CHAPTER 7

ANIMAL HEALTH AND DISEASE CONTROL

The animal welfare officer is actually in an ideal position to spread disease. A good basicunderstanding of diseases and how they spread will be very helpful to the officer trying tomaintain the health of the animals under his care. The officer's vehicle, the dog poundand movement of animals are all potentially excellent for spreading disease.

Animal diseasesThere is a large a range of animal diseases and each species has a number of conditionswhich are specific to it. It is not practical to discuss all the possibilities in this handbook.In addition, the diagnosis of disease can only be carried out by a veterinary surgeon andlocal veterinary advice is an essential tool for the animal welfare officer. Officers shouldbe aware that many veterinary practices deal with a limited number of species and it maytherefore be necessary to establish a relationship with more than one, for example a companion (small) animal practice, farm practice and equine practice.

Animal welfare officers' normal practice should be aimed at preventing the transmissionof disease between animals that come into their care. That requires knowledge of diseasecontrol, irrespective of what is to be controlled. Disease control does require someknowledge of transmission mechanisms.

It is never safe to assume that animals are healthy because many well be carrying someform of disease. There are two reasons for this:

● An infected animal goes through an incubation period once infected, before symptoms of disease appear. During this time the organism may be re-excreted andcertainly, in general, the largest number of micro-organisms is excreted just before and just after symptoms appear.

● Many diseases can exist in what is called a carrier state. A carrier is an animal which appears healthy but is excreting an organism. The excretion may be continuous or intermittent but, in either case, stress is likely to increase excretion. Most animals with which welfare officers deal are stressed.

It is therefore essential that the animal welfare officer and any equipment (likely to be vehicles and cages) which come into contact with the animal must be cleaned and disinfected before use with another animal.

Transmission of diseaseDisease spreads through three different routes - if you understand these you will bemuch more able to minimise transfer of disease.

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1. Excretions Where transmission is by excretions (eg, fluid from eyes, nose, faeces, urine etc), clearlythe removal of such material must be the first line of defence. Routine and frequent removal of faeces in particular is important as diseases of the gut are among the mostcommonly encountered. Some of the viruses causing such disease, such as canine parvovirus and feline infectious enteritis (feline parvovirus) are very hardy and may live forsome years on the ground. Cleaning following removal of faeces, cleaning and disinfectionshould be routine

2. Aerosols Where transmission is by aerosol (airborne fine sprays of droplets carrying the disease) itis almost impossible to provide adequate disinfection. However for all diseases there is aminimum infectious dose for each individual animal. Therefore diluting infected air whichmight contain an aerosol infection will reduce the dose to which an animal is exposed.Good ventilation which does not feed air from one animal directly to another is thereforelikely to be an adequate disease control mechanism. Aerosol transmission is particularlyimportant for the spread of disease in cats, dogs and horses, so separations of individualsand ventilation in vehicles and at holding facilities is especially important.

3. Animate and inanimate objectsTransmission by people and objects is an extremely important factor in many diseases.The more hardy viruses, mentioned above, are easily transmitted on feet and unwashedhands can also transmit almost all infections if an uninfected animal is handled soon afterone which is excreting an organism. In some circumstances even vehicles can carry organisms and there was clear evidence of this happening during the last foot and mouthdisease epidemic.

Some diseases are transmitted by equipment and require special techniques to preventthis happening. Although cleaning will prevent most instances of skin disease, ringworm,fleas and sarcoptic mange (scabies) can be more resistant. The design of equipment canhave a significant effect on the ease of prevention; smooth easily cleanable surfaces suchas gloss paint, quarry tiles and stainless steel are unlikely to harbour organisms followinga thorough clean. Porous surfaces are almost inevitably going to be impossible to deepclean. In addition surface cracks will readily harbour flea eggs and larvae and washingonly achieves clean fleas. Specific preventive measures may be required and veterinaryadvice, appropriate for the circumstances, should be sought.

DisinfectionIt is possible to kill virtually all organisms with the correct disinfectant at the correct dilution.However it is critical that disinfection is undertaken on clean surfaces as dirt, and particularly organic material such as faeces, rapidly inactivates all disinfectants. It shouldtherefore be routine that all surfaces are thoroughly cleaned with detergent before disinfection. See Chapter 9 on health and safety for information on the safe use of chemicals.

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Notifiable diseasesAnimal welfare officers should be aware that there are a number of diseases which haveto be reported to the authorities, usually the Department of the Environment Food andRural Affairs (DEFRA). However the veterinary advisor should be aware of what these areand advise accordingly. Prompt reporting is essential to good disease control and the officer has his part to play in ensuring this takes place. It should be noted that the relevantcounty council, unitary authority, metropolitan authority or London borough, is responsiblefor enforcing legislation relating to the control of disease in farmed animals. Thereforeany issues relating to disease in farmed animals should be reported to the relevant authority. Responsibility often, though not exclusively, lies with the trading standards section.

First aidThere may be occasions when an animal welfare officer is faced with an injured animal.The law does not differentiate between an injured and healthy animal and the animal welfare officer's responsibility is the same to both. It is therefore sensible to have somebasic first aid knowledge. However, officers should check with their managers that theirauthority is in agreement with them carrying out first aid on animals, and that the authorityhas appropriate liability insurance. While the following chapter provides basic knowledgeit is worth considering attending a full animal first aid course. Colleges of further education,such as the College of Animal Welfare, often run such courses. The Veterinary SurgeonsAct 1966 limits what may be done by people not qualified as veterinary surgeons. Thereis a specific exemption in the Act for the provision of first aid to an injured animal but thisdoes not extend to the diagnosis of injury or treatment. Animal welfare officers shouldtherefore be aware that it is first aid they may provide prior to consultation with a veterinarysurgeon.

If a veterinary surgeon is to be consulted there will almost always be an account to pay asa result. It is therefore advisable to ensure that the local authority has guidelines in placefor what treatment you may authorise a veterinary surgeon to carry out.

The aim of first aid is to maintain life, prevent a condition worsening and to minimise pain.First aid can be administered by anyone to an animal and inevitably animal welfare officersmay be presented with situations where knowledge of first aid is essential, particularly following road traffic accidents. It is not necessary to make a diagnosis of an injury toprovide effective first aid; indeed, as mentioned above, diagnosis is legally the province ofqualified veterinary surgeons.

First aid is often called for in situations where there is a significant danger of further injury,such as road traffic accidents. The safety of those providing first aid must always be aprimary consideration and, if necessary and practical, animals should be moved carefullyto a less dangerous site whenever possible. If it is not possible to move the animal safely,personal safety should take priority and no action should be taken until police assistancearrives.

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Officers should also remember that an injured animal may react in a manner which mayendanger their safety. For instance a badly injured dog may bite if handled even thoughthat would not normally be in their nature. Proper restraint is therefore extremely importantand the techniques described in Chapter 6 should be followed.

Recognising deathIt is useful to be able to recognise death in an animal. While it may be perfectly obvious ifthe animal is cold, lifeless and stiff it is not so apparent if death is recent. Life may be detected at a number of sites and all should be examined carefully before death is assumed.If apparent death is very recent resuscitation may be attempted by animal welfare officerswho should be aware that, except in limited circumstances, such attempts are unlikely tolead to full recovery and a good quality of life for the animal. When assessing for death,three organ systems should be evaluated; circulation, respiration and nerve activity.

Assessment of circulation is achieved by detecting a heartbeat, a pulse or capillary circulation. Heartbeat can be detected by holding finger and thumb across the chest justbehind the elbows. Finding a pulse needs practice and this is best done on a friendlyhealthy dog. The easiest way to detect a pulse is to use the point of the fingers at thecentre inside the dog's hind leg. The femoral artery is very large and runs over the thighbone or femur making it easily detectable. Capillary circulation is best evaluated inside the dog's mouth. Obviously this needs care if the dog is conscious. Pick up the upper lip andsqueeze gently. This empties all the bloodfrom the smallest blood vessels, calledcapillaries, and they can be watched refillingfrom the outside inwards. They should re-fill within a second or two. Assessment of capillary refill is also useful in evaluatingshock and blood loss (see later in thischapter).

Respiration is assessed by direct observa-tion of movement of the chest wall or byholding the flat of the hand on the chest to feel it move. If respiration is accompanied bynoise further action is required to ensure sufficient air is getting into the lungs.(see later).

Nerve activity is the ultimate test for death. If neither circulation nor respiration can bedetected, confirmation of death is provided by evaluating nerve reflexes. The body has anumber of automatic reflexes which the animal cannot control and only disappear whenthe animal is under a deep anaesthetic or dead. The most convenient reflexes to assess are at the eyes. Touching the inside corner of the eye should result in the eyelids moving as if to blink.

Hand position to take a pulse

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The movement may be quite subtle soclose observation is required. In additionthe pupil of the eye (the black hole at thecentre) always constricts in light. Whenreflexes disappear the pupil dilates completely so that almost the whole clearpart of the eye looks black. If there is noblink reflex and the pupil is totally dilated,the cornea, the clear part of the front ofthe eye, usually starts to look glazed andoften pock-marked. An animal in that

condition is almost certainly dead and even after resuscitation is likely to be brain damaged.

Cardiac resuscitationIf no circulation can be detected urgent action is required as, without it, the animal will dieimminently. It is always worth trying external cardiac massage unless the animal has clearlybeen dead for some time, as there isnothing to lose. The technique dependson the size of the animal but it shouldalways be borne in mind that revivingcirculation is of no use unless respiration isalso replaced in some manner.Compression of the chest is the only effective method of achieving cardiac resuscitation. This can be done with onehand for small animals such as cats, twohands for dogs and with the knee for largeanimals such as horses. The rate atwhich pressure is applied to the heartshould be related to the normal heart ratefor the animal so a cat will need two compressions per second whereas ahorse will need only one. Effective cardiacmassage requires considerable force tobe effective and, as this is a life or deathsituation, it is almost impossible to usetoo much effort.

BreathingAny animal needs to be able to breathe to get oxygen from the air to maintain life. In normal circumstances the colour of the tongue should be pink. When there is a respiratoryproblem the tongue is likely to turn a purple colour and this is known as cyanosis. Some

Testing the eye reflex

Cardiac resuscitation using one hand

Cardiac resuscitation using two hands

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animals, such as the chow chow, have coloured tongues and other membranes should beexamined as an alternative.

A conscious animal is almost invariably able to attempt to breathe and in all but exceptionalcircumstances there will be sufficient air movement to allow the animal to survive. Theonly exceptions are where there are severe head or chest injuries or accumulations offluid in the chest. If there is an obvious chest injury which makes a sucking noise as theanimal breathes, a pad should be applied over the wound and held in place to attempt tomake a seal. Urgent veterinary advice should then be sought.

An unconscious animal is quite likely to be attempting to breathe but unable to move sufficient air because it is unconscious. The most common causes are obstruction of theairway by a foreign body or by structures at the back of the throat. Even though the animalis unconscious, considerable care must be taken when treating such a problem as somereflexes may still be present and any animal may bite very hard, causing injury to the officer.

The animal’s mouth should be opened and examined for foreign bodies. Where there arehead injuries the most common foreign bodies are blood and damaged tissue. It isinadvisable to place hands inside the animal's mouth without first placing something between the rear teeth to prevent biting. Once this is done the tongue should be pulledforwards and any foreign material cleared. At the same time the neck should be straightened

and this will almost always clear the airway,allowing good air flow. It will also clearany structures at the back of the throatwhich are obstructing breathing althoughthe tongue may have to be pulled hard inshort nosed breeds such as Bulldogs andPersian cats to achieve this.

Once the airway has been cleared, if theanimal is not breathing spontaneously artificial resuscitation may be applied.

Clearly this will only be effective if there is also effective circulation so that also must beassessed and treated if necessary. The method of artificial respiration depends on thesize of the animal. For smaller animals mouth to nose can be effective although extremecare needs to be taken not to get bitten. The technique is the same as for cardiac resus-citation described above. If there is no response after about five minutes there is likely tobe such severe brain damage that further attempts should not be made.

BleedingBleeding almost invariably looks alarming but blood is remarkably good at spreading itselfaround and a proper assessment of blood loss is important. Occasionally bleeding is internal and therefore cannot be seen directly. However the signs of blood loss will be

Pulling the tongue forwards

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apparent from the assessment. Any significant blood loss requires urgent veterinary attention.

Assessment of blood loss is done by evaluating the colour of membranes and capillaryrefill. In most animals membrane colour can be evaluated by looking at the tongue or insideof the lips. Obviously this must be done with care as an animal frightened followingtrauma may react aggressively. The normal animal's membranes are a healthy pink colour comparable to the colour inside your own lips andtongue. Pale membranes may be a result of shockor blood loss and in either case are likely to be accompanied by an increased heart rate and reduced capillary refill. If there is no external bloodloss such animals require urgent veterinary attentionand are very likely to die in spite of any treatmentgiven.

Bleeding may be from an artery, vein or capillaries.The urgency with which bleeding must be treatedwill depend on which of these is the source so it isimportant that the officer can distinguish betweenthem. Arterial bleeding is high pressure, always pul-sating in time with heart beat and the blood is brightred. Heavy arterial bleeding can lead to death inminutes. Venous bleeding is lower pressure, maypulsate but not as obviously and the blood is amuch darker red. Severe venous bleeding can cause death but volumes are generallysmaller although stemming the flow is still a high priority. Capillary bleeding, although potentially profuse, is smaller in quantity and tends to ooze. There may be significantblood loss but it is unlikely to be life threatening.

The most effective means of controlling any bleeding is by applying pressure and themost convenient thing to use is someone's thumb. It is advisable to apply a gauze orcotton wool pad under the thumb and pressure should be maintained for some minutes.If correctly applied, pressure will stop bleeding immediately and maintenance of pressurewill allow blood to clot, sealing the vessel. Obviously this is much more likely to be effectivewith smaller lower pressure blood vessels but pressure should always be followed withthe application of a relatively tight bandage until veterinary attention is given. In larger animals it may be impossible to apply sufficient pressure for long enough to stop bleedingas considerable force is required. The alternatives are a pressure bandage and a tourniquet.Both can also be difficult to apply on very large species such as horses and are generallylimited to use on limbs; there is no real alternative to straight pressure on the body.

A pressure bandage may be applied by using a small roll of bandage held over the bleeding

Normal colour of mucous membranes

Pale colour of mucous membranes

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point which is then bandaged in place as tightly as possible. A tourniquet is appliedabove the bleeding point and must be tight enough to obstruct the arterial flow. This canonly be achieved by applying a bandage round the limb and tightening it with a stick orpencil through it. Once a tourniquet has been applied there should be no blood flow tothe limb below it. Consequently if it is left in place for too long the limb will become gangrenous. A tourniquet should therefore be the last resort to stop bleeding and shouldbe loosened every twenty minutes with straight pressure applied to the bleed point. Thiswill allow the rest of the limb to receive blood while preventing further blood loss. Urgentveterinary care is required.

DrowningMost animals are able to swim naturally and therefore drowning is not a common occurrence. Contrary to popular belief it is not the lungs which fill with water but theupper parts of the airway and particularly the windpipe or trachea. Consequently it ispossible to assist the re-establishment of breathing by holding a smaller animal upsidedown to empty the trachea prior to attempting resuscitation. If this is not possible because of the size of the animal the clearance of water can still be assisted by placingthe animal head down on a slope. This action should be followed by cardiac resuscitationand/or artificial respiration as necessary.

When an animal has fallen into very cold water it is likely to be suffering from hypothermiaas well as the direct effects of drowning. This is likely to be an advantage as the timetaken for the brain to die in the absence of oxygen is considerably longer than at normaltemperatures. In such circumstances it is therefore worth persisting with artificial resuscitation for far longer while warming the animal.

ShockShock is a medical term used to describe the secondary effects of disease which may result from injury or infection. The primary effect is on the circulatory system and results

Starting a pressure bandage

Applying a pressure bandage

Placing a tourniquet

Tightening the tourniquet

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in reduced blood flow to vital organs. Shock is a significant factor in causing death following severe injury and first aid should aim to minimise it. Blood loss, heat loss andpain are major factors which influence the severity of shock. All can be influenced by highquality first aid. Blood loss has already been covered. Prevention of heat loss is relativelysimple by using a blanket or, better still, a foil blanket. As much heat is lost downwardsinto the ground as upwards, so the animal should be wrapped as completely as possible.

While it is difficult to control pain, gentle handling of the most painful injuries such as fractures does help as does approaching the animal in a calming manner. Rapid veterinarycare is the most effective method of providing pain relief as this is likely to underpin anytreatment provided by a veterinary surgeon.

Heat strokeIn spite of considerable publicity warning of the consequences it is sadly not an uncommonoccurrence, in hot weather, for animals to suffer from heat stroke, particularly dogs left invehicles. Most animals, except horses, do not cool themselves by sweating and many,such as dogs and cats, only have sweat glands in limited parts of their bodies. In hotweather they keep themselves cool by their behaviour and by panting. Appropriate behaviour includes sitting in the shade and reducing activity to very low levels. Clearly ananimal left in a vehicle cannot use behaviour to regulate its temperature.

On a warm day even with some cloud cover the large surface area of a vehicle exposedto radiation from the sun heats the inside of the vehicle very rapidly. Temperatures canreach over 40

oC within a few minutes even if windows are left open. An animal constrained

inside a vehicle is therefore exposed to high temperatures very rapidly. Such an animalwill pant to attempt to keep cool and this increases the humidity inside the vehicle. Thisresults in a reduction of the efficiency of the cooling effect of panting which relies onevaporation of water from the tongue. Consequently the animal's body temperature willbegin to rise and this has significant effects on it, which will rapidly prove fatal if untreated.Animals suffering from heat stroke commonly have temperatures elevated to 40.5

oC after

only 20 to 30 minutes. Other symptoms include obvious cyanosis of membranes, particularly the tongue, and a very high heart rate. Circulatory collapse and death willensue if rapid treatment is not provided.

Should an animal welfare officer encounter a situation where he feels that an animal in avehicle is suffering from heat stroke then the primary consideration should be the timelyremoval of it. Officers are advised to seek urgent assistance from the police if they findthemselves in these circumstances since they can only act within the boundaries of theirown powers. The first aid treatment is to wet the entire animal to aid cooling. As the brainis especially severely affected particular attention should be paid to the head and the application of a pack of frozen vegetables is very effective. The addition of forced airflowfrom a fan is also very helpful. Urgent veterinary treatment is required and there shouldbe no delay to assess the efficacy of first aid treatment.

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FracturesFractures of limbs are generally very obvious as there is extreme pain, angulation of thelimb and severe swelling. Fractures of deeper structures such as the pelvis and spine arealso common consequences of road traffic accidents and falls from a height. It is reasonableto assume that any animal which is showing signs of severe pain following an injury has afracture and it should be treated as such.

There is some controversy about whether some support should be provided for limb fractures while the animal is being transported to a veterinary surgeon. A judgment has tobe made by the provider of first aid whether supporting a fracture with a dressing is likelyto cause more distress than moving the animal carefully. If a dressing is to be used itshould be very padded and not excessively tight.

Animals often appear to be paralysed following severe accidents. While this may be a result of a spinal fracture it may also result from a combination of shock and pelvic fractures.It should therefore never be assumed that an apparently paralysed animal is beyond helpwithout seeking veterinary advice. It should be assumed that such an animal has a spinalfracture and appropriate handling used, as minor spinal fractures can respond well totreatment and the animal regain full use of its limbs.

It is important when moving a paralysed animal that the spine is properly supported alongits length. With very large animals this may be difficult and if so veterinary advice shouldbe sought at the site before any attempt is made to move the animal. With most dogsand cats it is feasible to carry the animal on a makeshift stretcher. This can be constructedfrom a board or a blanket. The animal should be held onto the stretcher by one personwhile being carried by one or two others.

BurnsSevere burns are relatively unusual injuries to animals and in most circumstances immediatetreatment is provided by a veterinary surgeon. However if an animal requires first aid immediately following a burn the treatment consists mainly of limiting the effects. Secondary tissue damage continues for some time after the source of heat is removed

Placing a dog on a blanket prior to carrying

Carrying a dog on a blanket with a third person to control the dog

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and this can be very effectively limited by the application of cold water for some minutes.If available a hose and running water are most effective. However it should be borne inmind that, where the burn covers a very large proportion of the animal's body, cooling willalso exacerbate the shock which the burn will induce. Large areas should therefore betreated with care and veterinary treatment is urgent where a large proportion of the bodysurface is affected.

Veterinary careFollowing any incident, treatment by a veterinary surgeon is essential. Where it is physicallyimpossible to move the animal because of its size, such as horses and cattle, the veterinarysurgeon must be asked to attend the site. It is always useful to let the veterinary surgeonhave a summary of apparent injuries so that appropriate equipment can be brought.

With smaller animals effective care will be provided more rapidly and effectively if the animalis taken to the veterinary practice. Most practices do not have a veterinary surgeon onsite at all times and it is therefore essential that the practice is contacted before setting offto ensure prompt attention will be available on arrival. Again a summary of obvious injuriesis very helpful.

EuthanasiaThere will be occasions when an animal is so badly injured that euthanasia is consideredthe only option to protect the animal's welfare. That is not a decision to be taken lightlyand there will be very few occasions where it should be taken without an examination ofthe animal by a veterinary surgeon. If a veterinary surgeon advises euthanasia he willgenerally administer the necessary drugs or, for larger animals, shoot it.

On those very rare occasions where an animal welfare officer considers that an animal isso severely injured that immediate euthanasia is necessary without veterinary advice toprevent further suffering, it is imperative that the animal is killed without causing any furthersuffering. Not to do so would be an offence under the Animal Welfare Act 2006. Officersshould ensure that this is within their job remit and that their managers are in agreementto them carrying out this course of action.

It is surprisingly difficult to kill an animal humanely without the use of drugs, which are unlikely to be available, or firearms and so officers are strongly advised to considerwhether it is appropriate to do so.

Even if firearms are used the weapon must be appropriate for the species and the shotmust be aimed at the correct site on the head. If officers are to be given access tofirearms they must also be given appropriate training in their use. The Humane SlaughterAssociation produces some excellent material and all officers who are likely to usefirearms should be aware of its content.

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ZoonosesThe control of disease is important both for the welfare of animals with which the animalwelfare officer deals and in the prevention of zoonotic infections of staff. Zoonoses arediseases transmissible between man and animals and many are common. They range inseverity from relatively minor (but common) problems such as flea infestations to the moreserious and potentially fatal diseases such as salmonella food poisoning and rabies.

The range of potential zoonotic diseases is huge and impossible to cover in this handbook.However the principles of control are equally effective for zoonoses as they are for transmission between animals. Proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is anessential element of prevention. A risk assessment (see Chapter 9 on health and safety)should be undertaken for every circumstance. It is worth considering the routine use ofcheap disposable gloves if hand washing facilities are not readily available. However theuse of gloves can give a false sense of security and thorough (for at least 30 seconds withsoap and hot water) washing of hands is very effective. Where contact with a potentialzoonotic disease is anticipated the use of a mask and goggles may also be appropriate,particularly when dealing with birds.

There are three diseases where advice about vaccination from a local medical practitionershould be sought: tetanus, anthrax and rabies. Vaccination against tetanus is commonand regular assessment of the immune status of animal welfare officers should be undertaken. In some rural areas of the country cattle are occasionally infected with anthrax. Although the risk to humans is small the advice of officials from DEFRA and amedical practitioner should be sought.

Rabies is not endemic in the UK but a similar virus, European bat lyssavirus, is occasionallyfound in some species of bat. Bats should always be handled with gloves and, if they arecommonly handled, vaccination against rabies is advisable. The local authority will normallyhave a rabies contingency plan to provide manpower. Advice should be sought aboutregular vaccination if this includes animal welfare officers, as is likely. The Pet TravelScheme (PETS) has been established to allow movement of animals across the borders ofrabies-free countries. Animals fall into two classes: those where rabies is likely to bepassed on to other animals and those where rabies is an end host. The former are largelycarnivores and the latter herbivores. Herbivores can be imported under PETS with simplecertification whereas carnivores (cats, dogs and ferrets) require vaccination and bloodtesting. The risk of importing rabies is extremely low but it should always be borne inmind with imported animals.

Similarly disease transmission may be from human to animal and liaison with the personresponsible for the control of communicable diseases in the council may be helpful. Inaddition it may be helpful to have liaison with other public health authorities.

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CHAPTER 8

IDENTIFICATION

The methods of identification and relevant legislation vary significantly between species.Some species, such as cats, are not covered by any legislation whereas farmed species,equines and dogs are all included. Chapter 2 on legislation gives more detail.

Permanent identificationPermanent identification generally refers to the use of a tattoo or a microchip.

MicrochippingThe clear and permanent ability to identify stray dogs provides the local authority withnew options to break the stray dog cycle. Microchipping provides an opportunity for localauthorities that wish to do so to return a dog to its owner immediately. This can be accompanied by any other action that the officer chooses to take to prevent a recurrence,such as a written warning. The advantage of this approach is that the local authority doesnot incur kennelling fees and avoids risking the chance that the owner may not claim thedog, which they will have to dispose of in accordance with the 1990 Act. Some authoritieshave chosen to adopt an approach of escalating action if the stray is caught a second orsubsequent time: the ‘three strikes and you’re out’ type of approach. If they choose not toreturn the dog directly, either on the first or any subsequent time, they know where theowner lives, and can write to advise where the dog is detained in accordance with the1990 Act.

Microchips are small electronic devices that are activated by aradio signal emitted by the reader. In response the microchiptransmits a unique number which is displayed on the screen ofthe reader. Microchips are encased in glass to make them biologically inert. They are also electronically inert until stimulatedby the reader. The distribution of microchip readers in local authorities, animal pounds, police stations, animal rescue groupsand charities means there are many opportunities to identify andreturn a lost or stray dog. However there are considerable benefitsto local authorities to promote, encourage and facilitate microchipping schemes.

Standards for chips All modern microchips conform to International StandardsOrganisation standard 11784 and 11785, known as ISO or FDX-B microchips. However,such standardisation has not always been the case and prior to about 2000 a previousdesign of microchip was also used known as FDX-A. Consequently some animals still

A microchip compared to a 1p coin

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have these microchips. Officers are advised to ensure that their scanner will read bothFDX-A and ISO (FDX-B) microchips. Other countries, notably North America, use a differentdesign of microchip which is unlikely to be read by readers available in the UK. Wheresuch animals have been imported into the UK under the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS),DEFRA advises owners to have an ISO microchip implanted in addition. Only microchipswhich comply with the International Standards

Organisation (ISO) standards 11784 and 11785, otherwise known as FDX-B, should beused.

Site of insertion Where an animal is chipped canalso vary, with horses being chipped in the ligament

on the left side of the neck,most other companion animalssubcutaneously between the shoulder blades,birds in the pectoral (flight)muscles and reptiles in a varietyof sites depending on species.Other countries use differentsites, the most common beingthe left side of the neck.

Training Any officer who is to insert microchips should attend an appropriate trainingcourse. Most microchip distributors run courses and it would be advisable to ensure thecourse content complies with the British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA) Microchip Advisory Group recommendations. While it is legal under the Veterinary SurgeonsAct for any person to insert a microchip into the subcutaneous site, insertion in any othersite is an act of veterinary surgery and can therefore only be performed by a veterinarysurgeon. It is also important that anyone who tries to read a microchip is properly trainedin the technique as failure to scan properly can lead to the microchip not being detected.Scanning should be performed in slow circular movements beginning at the expected siteof insertion and extending to cover both sides of the chest and the upper part of both forelimbs. It is vital that the microchip reader is properly functional and that the battery is fullycharged as poorly maintained equipment can also lead to a failure to detect a microchip.

TattooingThe site of a tattoo varies between species with horses being done inside their lips whiledogs are generally tattooed in their ears although the Dangerous Dogs Act required thetattoo to be inside the thigh.

DatabasesNo method of permanent identification would be of any value without the database which

Inserting a microchip

Zone A (red) - normal site of insertion in UK

Zones B & C (black) - site used elsewhere in the world

Zone D (white) - incorrect site for insertion

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supports it. There are currently separate databases, one for tattoos and three for microchipsfor companion animals although there is a single point of contact by telephone on 08706066751 which operates 24 hours a day. Access may also be obtained by persons whohave been authorised, to some data via the Internet. The Dog Identification Group (DIG)has introduced a Code of Practice for database operators, which complies with the manufacturers’ obligations under the ISO Code of Practice. It is recommended that onlymicrochips which are registered on a database which complies with the code should beused.

There are a number of databases for horses although there is a central database beingestablished by the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) tosupport the horse passport scheme.

Non-permanent identificationThere are a variety of methods of non-permanent identification. Many species of companionanimals may wear collars although there are inherent risks in doing so for the more activeand agile animals such as cats that might get the collar caught. The safest collars arethose which snap apart when caught, although inevitably they are more prone to accidentalloss.

Dogs must wear a collar in a public place and it, or a tag attached to it, must bear thename and address of the owner (Control of Dogs Order 1992). It is also useful to have thetelephone number for speedy contact. Unfortunately this is probably the worst knownpiece of legislation relating to dogs and therefore its enforcement by animal welfare officersis all the more important.

Farm animalsFarmed animals are legally required to be identified in order to provide traceability throughthe human food chain, and to assist with the control of animal disease. Cattle will be predominantly identified through a single ear tag or double ear tags depending on whenthe animal was born. Sheep and goats will also have at least a single ear tag, and potentiallytemporary paint marks for farm management purposes and specific movements. Pigs canbe identified through a slap mark, tattoo or ear tag.

Any issues with regard to farmed animals, or farm animal carcasses, should be reportedto the relevant county council, unitary authority, metropolitan authority or London borough,who are responsible for enforcing all legislation relating to the health and welfare offarmed animals.

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