pleistocene. The Pleistocene occurred between 2 million years ago

to 12 thousand years ago. During which a large amount of ice ages and glacial periods occurred. (The

American Museum of Natural History 1998).

Last glaciation

The Gulf of the St. Lawrence formed during the end of the last glacial period. The last glaciation lasted

from about 110,000 years ago to 12,000 years ago. Estimates are that approximately 26 million square

kilometers were covered by ice during the peak of the glaciation. The entire northern hemisphere

including; all of Canada, northern United States, southern South America, Iceland, northern Europe, and

parts of Russia. Also mountainous regions like the Himalayas experienced the formation of large glaciers.

(Briney 2015).

Figure 2: Maximum extent of ice coverage around the world during the last glaciation. (Credit: Bill Illis 2015).

Glacial vs. interglacial periods

Glaciations are periods of cooling in Earth’s history, within which ice builds up and eventually forms into

an ice sheet. An ice sheet is an immense formation of ice that can stretch for many kilometers. There

have been numerous glaciations in the history of the Earth and they occur around every 100,000 years.

In between these periods there are interglacial periods, which are periods of warming. Interglacial

periods last for about 15,000 years and we are currently in an interglacial period. (The American

Museum of Natural History, 1998).

Causes

Scientists still don’t know the exact causes of glaciation, however the most accepted theory on what

causes glaciation are the changes in the amount of solar radiation the planet is receiving. This theory

was created by Milan Milankovitch and consists of three cycles that affect the amount of solar radiation

the planet is receiving.

The first cycle is called eccentricity and it consists of changes in the orbit of the Earth around the Sun.

The Earth’s orbit around the Sun changes from circular to elliptical and back again. This cycle takes

about 100,000 years to complete. The Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation when the cycle

is in the circular phase. The Earth receives the different amounts of solar radiation when the cycle is in

the elliptical phase. When the Earth’s orbit is in its most elliptical phase the difference is at its greatest

because during certain times of the year it at its furthest point from the sun. This means that it will be

coldest at those times of the year. Currently the Earth’s orbit is circular. (Climate Science Investigations,

2015).

The second cycle is called obliquity and it consists of changes in the tilt of the Earth’s axis. The Earth’s tilt

changes from 22.1° to 24.5°. This cycle takes about 41,000 years to complete. Summers are not as warm

and winters are not as cold when the tilt is less. Glaciation is more likely to occur when the tilt is at its

lowest because this makes the summers unseasonably cool. Snow melts during the summer but if the

summer is not as warm then more snow will remain and therefore snow and ice can build up over time.

Currently the Earth is titled 23.5°. (Climate Science Investigations 2015).

The third cycle is called precision and it consists of changes in Earth’s axis. The Earth rotations on its axis

every 24 hours. The axis makes a complete circle of its axis every 23,000 years. This causes the Earth to

“wobble”, which causes the Earth to be closer to the sun in July instead of January. This causes

intensification of the summer temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Landmass can change in

temperature much quicker than oceans. This is a significant finding as the majority of landmass on Earth

lies in the Northern Hemisphere. Ice sheets have a tendency to grow much faster and more easily over

landmasses than over oceans. This is because as snow fall on land it piles up and accumulates, while in

the oceans snow usually just melts on contact with the water. Therefore, changes in the time of year of

when the Earth is closest to the sun can greatly affect the climate on this planet. When this occurs

summers become much warmer and therefore more ice and snow will be melted which will cause the

ice sheets and glaciers to retreat. (Climate Science Investigations 2015).

Figure 3: The Milankovitch cycles and the times of the last glaciations (Credit: Jeffrey Lee, 2012)

2.2 Effects of glaciationGlaciation has multiple effects on the environments on Earth. These include: changes in sea level,

creation of unique geological features, and erosion of the landscape. The amount of water on Earth

remains relatively constant at all points in time. Water changes from solid, liquid or gas depending on

the environment. When glaciation occur ice sheets form and ice is solid water. The water is taken from

the oceans and falls on the land as precipitation. When the climate is warm this water remains in the

liquid phase and is over time transported back into the oceans. However during glaciation the climate is

cold and therefore the water remains on land and sea level drops as a result. This process is known as

Eustatic. When the ice sheets become thick (1-3 kilometers in height) they reach hundreds of thousands

of pounds in weight. This added weight on the Earth’s crust causes it to be lowered due to being

squished under the weight. When the ice sheets melt the crust then rebounds up to its original height,

this is known as Isostatic rebound. (SFU Museum of Archeology and Ethnology 2005).

Erosion

Glaciers leave evidence of their presence during every glacial event. One of the most obvious signs of

glaciers is the erosion of a large area, some being hundreds of kilometers in area. Glaciers are very heavy

solid masses of ice (water in its solid state) that scrape the land as they move over it. Glaciers can pick

up small and large amounts of soil debris and then trap it inside them. When the glaciers retreat they

melt and deposit them. Another visible evidence of glaciers is glacial valleys. These occur when glaciers

scrap large valleys into mountainsides. There are three types of mountain erosion; cirques, arêtes, and

horns.

Cirques are rounded shaped hollows with steep uphill faces. Arêtes are created when two glaciers meet

and erode the ridges of mountains on both sides, this results in jagged-narrow ridges. Horns are created

when glaciers heavily erode a mountain leaving behind a steep pointed peak. (National Snow and Ice

Data Center, 2015).

Landforms

When ice sheets and glaciers retreat they can create multiple different landforms. These include fjords,

moraines, kettle lakes, glacial erratics, and drumlins. Fjords are a type of valley or horn created when the

glacier retreats and scrape the landscape. When the glaciers retreat they deposit mounds of gravel or

rocks. Sometimes the glacier melts away and leaves behind a ridge that show where the glacier was,

these are known as kettle lakes. Kettle lakes form when a piece of a glacier breaks off and is left behind

on the landscape. Over time this piece melts and forms a pond or small lake in the landscape. As glaciers

retreat they melt away and drop anything that they have picked up when they originally advanced.

Sometimes they can drop very large boulders or rocks which appear unnatural, these are called glacial.

Drumlins are long, tear drop-shaped sediment deposits. These form in large clusters sometimes

hundreds in number. (NSIDC, 2015).

The Gulf of the St. Lawrence was created when the glaciers retreated at the end of the last glaciation. As

the glaciers retreated they eroded the landscape and left depressions in it. Over time these filled with

water, and this is why Canada has so many lakes and rivers. As stated previously water that falls on land

as precipitation will eventually find its way back to the ocean. All of the water in the lakes and rivers in

Canada had to reach the ocean some way and thus they flowed into the area of Gulf of the St. Lawrence,

which resulted in its creation. (Briney, 2015).

Conditions in the Gulf

The Gulf of the St. Lawrence has unique water qualities that can vary widely. There can be changes in

depth, light concentration, sediment and contaminates, salinity, and temperature. The depth of the Gulf

of the St. Lawrence ranges from 50-500 meters. This leads to differences in the light concentrations in

the water because light can only penetrate water to a certain extent. In deeper parts of the Gulf the

light concentration will be much lower than those at shallower parts. The Gulf of the St. Lawrence is fed

by the St. Lawrence River which brings in huge amounts of sediments and contaminants into the Gulf.

The concentrations of sediments and contaminants decreases the further one is from land. Most of the

containments are a result of urban and rural runoff, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The Gulf of the St.

Lawrence is also fed by the Atlantic which brings in salt water into the Gulf. Salinity in the Gulf can range

from 25.2 to 30 parts per thousand. Salinity will become higher from the land to the Atlantic. Lastly

water temperatures in the Gulf range from 0.9°C to 5°C. The water temperature is colder in the deeper

parts of the Gulf and in areas close the Atlantic Ocean. (Hogan, 2013).

Chapter 2: The Geology behind the Oil and Gas Deposits in the Gulf2.1 Oil and Natural Gas FormationOil and natural gas like all fossil fuels are made from living things in oceans, ranging from microscopic to

macroscopic in size. As these lifeforms live, they absorb carbon from their environment. When they die,

they sink to the sea floor and over millions of years they get buried in layers after layers of sediment and

become exposed to increasing heat and pressure. Over time, these conditions forced the creation of

hydrocarbons from the organic material. The deeper the organic material is buried the more heat it is

exposed to. Lighter oils are produced with more heat. Over time the oil and natural gas travel up to the

surface or get caught under an impermeable layer of rock or clay. This is due to the fact that the oil and

natural gas are lighter in natural then the surrounding ground. (Adventures in Energy 2015).

2.2 The Sedimentary Basins The Gulf of the St. Lawrence lies on top of two sedimentary basins, as shown in figure 3. Both of which

are suitable for the presence of oil or natural gas. These two sedimentary basins are the Anticosti Basin

and the Madeleine Basin. The Anticosti Basin originally formed during the Ordovician period while the

Madeleine Basin formed during the Carboniferous period. (Archambault, 2014).

The Ordovician period occurred approximately between 485 million years ago to 443 million years ago.

A huge diversification of life occurred during the Ordovician period. Most of the life on Earth at this

point in time was found in the oceans, which were filled with flourishing ecosystems and species.

Numerous new species evolved and completely colonized the oceans during the Ordovician. The

dominating assemblages of life in the Ordovician were the brachiopods (lamp shells), bryozoans (moss

animals), trilobites, mollusks, and graptolites (small, colonial, planktonic animals). Also the first

colonization of land by fish started to occur. (Holland 2015).

The Carboniferous period occurred approximately between 358 million years ago to 298 million years

ago. The Carboniferous marked a period of diverse marine invertebrates. This was caused by the

opening of many different niches due to a mass extinction that took place shortly before the beginning

of the Carboniferous period. The Carboniferous period was dominated by the crinoids, which were a

group of stalked echinoderms. These animals were suspension feeders that were so abundant that they

affected bottom ocean currents and ocean water circulation (Manger, 2015).

The Carboniferous is also noted for its huge anthropoids, nowadays commonly known as insects. There

were dragonflies the size of birds and scorpions the size of dogs. The main reason for the large size was

the fact that oxygen levels in the Earth’s atmosphere reached approximately 80%. Insects have a unique

ability, which is that their size is proportional to the amount of oxygen available to them in their

environments. (Than, 2011). This was also the time when the largest anthropoid to ever exist lived,

called the Arthropleura -- a giant centipede that could reach lengths of up to three meters. (Prehistoric

Wildlife, 2015).

The Anticosti Basin and the Madeleine Basin formed during the Ordovician and Carboniferous periods

respectively, which both experienced a large abundance of ocean life. As stated previously, oil and

natural gas form from the decomposition and compression of living organisms in the oceans. Due to this,

both the basins have the possibility of having oil or natural gas deposits, although geologists believe that

the Madeleine Basin is more favourable to the presence of oil or natural gas. The reason why these

basins possibly have oil and natural gas deposits is because there was a huge amount of life in the

oceans during the time when these basins were forming. Therefore, there was more material to work

with in the production of fossil fuels. (Archambault et al. 2015).

Figure 4: Map of the sedimentary basins in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (Credit: Archambault et al. 2015)

2.3 Oil Exploration in the Gulf Due to its geological nature many oil companies are attempting to find out if there are any oil deposits in

the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. The first exploratory wells were drilled in 1942 and continued until 1996,

with a total of 10 wells being drilled. 9 of the wells were drilled from 1942 to 1983 and the last well was

drilled in 1996. All 10 of these produced negative results for the presence of oil and revealed only traces

of natural gas. Only the E-49 well, drilled in 1974, showed significant signs of natural gas with estimates

being about 77 billion cubic feet of natural gas. All of the wells have been drilled in the Madeleine basin

due to previously stated reasons. (Archambault, 2014).

Figure 5: Map of the location of oil wells in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (Credit: Archambault et al., 2015)

2.4 The Importance of the Old Harry Site Oil companies have stated that the Old Harry site as a proposed site for future drilling due to its

geological nature. The Old Harry structure is located approximately 80 kilometers from the west coast of

Newfoundland and the Magdalen Islands, and in the middle of the Laurentian Channel. The Old Harry

site consist of a vast salt dome that is approximately 12 kilometers wide and 30 kilometers long. It is

buried under 3 kilometers of sedimentary layers. The structure has two “bumps” that rise upward,

which is significant as these mounds form hydrocarbon traps. One third of the structure is found on the

Newfoundland side while the rest lies on the Quebec side. The Quebec side is believed to have most of

the oil or natural gas, due to the fact that the majority of the site is on the Quebec side. It is uncertain as

to how much oil is present in the Old Harry site but estimates are that it contains 1-5 billion barrels of

oil. These estimates were based on over 20 years of seismic surveys. (Archambault, 2015).

2.5 Dangers of an Oil Spill in this Area Many oil companies are making efforts to try and continue oil exploration in the Gulf of the St.

Lawrence. However there is a lot of opposition to more oil drilling in the Gulf from the fishing industry,

the tourism industry, and the local population. The opposition is most concerned of the damage that

would occur to the ecosystems and the species that live in them, if an oil spill were to occur. If one did

occur then it would adversely affect all the ecosystems and of the life in the Gulf, thus impacting the

tourism and fishing industries, thus affecting the livelihoods of those who call the area home.

Chapter 3 Hydrology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence 3.1 North Atlantic Current

Figure 6: Map of the pathway of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean (Credit: John Stoodley)

The Gulf of the St. Lawrence has a very unique hydrology due to the mixing of fresh and salt water, as

well as the mixing of cold and warm water. There are three major bodies of water that feed into the Gulf

of the St. Lawrence. These are; the North Atlantic Current (also known as the Gulf Stream), the Labrador

Current, and the St. Lawrence River (Hogan 2013).

The Gulf Stream is the main ocean current of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the main driver of climate in the

northern hemisphere (other than the sun), and stretches from Florida to Western Europe. The warm

water that flows through the Gulf Stream originates off the north-western coast of Africa. The water is

then pushed westwards towards South America, where it splits and some goes north to the Caribbean

and some goes south along the coast of South America. The warm water flows into the Gulf of Mexico

where it is then forced northwards along the eastern coast of the United States. It then continues until it

reaches the east coast of Canada where it starts heading into the Atlantic towards Europe. The main

forces that drives this current and the movement of so much water are the trade-winds and the north

Atlantic deep water circulation. The trade-winds are the prevailing winds in the specific latitudinal bands

that one resides. South of the equator they run east to west and north of the equator they run east to

west. The trade-winds were named so because ship trade between North America and Europe used

these winds to propel their sailing ships across the Atlantic. The north Atlantic deep water circulation is

an ocean current that flows in the low levels of the Atlantic Ocean. A fact of water is that cold water will

flow under warm water. This is because colder water is heavier and therefore through gravity it

naturally sinks below the warm water. The north Atlantic deep water circulation involves the

transportation of cold Artic water down into equatorial regions where it is then warmed up and rises to

the surface waters. It is then carried along with the warm water currents. When the water reaches the

Artic it then cools and sinks and the cycle begins again. Some of the warm water is able to reach the

coast of eastern Canada, as the Gulf Stream water passes by on its way to Europe. This warm then

enters the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and warms the water in the Gulf. This encourages the migration of

warm water fish and mammals into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. (Weather Online 2015).

3.2 The Labrador Current Figure 7: A map of the pathway of the Labrador Current (Credit: Wikipedia)

The second ocean current that affects the Gulf of the St. Lawrence is the Labrador Current. The Labrador

Current is a cold ocean current that runs of the Northern coast of Labrador. The water that flows into

the Labrador Current originates of the coast of Greenland. It flows into the northern islands of Canada,

and then it flows southwards into the Labrador Current of the Northeastern coast of Canada. However

much of this cold water doesn’t make it into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence because Newfoundland blocks

most of it. Therefore the Labrador Current doesn’t affect the Gulf of the St. Lawrence as much as the

Gulf Stream. However it is still greatly affects the Gulf of the St. Lawrence because it brings in cold Artic

water. The Labrador Current is part of the north Atlantic deep water circulation, which as previous

stated transports cold Artic water southwards to equatorial regions. (Joanna et al. 2015).

However some cold water does manage to make it into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. This cold water

then enters the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and cools the water in the Gulf. This encourages the migration

of cold water fish and mammals into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence.

3.3 Watershed of the Gulf: the St. Lawrence River

Figure 8: Drainage basin of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Credit: Environment Canada)

The drainage basin of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence is the St. Lawrence River, and it is one of the largest in

the world. It incorporates into it all of the lakes and rivers in eastern Canada and the northeastern

United States, the biggest contributors being the Great Lakes. There are many rivers that feed fresh

water into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence however, most of these first feed into the St. Lawrence River and

then the river feeds the fresh water directly into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. The drainage basin has an

area of 1.6 million square kilometers and drains 25% of all the fresh water on Earth. (Environment

Canada, 2015).

The main contributors to the St. Lawrence River are the Ottawa River, the Saguenay River, the

Manicouagan River, the St-Maurice River, and the Richelieu River. The actual St. Lawrence River runs

from Lake Ontario to Kingston, to Montreal and then widens into the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. Several of

Canada’s cities are situated along these rivers (as well as the Great Lakes) and collectively they have a

great impact on the quality of the water in the rivers. Almost every single city on Earth has urban runoff,

which occurs when a city experiences precipitation or flooding of some kind. The rain water simply sits

on top of the ground, since the urban land is impermeable. During this time the water absorbs large

amounts of contaminants, including a large amount of nitrates and phosphates in the water due to the

run-off of agricultural land. This contaminated water then flows into the rivers out toward the Gulf of

the St. Lawrence and affects the ecosystems all along the way. (Marsh, 2015).

3.4 Conclusion The Gulf of the St. Lawrence in a very unique situation due to the mixing of salt and fresh water, as well

as warm and cold water. This mixing allows for the creation of estuaries which are transition zone

between salt water areas and fresh water areas. They are rare ecosystems that house a diverse amount

of species in it. The Gulf of the St. Lawrence is one of the most diverse areas in all of Canada in terms of

life. The next sections of this report will consists of examining the ecosystems of the Gulf and its species.

Chapter 4: The Ecology of the Gulf of the St. LawrenceCanada is already unique in the fact that its coastlines touch on three different major oceans:

the Pacific, Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. On a much smaller scale, the Gulf of the St. Lawrence in Eastern

Canada is unique in that it touches on three provinces as well as two states in the US. As well, the Gulf is

ecologically rich, as the St. Lawrence River flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Thus, there is a gradient of

fresh to salt water, creating a wide variety of habitats. Variable flooding conditions have also helped in

creating a myriad of habitats, both terrestrial and aquatic (Desgranges and Jobin, 2003).

Canada signed the Convention of Biological Diversity in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro and enacted the

Oceans Act four years later in 1996. The Oceans Act is significant in that it defines a requirement to

protect the species that live in marine habitats, the ecosystems these species live in and the overall

health of the ocean. It also acknowledges that these oceans are the common heritage of all Canadians.

However, Canada is experiencing what so many other regions in the world are struggling with, including

invasive species, overfishing, loss of habitat and food webs being affected by the removal of target

species and bycatch (Archambault et al., 2010).

It was estimated in 2003 that 10% of at risk vascular flora and 27% of at risk herpetofauna called

the wetlands in the Gulf home. Some 6000 species were found to breed along the St. Lawrence River in

Quebec and some estimates suggest up to 27 000 species in the area; the majority of which have yet to

be discovered. It should be noted that the majority of unknown species are microorganisms – bacteria,

fungi and viruses – and insects. They make up a large amount of biomass and are significant to the

upkeep of ecological health and productivity (Desgranges and Jobin, 2003).

To put numbers on how large the St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of the St. Lawrence area is, it

was found that in Quebec the drainage basins cover an area of 57 000 km2. Included in this area are

more than 4000 km2 of shorelines, unique ecosystems and a broad diversity of habitats. 399 species of

birds (aquatic and terrestrial) were found in just the Quebec portion of the St. Lawrence area. The area

with the highest richness was the Island of Montreal and surrounding islands (with 327 species) and the

poorest area was around the Lower North shore. In the case of the latter, it is difficult to access and

many species present may not have been recorded yet due to a lack of birdwatchers (Desgranges and

Jobin, 2003).

Given the complexity of the St. Lawrence area, especially the aquatic ecosystems, it is unlikely

that a full understanding of both the species and the communities that live there will ever be obtained

(Desgranges and Jobin, 2003).

Chapter 5: Major Ecosystems of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence5.1 Terrestrial ecosystems

Terrestrial ecologists know that an excellent way to determine environmental health and how

well an ecosystem is faring is to look at the biodiversity of an area (Archambault et al., 2010). An analysis

on the primary breeding habitats of birds in the St. Lawrence was done. It was found that about 41%

preferred aquatic habitats, 36% had a preference for forested habitats and 23% had a penchant for

urban and agricultural areas. Considering the amount of migratory species that frequent terrestrial

ecosystems, the decrease in species richness from upstream to downstream in the St. Lawrence is

expected. This overall pattern is particularly noticeable for species that frequent hardwood-dominated

forests, while coniferous-frequenting species had a more uniform distribution (regardless of a higher

abundance in the Appalachians and Laurentians). In the Laurentians, an area referred to Cap Tourmente

has extremely high biodiversity and is one of five areas of high species richness in terms of

herpetofauna, birds and vascular flora. This particular area also has a significant amount of at-risk

species (Desgranges and Jobin, 2003).

It has also been found that forest fires help with the health of forests by improving landscape-

level productivity and shade-tolerant species conservation. Despite this, they also come with heavy

costs, including infrastructure damage, high suppression costs and the decline of harvestable forest

during more severe fire years. Frequency (and possibly severity) of forest fires is likely to increase with

the warming temperatures of climate change (Terrier et al., 2013).

5.2 Estuarine ecosystems

Wetlands act as the middle ground between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and the societal

benefits they provide are well known. These include habitat for wildlife, protection from floods and

coastal erosion, improvements to water quality and wastewater treatment. Both saltwater marshes and

freshwater wetlands share the commonality that they are low-energy environments with very little

turbulence. Thus, this makes them particularly susceptible to the stresses associated with organic

chemical pollution, including hydrocarbons associated with oil and gas (Venosa et al., 2002). Near

Cornwall, Ontario, it was found via seasonal studies in 1995 and 1996 that there are strong

biogeochemical gradients between a wetland, a creek, embayments and the St. Lawrence River. Since

the differences are more significant at a local scale than the overall length of the river, this indicates the

importance of near-shore ecosystems (like wetlands and estuaries) to the river carbon cycle (Barth and

Veizer, 1999).

Unique to the St. Lawrence area, the Lower St. Lawrence Estuary covers an area of 1300km2 and

its water is both deep and hypoxic in nature (Archambault et al., 2010). Phytoplankton, chemosythetic

microbes, macroalgae and angiosperm flora (more commonly known as flowering plants) are widely

considered to be the major primary producers in temperate ecosystems. Because of this, they are able

to support other organisms in the ecosystem, such as heterotropic microbes, zooplankton, nekton and

benthic invertebrates. Between all these groups, they are able to create by-products from primary and

secondary production that support other ecosystem functions like nutrient cycling (Strong et al., 2015).

Because of the nature of the Lower St. Lawrence Estuary, the phytoplankton bloom that occurs in the

spring is relatively late, around mid-June, but high biomass persists throughout the summer months. It

has also been inferred that the estuary is of significance to Calanus finmarchius production. This is

because the amount of zooplankton biomass may be heavily influenced by the residual surface

circulation (Plourde and Runge, 1993).

Figure 9: the St. Lawrence Estuary and where it widens into the Gulf (Source: Fisheries and Oceans Canada)

Estuaries constantly get nutrients from freshwater sources, but what happens to the inputs is

not as well known (Fisher et al., 1988). Temperate estuaries worldwide are currently experiencing major

changes in both oceanography and ecology as a response to human exploitation and pollution. This

includes more sedimentation and turbidity, more intense periods of hypoxia (high amounts of oxygen)

and anoxia (minimal/no oxygen). This is partly worsened by the overfishing of oysters, which graze algae

effectively to the point it minimizes the symptoms of eutrophication and therefore leads to the

reduction of the risk of algal blooms. Large vertebrates such as gray whales (which are now extinct in

the Atlantic), belugas, giant sturgeon and sharks were all abundant in the Chesapeake Bay area but now

almost gone (Jackson et al., 2001).

5.3 Marine ecosystems

Out of the three oceans, Eastern Canada is the most well-known and can be described most

adequately by dividing it up into regions. In the northern part, the Labrador Current moves south into

the Grand Banks, where it meets the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. The Gulf of the St. Lawrence gets about

600 km3 of freshwater discharges a year to the west of Newfoundland. Here, it is almost an enclosed

shallow sea. It also includes a catchment area of 6x106 km2.

Figure 10: The St. Lawrence River (Credit: Leeds Grenville)

A region unique in both hydrology and ecology, the Bay of Fundy has the highest tidal amplitude

in the world, at 16 meters or 53 feet. The energy from these tides (which is around 2000 times greater

than that Gulf experiences in daily discharge) helps to fuel highly productive and species rich ecosystem.

This in turn defines the surrounding environment as well as the tourism and fishing industries in the

region. In terms of the three oceans that surround Canada, the part of the Atlantic Ocean that Eastern

Canada is a part of is second-most important in regards to phytoplankton diversity, with a total of 626

taxa. Of these 626 phytoplankton taxa, 274 are diatoms, 190 are dinoflagellates, 41 are

prymnesiophytes, 29 are choanoflagellates and 27 are prasinophytes (Archambault et al., 2010).

Figure 11: A comparison of low tide (left) and high tide (right) at Hopewell Cape in the Bay of Fundy (Credit: Kathleen J. Wile)

Chapter 6: Anthropogenic Pressures on the Habitats, Flora and Fauna of the Gulf

Nearly all threatened species live in a narrow piece that runs along a corridor along the St.

Lawrence River. It has been especially difficult to create protected lands, considering how little public

land remains in the area. This is problematic as this area in particular is subject to most of the pressure

exerted by human development. This is partly because population growth and activity in Quebec and

along the St. Lawrence has led to the deterioration of riparian habitats, notably in the Montreal

Archipelago. Many species have also been on the decline as wetlands have gotten smaller. This is of

particular importance given the productivity of wetlands, especially those in the Upper St. Lawrence

Uplands that are located in the mouths of rivers and within archipelagos and delta complexes

(Desgranges and Jobin, 2003).

For estuaries, a looming problem is nitrogen loading from coastal watersheds. A very specific

case of this is the eutrophication of eelgrass beds. This is influenced in part by human population,

wastewater production and land use, among other things. In seven estuaries in New Brunswick, the total

load was the result of watershed and estuary size while the load rate was connected to the watershed

population density. This is significant as impacts of nitrogen loading leads increased planktonic,

epiphytic and benthic algae. This in turn leads to less light entering the water column, more direct

shading from overgrowth and an accelerated consumption of oxygen where the soil bed meets the

water. Residence time of water within the estuary influences the chances of an algal bloom occurring

(McIver et al., 2015). As previously stated in section 2.3, the degradation of estuaries is partly worsened

by the overfishing of oysters, which graze algae effectively to the point it minimizes the symptoms of

eutrophication and reduces the risk of algal blooms. Large vertebrates such as gray whales (which are

now extinct in the Atlantic), belugas, giant sturgeon and sharks were all abundant in the Chesapeake Bay

area but now almost gone (Jackson et al., 2001)

Generally speaking for forest habitats (including those around the St. Lawrence), it is agreed that

the frequency of forest fires will increase this century as a response to climate change. However this is

under the assumption the composition of vegetation will remain the same over the upcoming decades.

This is important as it is expected that high-latitude boreal forests in particular will be affected because

of this (Terrier et al., 2013). However, due to the location of this paper being in Quebec, just north of the

St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, it is possible that forests closer to the Gulf may be

affected in the future.

Historical data is significant in ecologically sensitive areas such as the St. Lawrence, as most

ecological research is based on local field studies that may only be for a few years in duration; as well,

the majority of these studies take place after the 1950s without looking at issues or impacts from a long-

term perspective (Jackson et al., 2001).

Chapter 7: Resources of the Gulf7.1 Fishing, Tourism and their Significance

The Gulf of St. Lawrence has proven to have a highly productive ecosystem that contains various

different plants and animals of different shapes and sizes. What is even more interesting is that the

bedrock and sediments of the Gulf contain a lot of resources, from non-fuel minerals such as sand and

gravel to fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gas and hydrates (Bewers et al., 1974). These distinct qualities of

the Gulf combine to create a unique environment. With all of this in mind, one can note how valuable

this can be to the economy of the surrounding provinces.

In the 15th century, with the discovery of the New World was the discovery of the fish resources

of the Gulf. The first Europeans to travel here called it “the River of Cod”, due to the abundance of the

cod fish. The cod fish, as well as other fish became an important source of food for Europeans and was a

vital for trade, industrial development and economic expansion between Europe and the Newfoundland

communities (Lear, 1998). The fishing industry, which consists of fishing, fish processing as well as

aquaculture had made up to $1.5 billion in revenues per year in 2006 and 2007 (Alexander et al., 2010).

As of today, the fishing industry has suffered in recent years, but has diversified in terms of fishing

activities over the last few years in response to the decline of cod fish and some other ground fish. The

declines in population are mainly due to overfishing and natural predators. Several mitigation measures

such as introducing bans and certain fishing permits have been set up in order to restore the cod fish

population and other ground fish to their normal levels (Swain, 2009).

Figure 12: Exploitation rate by commercial fisheries on Southern Gulf cod (Source: Swain, 2009)

The fur trade, shipbuilding and shipping developed and played an important part in the history

of the history of the country thanks to the Gulf. However, the two most notable industries to thrive from

this unique ecosystem are fishing and tourism which not only constitute the main activities of today but

also play a part in the heritage and lifestyle which have defined the social development of its inhabitants

for several centuries (Archambault, 2014).

As for tourism, given the Gulf’s unique ecosystem, the industry includes cruises, recreational

fishing and coastal tourism and has generated nearly $0.8 billion (Alexander et al., 2010). Together,

these two activities account for tens of thousands of jobs on which coastal communities depend on the

Gulf for their livelihood and shows us the social, economic and cultural significance that they play a part

of.

Figure 13: The Basins of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (Source: Hydro-Quebec, 2002)

7.2: History of Offshore Oil Drilling in the GulfThe Gulf of Saint Lawrence primarily consists of two large sedimentary basins from which

petroleum reserves could be located. The Anticosti Basin, is made up of a shelf of carbonate rocks such

as limestone which is several kilometers thick and is from the Ordovician Period, which is roughly about

415-490 million years old. The Madeleine Basin consists of several salt domes, and is from the

Carboniferous period which is 350 million years old (Owens and Bowen, 1972). According to geologists,

since the Madeleine Basin is from the Carboniferous period and contains many salt domes, it is more

favorable for the presence of oil and gas (Andre and Pittet, 2011).

The first oil drilling that happened in the Gulf could be dated back to 1860. However, real

development started to take place during the 1960s when petroleum seismology went through a

revolution with the arrival of digital technology. Since the fall of 1942, a total of 10 exploratory wells had

been drilled. Most of them have been in the Madeleine Basin since because of the salt domes. Hydro-

Quebec, a government owned public utility, received the licenses and mandate to explore the Gulf of

Saint Lawrence Estuary in 1963 which lead to the first drilling in the Gulf at Brion Island in 1970

(Archambalt, 2014). During the 1970s and the 1980s, SOQUIP (Societe Quebecoise d’Initiatives

Petrolieres), which was created by the province of Quebec to evaluate hydrocarbon potential,

eventually received the licenses to explore the Gulf of Saint Lawrence Estuary. SOQUIPS’s findings didn’t

turn out to be as fruitful as expected, since their studies conducted in the region of Quebec showed that

there was little hydrocarbon potential gas (Andre and Pittet, 2011). In 1997, the licensees once again got

transferred back to Hydro-Quebec, once they formed an Oil and Gas subdivision (Archambault, 2014).

The discovery of oil in Port-au-Port, which is located on the west coast of Newfoundland

boosted oil exploration in the region in 1995. Because of this news, the Quebec Minister of Natural

Resources and Wildlife gave licenses for companies to explore in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. One such

company was Corridor Resources, a private resource company. They were able to gain the license to

explore the Old Harry Sector as shown by Figure 3. Corridor Resources mentioned that the Old Harry

geological structure has worth about 1 to 5 billion barrels worth of Oil or Gas due to it being a vast salt

dome. However, it should be noted that the Old Harry structure has not yet been drilled so there is still

no way to determine whether there are any hydrocarbons present or what type they may be gas (Andre

and Pittet, 2011).

Today, due to environmental concerns and the high price of offshore drilling. The Energy

Strategy Plan was introduced by the Quebec Minister of Natural Resources in 2006 and will be continue

on for the next 10 years. The plan consists of working in collaboration with other provinces such as Nova

Scotia, Newfoundland, British Columbia and the federal government. This includes setting safety

standards for seismic survey boats so that they have little to no impact on the marine mammal

populations. It also contains setting common standards between tourism, fisheries and seismic survey

work since they are all important. Lastly, there should be common standards of practice in terms of

environmental assessments between the federal government and the provincial government

(Government of Quebec, 2006).

In terms of finding oil and gas, companies such as Shell, Petrocan and even SOQUIP have tried

their luck but 90% of their drillings were negative and showed only traces of gas. So, drilling in the Gulf is

a huge topic of debate since there are concerns that it might impact the unique ecosystem in a negative

manner (Archambault, 2014).

Figure 13: Drilled Sites and Old Harry Project by Corridor Resources (Source: Corridor Resources)

Chapter 8: Process of Oil and Gas Exploration8.1 How the system works and the players involved

In order to explore the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, one must get an exploration license. This license

will grant the said company sole access to the area. For example, Corridor Resources has an exploration

license for Old Harry (Fitzpatrick, 2013). However, this does not mean that they have the license to drill.

In order to do that, one must go through an environmental assessment. As of today, there is no ongoing

exploration work, but many projects are being taken into consideration for the future.

Exploration License: Who has them?

Between the years of 1996 to 1997, Quebec had granted several exploration licenses. Corridor

Resources has two of these. One given to them by Quebec provincial government and the other by the

Canada-Newfoundland and Labrador Offshore Petroleum Board since two-thirds of the Old Harry

geological structure in in Old Harry while the rest is in Newfoundland (Koop, 2011). Although Corridor

Resources does not have much experience in the marine environment, its main purpose is to explore for

oil and gas mainly in places like New Brunswick and the Anticosti Island. However, it is important to note

that the federal government suspended (Archambault, 2014).

Eight exploration licenses were handed out by Quebec to the Sky Hunter Exploration which is a

small private company that made instruments to locate the presence of oil and gas from a plane.

However, it is important to note that all of these licenses have since then been suspended. This was due

to the fact that the federal government never recognized these licenses and that Quebec never had an

agreement with the federal government in terms of managing oil and gas in the Gulf. Sky Hunter

Exploration have since then no longer any intent to explore or drill in the near future while Corridor

Resources has focused its’ resources on the Newfoundland side of the structure (Koop, 2011).

On the other hand, Newfoundland and Labrador did not have to go through this ordeal. Besides

the one given out to Corridor Resources for the Old Harry site, five licenses have been given out to Shall

Point Energy and Enegi Oil, which are both small private companies whose main purpose is to determine

oil and gas in the Gulf (Koop, 2011).

Figure 14: Oil exploration licenses in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Sources: C-NLOPB, MRN)

8.2 Seismic Surveying & Oil DrillingIn order to find the presence of oil and gas, seismic surveys must first be carried out. This is

done because of various reasons. The first is because since offshore drilling is very expensive. One

offshore exploratory drill estimates about $50 to $60 million (Sylvian, 2014), therefore it is important to

be first make sure that the area contains the desired resource. Furthermore, seismic surveys provide

information about the geological formations underneath the Earth’s surface such as depth, position and

shape. As a result, oil and gas explorers would be able to find the right location and size of oil and gas

reservoirs (MRCSP, 2010).

Seismic surveys can be offshore and onshore, but in this case it’s offshore. A typical offshore

seismic survey would consist of a survey vessel travelling at the speed of 4.5 to 5 knots. It contains

compressed air guns that are fired in synchrony into the water with a constant interval of 10 to 15

seconds. Once the waves have travelled to the subsurface rock layers, they get reflected off and travel

back up to the hydrophones, which record the reflected energy that the seismic vessel has towed

(MRCSP, 2010). This process can go on from days to months depending on the area.

With the data received, scientists analyze it in great detail and are able to create maps of the

structure underneath the earth’s surface that might have the potential resource. A perfect analogy to

understand how seismic surveys work is the way ultrasound is used in medicine (MRSCP, 2010).

Figure 15: Seismic Surveys in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (Source: www.biologicaldiversity.org)

Process of Oil Drilling

To start an offshore well, a thick, large diameter conductor pipe is embedded in the sea floor.

With the aid of bit, which is placed inside the conductor pipe, the jets away the sediment with high

pressure sea water. A blowout preventer is installed on the top of the surface of the crust, to prevent

hydrocarbons from escaping into the environment. When the conductor has penetrated about 250 feet,

the jet bit is retrieved and replaced with a drill bit. It is necessary to prevent the hydrocarbons from

entering the hole that is being drilled, which is called a wellbore. Once drilling is complete, the wellbore

is opened up so that hydrocarbons can now flow into the hole. A special equipment is installed at the

wellhead to control the flow of hydrocarbons and collect them (Offshore Operations Subgroup, 2011).

Chapter 9: Impacts of Oil Exploration9.1 Environmental Impacts and Mitigations for Each Stage

The oil exploration cycle may prove beneficial to Canada’s economy if oil or natural gas is found

but at what cost? Therefore, it is important to know what sort of impacts each stage has on the Gulf of

St. Lawrence’s ecosystem. If any, what is being done to address the issue?

Seismic Surveying

An air gun, when fired will range from 230 to 240 dB (decibels) which is extremely loud. It is

important to note that sound waves travel at a different density in water so a sound wave noise in air

would be heard at a different volume level in water. The noise carried out by one seismic survey can

travel thousands of kilmoters^2 and raises up the ambient noise level by 20 dB than normal (Weildgart,

2013).

Recent experiments have shown that fish at much closed range when exposed at a much closed

range of a seismic survey can suffer permanent hearing damage while very little to no damage at a

distant range. Such large noise levels can disrupt communication between fish as well as feeding habits

like that of the marine fauna which rely on sound. Furthermore, it can injure fish that have a swim

bladder, destroy eggs of the aquatic wildlife and even cause the fish to move out of their natural habitat.

Other impacts that could happen to marine life are behavioral disruption and physiological. Basically the

closer a fish is to the vessel where the sound originated from, the damage caused would be more likely

and severe. However, marine life is rarely exposed to such high noise level from air guns since they try

to avoid it if possible (Weildgart, 2013). In the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, not enough research has been

done to study the impacts that seismic surveys have on the marine life.

Mitigation

In Canada, it is required for operators for the seismic survey stage to get a permit first before

operating and follow certain steps to make sure that there will be little to no impact on the marine

environment. These steps include the following:

•Making sure not to operate where there is a high density of fish or endangered species.

•To be aware of the range where animals are probably going to get injured and comparing it to

the air gun noise level (Novasek and Broker, 2013).

•To first do sound waves at a softer noise level so that the marine life will go away from the area

(Novasek and Broker, 2013)

•If a fish or marine mammal is spotted, it is important to stop the operation till the area is

cleared.

The following steps should ensure that the next time a seismic survey is carried out, it would

pose no threat to the marine ecosystem.

Oil Drilling

Drilling for oil is the only means to determine the presence of oil and gas. When oil is taken out

of the earth’s surface by drilling, there is a possibility of chemicals such as lead or mercury, which could

potentially harm sea mammals or whales, to come up with the oil (Horton, 2008). In the Gulf,

endangered species like the sperm whale and other huge marine mammals could be a victim of collision

with vessels or oil rigs although it is a very rare case. One environmental impacts of an oil drilling could

be air pollution. With other anthropogenic factors already contributing to air pollution, oil drilling ads to

that by contributing 89% of Carbon monoxide and 66% of sulfur dioxide (Southern Environmental Law

Center, 2010).

After drilling has been done, oil spill poses another serious risk to the marine life. This happens

when the ship that carries the oil from one place to another is leaked into the sea/ocean. Although it has

not happened in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, it is important to study its impacts.

Spills can prove very deadly for birds that rely on the sea/ocean for food or cleaning themselves

up. The most probable reason could be due to ingestion. Another impact that spills can have on birds, is

that when they get in contact with oil, they get stuck to it causing them to either freeze to death or

drown (Ober, 2011).

As for marine mammals and fish, the oil can cause damage to the animal’s lungs or liver. Like the

birds, the most probable cause of death by an oil spill is due to ingestion. When a fish or marine

mammal, has ingested oil, it may find it difficult to eat food since cells in the intestinal tract can get

damaged. This can also affect species that have not even come close to the oil spill. An oil spill can make

the prey not edible for the predator thus causing it to starve or look somewhere else. For example, prey

organisms that only reside in the area where the oil spill has occurred could prove disastrous for the

predators since they will have no food resource, thus disrupting the food chain (U.S Fish and Wildlife

Service, 2010).

Mitigation

Although strict mitigation measures are already in place in Canada, mistakes happen from time

to time. Therefore it is important to stick to these measures to ensure that the probability of error is

reduced.

•Specialized equipment such as the blowout preventer is installed during every drill to make

sure that there will be no loss of hydrocarbons and discharge into the ocean/sea (Environment Health

and Safety Affairs, 2015).

•To train the employees correctly, so that they will be able to identify and respond to an oil spill

in a correct manner (Environment Health and Safety Affairs, 2015).

•To repair and monitor the equipment every few weeks (UC San Diego, 2015).

•To be aware of the potential risks that could occur and identify way to make sure minimal

environmental impacts occurs (Environment Health and Safety Affairs, 2015).

•Adding fertilizer to enhance the biodegradation of residual oil (Venosa et al, 2002)

9.2: Socioeconomic ImpactsWith the oil and gas exploration going on in the gulf, it is important to identify the

socioeconomic impacts. It helps the provincial and federal government see if it is worth drilling in the

desired location.

Positive impacts could include:

•Gives opportunities to local businesses that operate around the Gulf

•Creates lots of jobs, especially for those impacted by downturn in the fishing industry

•Finding oil, can create a lot of revenue for the province, which can lead to a distribution of

wealth (Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, 2015).

Negative impacts could include:

•Commercial fishing will be affected since offshore rigs, which usually covers large sections of

the water, will take over the area hence fishing will not be allowed there.

•Oil spills and pollution can reduce catches for fisherman.

•Offshore drilling is costs about $50 to $60 million which is very expensive (Archambault, 2014).

It would be very important to consider both sides before making future decisions about oil

drilling in the Gulf.

ConclusionIt was found that because of the two currents that influence the Gulf, there is a large amount of

biodiversity and a variety of habitats uncommon to many other areas in Canada. Within these

ecosystems, a large proportion of species (both flora and fauna) are considered to be at risk. A looming

problem is that a good proportion of these at-risk species live along a narrow piece of the St. Lawrence

River and putting aside protected land can be difficult due to the lack of public land. For estuaries,

eutrophication as a result of run-off is an issue due to many cities, towns and villages as well as

agricultural land that are based along the St. Lawrence River.

The Atlantic Ocean near the eastern coast of North America and the Gulf (since it can be

considered an inland sea) are experiencing the same issues as many other regions – including

overfishing, climate change and increasing sea levels and temperatures. However, all of these issues are

complex enough individually one could write many papers trying to encompass the entire problem. The

shorelines along the Gulf and the St. Lawrence River both face a fair amount of pressure as a result of

population growth and increased activity (both economical and recreational). This pressure has been

consistent since European settlers first arrived in the 1600s.

Although previous attempts to find oil and gas in the Gulf has come up unsuccessful, there still

runs the possibility of a decently sized deposit underneath the Old Harry Salt Dome. However, the risks

of oil drilling should not be ignored, as two of the largest accidents in the oil industry in recent history

occurred during the exploratory phase. As well, effects on marine life as a result of seismic surveying are

known to occur.

Future areas of research should include better understanding the ecosystems stated in Chapters

4 and 5, so a clearer picture of how anthropogenic pressures influences them. As well, finding more

information about the oil deposits may be helpful – in particular getting a more exact location as well as

the quality and quantity of oil present. It may also be beneficial to study the exact repercussions on the

tourism, fishing and wildlife of what would happen if an oil accident (explosion, spill, etc.) were to occur

in the region. Working with the public would be necessary with all three areas of research, as they

would provide useful geographic information, local history and their opinions and views on oil drilling in

the region.

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