Chapter 5 & Chapter 6

The Civilization and Transformation of Ancient Rome

Geography

Early Roman Government Before 500 B.C.E.

King

Senate: consult only

Documentary evidence: 500 B.C.E. change in government Replaced the King with two consuls

Gave the Roman Senate control over public funds

One consul could veto the other consul’s decrees

In times of grave emergency the Senate could appoint a dictator who would rule for 6 months.

War between Rome and Latins Almost constant warfare as Romans fought with surrounding groups and

conquering them. Latin Territories first, then Etruscan cities.

Latin War: 340-338 B.C.E. A push by the Latin people for independence from Rome.

In 340 B.C.E. an embassy was sent to the Roman Senate to ask for the formation of a single republic between Rome and Latium with both parties on the same level.

Rome declared war on the Latins and conquered them but instituted “Latin Rights”

“Latin Right” Intermediate Rights between full citizenship and non-citizen

status Commercium allowed Latins to own land in any of the Latin

cities and to make legally enforceable contracts with their citizens.

Connubium permitted them to make a lawful marriage with a resident of any other Latin city.

Ius migrationis gave people with Latin status the capacity to acquire citizenship of another Latin state simply by taking up permanent residence there.

Roman Expansion & Political Turmoil In the areas they conquered, the Romans demanded that former foes contribute

soldiers to the Roman army.

Aristocracy = patricians = 10% of the population

Plebeians = 90% who had no access to political power. Forced to serve in army, but no right to political office.

Rights not identified and often judicial system was manipulated against them.

Debt slavery: a debt slave could be sold by his creditor to an owner outside of Rome.

200 year struggle between Patricians and Plebeians is often called “Struggle of the Orders” Plebian revolt forced Patricians to create a new office “Tribune” who would represent the

rights of the plebeians.

The Tribune had veto power over consuls.

By 367 B.C.E. first plebian consul elected.

287 B.C.E. concilius plebeus would be binding on Roman government whether the Senate approved them or not. Origin of the “plebescite”

Equestrian Class To reduce corruption, new Laws Prohibited Senators from

engaging in business Aristocrats left public service in the Senate to pursue

business Politics and business interests merged in old families

through marriage A few families won political office consistently and were

powerful, conservative force in Roman Senate Orders: Patricians, Plebians, Equestrians

Roman Religion Ancestor Worship: primary duty to honor one’s ancestors by his

conduct and the greatest honor was to sacrifice oneself for Rome.

Roman Priests Guardians of sacred traditions.

Prominent aristocrats rotated in and out of the priestly office while also serving as leaders of the Roman state.

Thus religion and politics were officially sanctioned as part of the state.

Roman polytheism: as long as the traditional gods were honored, new gods could be added and worshipped as well

Mystery religions: Mithraism No known texts—mostly reliefs.

Practiced primarily by Roman Soldiers. 7 Levels

Corax, Corux or Corvex (raven or crow) beaker

Nymphus, Nymphobus (male bride) lamp, bell, veil, circlet/crown

Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance, drum, belt, breast plate

Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance, drum, belt, breast plate

Perses (Persian)

Heliodromus (sun-runner) torch,

Pater (father)

Civic and Religious Values Combined Mos maiorum– “the custom of the ancestors”

Mos—morality

Pietas—reverence for family traditions and for one’s father’s—living and dead

Virgil’s Aeneid : Aeneas was pious because he carried his father to safety while Troy burned. He was metaphorically a carrier of tradition—willing to shoulder the burdens of his ancestors and carry them forever. Virgil’s epic poem unites family religion and state.

Patriaas Potestas: absolute authority of the father (pater) within his family regardless of his social class

Roman society was run by elders (Senators) and father figures (patricians) who traced their ancestry back to Roman gods (Aeneas’ mother was Venus).

Punic Wars By 265 B.C.E. Romans controlled most of the Apennine Peninsula

Was further expansion deliberate, necessary or accidental?

First Punic War: 264 B.C.E.

Punic Threat Carthage expands into Messina, an important port in Sicily near

the mainland

Carthage

Phoenician, Numidian and Libyian peoples,

Major city was Carthage (in modern day Tunisia)

Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries—Celts and Iberians

Light Cavalry: a significant part of it was composed of Numidian contingents and North African elephant corps The riders were armed with a spike and hammer to kill the elephants in case they

charged toward their own army.

The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors

Carthaginian merchants By land across the Sahara

And by sea throughout the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic to the tin-rich islands of Britain and to West Africa.

How Rome Won

Captured Phoenician ship and copied its design Created a corvus device for boarding ships

First Punic War 23 year war

Carthage ceded Sicily to Rome Carthage paid large indemnity (money to pay for

the war) Many Romans killed.

Conservative Senators: Rome should have invaded Carthage rather than agree to a peace treaty

2nd Punic War

218 B.C.E. Rome declared war on Carthage Considered expansion by Carthage into

Iberian Peninsula (Spain) as a commercial and military threat

2nd Punic War lasted 16 years

Hannibal

Hannibal’s Invasion of Apennine Peninsula

Hannibal’s Invasion

involved the mobilization of 60,000 to 100,000 troops

Training a war-elephant corps

all of which had to be provisioned along the way

Crossed the Alps

2nd Punic War was a world war in the sense that it involved about three-quarters of the population of the entire Punic-Greco-Roman world and few people living in the Mediterranean were able to escape it.

Virtually every family in Rome lost at least one member

Battle of Cannae: 215 B.C.E.

Battle of Cannae Estimates: 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured Among the dead

the Roman Consul Lucius Aurelius Paulus, 29 out of 48 military tribunes 80 Senators (about 30% of the Senate)

one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost within a single day)

Inexplicable Decisions In History Hall of Fame

Hannibal recalled to Carthage without marching on Rome scarcity of supplies, money, manpower? political components? Did Carthage think Rome would sue for peace?

Rome kept on fighting 201 B.C.E. Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded North Africa and

defeated Hannibal at Zama

Results of 2nd Punic War Carthage required to abandon all its possessions except city of Carthage

war indemnity 3X that of the 1st Punic War

Estimate: 20,000 talents of silver(one talent= 71 pounds) over 50 years

In the 50 years between the 2nd and 3rd Punic wars:

Rome invaded and conquered

former Macedonian empire

Palestine

Hispania

3rd Punic War By 151 B.C.E. Carthage repaid its war debt to Rome Carthage thought treaty was cancelled Rome decided on War

needed grain and area around Carthage was fertile

Romans did not forget their losses at Battle of Cannae

149 B.C.E. war with Carthage again Demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and move 10 miles inland

Siege of Carthage: approximately 50,000 people died of starvation

Six day battle

Rome made all inhabitants slaves and burned Carthage for 17 days

Carthage in Ruins

Consequences of Punic Wars Millions of slaves from Carthaginian and Macedonian territories

Most slaves were agricultural workers

Most economical use: work as hard as possible feed as little as possible, when one dies buy another very cheap because market was glutted

Extensive slave population: enabled large estates owned by wealthy aristocracy to force small farmers to sell their land

because they could not compete with the large agribusinesses

Plantation style economy

Former farmers became urban population of Rome

Under-employment of free labor: slaves could do it more cheaply Created a permanent urban under-class and political instability

Rome failed to develop an industrial base that would have created jobs and opportunity for former farmers

Instability 146-30 B.C.E. Slave uprisings

134 B.C.E. 70,000 slaves revolt in Sicily

104 B.C.E. 2nd slave uprising in Sicily

73-71 B.C.E. Spartacus Rebellion

Trained to be a gladiator: certain death

Escaped to Mount Vesuvius with a host of fugitive slaves

Overran much of Southern Italy

6,000 slaves captured during the final battle were crucified along the road between Capua and Rome (150 miles)

Barbarian Threats to Roman Power

Who is a “barbarian” Greeks:

“anyone who does not speak Greek as their native language”

“anyone who is not Greek”

Romans: “Barbarian” = anyone who did not live within the Roman empire and had no manners

Modern ???

Throughout history the term “Barbarian” generally implies a person who lives outside of the boundaries of a particular territory/kingdom The Other who is “not like us”

Dynamic Roman Frontier Hispania: Iberian Peninsula and Western France Cimbrians: Jutland Peninsula (modern Denmark) Britannia and Caledonia (Scotland) Central Europe (East of Iberia)

Celts Teutonnes/Germans Gaul Goths

Tacitus

Germania Ancient Anthropological study of the German tribes Tacitus did not do fieldwork Based on the memories of Roman soldiers returning from

various wars Used this study to criticize Rome also

Julius Caesar July 13, 100 B.C.E. – March 15, 30 B.C.E.

Marius, Sulla & Caesar Marius:

a general in Roman Army

elected as Consul by Plebian party (composed mostly of soldiers)

reelected six times from 107 B.C.E. to 86 B.C.E.

eliminated the property qualification required to be a Roman soldier

Provided opportunity for urban poor to gain political access through the military

Sulla :

appointed dictator in 86 B.C.E. by the Senate

curtailed the power of the Tribunes (Plebian leaders)

assassinated any Senator who opposed him

Julius Caesar

Marius’s nephew

took his legions to the frontier to fight the Barbarians

political power and enrichment

Hero of soldiers

Demonized by Senators

The Triumvirate

Pompey: General who conquered Syria and Palestine

Julius Caesar: fought the Barbarians in Gaul and Britannia

Crassus: richest man in Rome, defeated Spartacus in the Battle of Siler River

Pompey, Caesar, Crassus

Breaking of the Triumvirate

52 B.C.E. : mob riots in Rome Senate feared Caesar’s popularity among the Plebian

class Convinced Pompey to declare Caesar who was in Gaul

“an enemy of the state” 49 B.C.E. Caesar marched on Rome and Pompey fled to

Syria Pompey defeated at Battle of Pharsalus in Greece and

murdered by Caesar’s supporters

Caesar becomes Emperor Affair with Cleopatra left her pregnant with Caesar’s

son Invaded Anatolia and victory was so swift that he

declared “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)” 46 B.C.E. Senate named Caesar dictator for 10 years

44 B.C.E. named dictator for life Authority to make war and peace

Beware the Ides of March

Caesar assassinated: March 15 “The Ides of March” Conspiracy of Senators who wanted to return to

Republic (power in hands of Aristocracy)included former supporter Brutus

Brutus committed suicide following his defeat by Octavian (Caesar’s nephew) at the Battle of Philippi.

Marc Antony committed suicide after being defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium

Marc Antony and Brutus

The Principate 27 B.C.E. – 187 C.E.

Caesar Augustus (63-B.C.E. – 14 C.E.)

Adopted by Julius Caesar at age 18 as his heir Joined with Marc Antony and Lepidus to secure his succession

Defeated all competitors to become Emperor

Pax Romana

Octavian returned from his victory at Actium and declared peace was restored Granted titles of Imperator (victorious general) and

Augustus (worthy of honor) by the Senate Octavian preferred title princeps (first citizen) PAX ROMANA: Relative peace i.e. no major wars

Octavian Reforms

New coinage Introduced public services Reorganized the army Allowed cities and provinces rights of self-government

Appearance versus Reality Senate had no power

Augustus controlled the army

Reforms of traditional civic values were superficial Rebuilt temples

Prohibited Romans from worshipping foreign gods

Fined citizens who failed to marry

Required widows to marry within 2 years

Punished adultery (by women)

Made divorce more difficult

Augustus himself had many affairs

His daughter Julia had so many affairs that he was forced to banish her

Aristocrats still controlled large farming estates

Underemployment remained a serious problem

No industrial development

Pax Romana Lasted from 28 B.C.E. to 180 C.E.

Few powerful external enemies

Mediterranean Sea controlled by one military power: Rome

Land frontiers/borders– Scotland to Persia

Exceptions to peace were rebellions by Britannia and Hebrews.

Assimilation of residents along the frontier into the common cultural and political life of Rome

Aristocratic Women Owned property

Invested in commercial ventures

Made public contributions to particular causes

Priestesses & civic patrons

NO public office

Nominally under authority of nearest male relative (perpetual minority)

Educated to be accomplished wives and mothers

Certain sexual freedom

Plebian Women Little is known

Early marriage

Husband’s helpers

Engaged in shop keeping

Motherhood 3-4 children

Life expectancy 34 years

Roman Law Civil Law: applied to Roman citizens Law of the Peoples: applied to everyone and supplemented

civil law Natural Law: founded on Stoic philosophy

Natural order of nature Embodied justice and right All men are entitled to it Conceptual but not applied

Religions Roman gods Local gods Judaism Christianity Mystic Religions

Christianity Jesus was a historical figure

Tacitus & Pliny the Younger Mention Jesus, confirm he was crucified by Pontius Pilate, identify Christians as a religious

sect (they don’t like them)

Josephus Jewish historian

Wrote a Roman friendly history of the Jews

Mentions Jesus, John the Baptist and James

Mentions Paul and the early church

A confession that Jesus was the Christ in Josephus’s history is believed to have been added by the Church

Christian Beliefs in the 1st Century Based on Gospels: Matthew, Mark, & Luke

John is believed to have been written as much as two decades after the other three

Considerable disagreement among scholars as to dates of writing

Paul’s Letters to early churches Some believe written before the gospels—some after

Paul and Peter killed during Nero persecution of Christians around 64 C.E. according to Eusebeius

If Paul is the author of these letters then they must have been written before 64 C.E.

Jesus and Second Temple Judaism

Dead Sea Scrolls

1947 Bedouin boy discovers Jewish religious texts hidden in a cave near Qumran

Not available to scholars until very recently

Hebrew Monotheism The belief that a single god is the creator and ruler of all things

Yahweh is transcendent: exists outside of time, nature, place and Kingship

Ethical monotheism: obligations owed by all human beings toward their creator, independent of place or political identity Yahweh created man in His image

Yahweh is exclusively a god of righteousness

Evil comes from man not Yahweh

Micah 6:8 Yahweh requires man to live justly, love mercy and walk humbly

Christian Monotheism Adopted basic principles of Hebrew ethical monotheism

Rejected most ritual practices of Judaism for Gentile believers

Salvation offered to everyone without Jewish ritual observance based on faith in Jesus

Practiced sacrament “means of grace” of Holy Baptism

Practiced sacrament of Holy Communion

Sects developed and arguments arose over teachings of Jesus and Paul

Roman Issues with Christianity Feared destabilization Christianity recognized no other gods (Romans

allowed other gods but expected people to show respect to theirs)

Christians refused to worship the emperor as a god Despite growth of Christianity no more than 5 – 10%

of people in Roman Empire were Christians

Crisis of the 3rd Century Nero and Caligula (poor emperors) succeeded by

capable emperors who ruled until 180 C.E. After 182 C.E.

Provincial armies engaged in civil war and victors ruled as military dictators

From 235-284 C.E. 26 “barracks Emperors” ruled Rome

Elements of the Crisis Civil War

Economic woes

War ravaged agriculture

Inflation

Taxation

Plague

Galen a Greek Physician

diarrhea, fever, inflamed throat with dry pustules appearing on the 9th day of illness

Modern historians conclude smallpox

Decimated population, economic crisis and ravages of civil war lead Roman armies to pull back from previous frontiers

Rome in Decline Rome recovered by 289 C.E. but never returned to its former glory

Roman rule continues for another 200 years in the West

Roman rule continues for another 1,000 years in the East

Causes of decline argued by historians today

Barbarian attacks

No clear law of succession

Lack of constitutional means for reform

Allowed too much power to military

Slave system and failure to develop industrial economy led to unstable economy

required dependence on taxes

Required tribute from conquered lands

Declining population due to disease, civil war, constant foreign warfare

Aristocrats contributed very little to economy and relied on legislated privileges that exempted them from taxes

Local elite could not keep up with demands undermining urban basis of classical Roman civic ideals

Lack of interest in preserving Rome by its citizens

Diocletian

Diocletian Ruled from 284-305 C.E.

Autocrat

Dominus (Lord)

Formal rules off succession Split empire into East & West: 2 augusti

2 Caesars

Known as the Tetrarch

Moved capital from Rome to Nicomedia (in Turkey). Diocletian ruled from Nicomedia

Senate remained in Rome

From Diocletian to Constantine Neoplatonism

Plotinus, a Hellenistic philosopher from Egypt (204-270 C.E.)

Everything has its source in a single supreme being

Material world is the residue of the divine from which all spirituality has been drained

Human beings = matter and emanations of the divine (souls)

Highest goal of life: attain spiritual reunion with God through acts of self-denial

Constantine

Constantine Ruled from 312-337

Built a new capitol in the East: Constantinople

Abandoned Tetrarch in favor of dynasty

Eastern Empire Richer

More populous

More central to imperial policy

Western Empire Poorer

Peripheral

Not well defended

Legalized Christianity within Roman Empire

Popular Version of Constantine’s Conversion Saw a Christian symbol while preparing to battle the “Barbarians” at Malian

Bridge

Voice said, “In this sign, conquer”

Constantine ordered men to paint the symbol on their shields

He won Constructed churches

Did not prohibit pagan worship

Christianity became favored religion

Historical Accounts of Constantine’s Conversion

Lactantius: North African Latin historian who tutored Constantine’s son: The night before the Battle of Milvian Bridge against Maxentius (Western Roman Emperor)

Constantine dreamed of being ordered to place a heavenly divine symbol upon his soldiers’ shields.

Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century Christian Bishop who wrote a history of the early church) Well before the battle, Constantine looked up at the sun and saw a cross of light above it

and the words “In this sign, conquer.”

The next night Christ came to Constantine in a dream and told him to use the sign against his enemies.

MaxentiusWestern Roman Emperor. Defended Romeagainst various revolts. -Engaged in 5 year war with Constantine over who controlled the Western Roman Empire.-Army in the Eastern Empire declared Constantine, the son of the previous emperor Constantius to be Augustus.-Army in Western Empire favored Maxentius, the son of Constantius’s predecessor, Maximian as emperor. Constantine had Maximian executed.

Constantine’s Symbol: Chi Rho

Chi Rho Formed by imposing the 1st two capital letters of the Greek word for Christ X

and P

Not technically a cross, symbol invokes the crucifixion and the title “Christ”

Symbol was often used by ancient Greeks as a symbol for “good fortune”

Chi Rho became Constantine’s Labarum (military standard of the Roman Army)

What is the effect of this on Christianity as a religion?

Constantine’s Labarum

1st Council of Nicaea (325) & New Contours of 4th Century Christianity

Basic doctrinal disputes resolved Arius vs. Athanasius

Controversy over the Trinity: What was the relationship of Jesus to God?

Council of Nicaea adopted Athanasius ‘ view

Clearly defined hierarchy of the Church

Patriarchs

Bishops

Primacy of Bishop of Rome: Pope

Women excluded from authority Contrary to practices of Jesus and the early church

Make Christianity complement Roman tradition

Neoplatonism—liberate the soul from tyranny of bodily desiresSex and eating were associated with women

Spread of Monasticism

Western Christian Thought Saint Jerome (340-420)

Translated Bible into Latin (vulgate) Argued that classical learning was important for Christians

Saint Ambrose (340-397) Archbishop of Milan Argued that Emperor not above the Church Admired Cicero but said highest virtue is reverence for God

Saint Augustine Bishop of Hippo in North Africa

How could humans be so profoundly sinful when they were created by an all-powerful God whose nature is entirely good?

Augustine’s answer: all evils are result of the innate human propensity to place our own desires above God’s

No one has the grace necessary for salvation

Grace is God’s gift: given in greater portion to some

Wrote City of God in response to those who blamed Christians for fall of Rome

Barbarians at the Gates Huns

Nomadic tribes from east of the Volga River

Origins and language are subject of debate

Mounted archers

Atila the Hun

Repeatedly attacked Eastern Roman Empire forcing Theodosius to pay tribute

The barbarian territory of the Huns, (in Thrace, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers. (Callinicus, in Life of Saint Hypatius)

Borders of Thrace

Illustration from NuremburgChronicle

Statue of Unknown Origin c. 1800-1900

Germanic Invasions Germans were settled agriculturalists and sophisticated metalworkers

Traded with Romans Settled inside the empire Adopted Arian Christianity

Goths settled along Danube 378 Goths revolted Theodosius accommodated Goth demands for food and land Alaric invaded Rome in 410 476 last Roman Emperor toppled by army of Germans, Huns and Roman

soldiers

Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, J.N. Sylvestri, 1890

Alaric

Causes of Collapse of Western Roman Empire

Military failure

Economic failure

Division of Empire

Invader Kingdoms collected taxes but did not pay them to Rome

People moved out

Survival of Roman Institutions Roman cities survived in Gaul and Spain

Roman agricultural patterns remained

Roman aristocrats dominated civic life

Roman law

Roman authority in the Christian Church Respect for authority and traditions of the ancestors (apostles and early Church fathers)

Authority of the Pater in home, society and government

Justinian I (482-565)

Byzantine Emperor

Codified Roman Law

Planned to re-conquer Western Roman Empire

Problems Enormous cost

Insufficient manpower

Distracted attention from dangers in the east

Era of Late Antiquity Assimilation of Roman culture by Barbarians

Migrations caused frontiers of empire to be indistinguishable from interiors of Western Empire Learned culture of Greek and Roman world extended to larger numbers of people

Increasingly Christian character of Roman world

Fusion of Christian culture and late Roman governance Still centered around Mediterranean Sea

Similarities & Differences between Rome, Great Britain and the U.S.

Similarities on a macro level Great Britain and Rome: Conquest, colonization and the Civilizing Mission

Great Britain, U.S. and Rome: superpowers, stability and peace

Rome, U.S. and Great Britain: power of the legislature, written laws and separation of powers

Evolution from agrarianism to complex system of foreign and domestic markets, unemployment, disparities in wealth

Differences Rome never developed an industrialized economy

Never pretended to be representative of all citizens

Equality, individual rights were unheard of

Rome depended on slavery to a degree unmatched in the modern world

Religious and political life were inseperable

Legacy of Rome Architecture

Legal codes

Romance languages

Roman Catholic Church and the Roman state (Pope=Pontifex Maximus)

Rome as Mediator between ancient civilizations of Near East, Mediterranean basin and Europe