MALAYSIA:ARCHITECTURE, INTERIORS AND FURNITURE

ID 24: Philippine and Asian Historical StylesTHU-B

L.I. Brasileño

BY:DE LA TORRE, SARAH

GUIANG, GILLIAN B.JOSE, ROMINA L.

May 20, 2015(Date Submitted)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTIONA. BackgroundB. Historical Periods

B.1. Cape RouteB.2. Straits SettlementB.3. British MalayaB.4. The World WarsB.5. Self-Government

II. DEFINITION OF TERMSA. MaterialsB. Interiors & ArchitectureC. Furniture

III. ARCHITECTURE AND INTERIORSA. Pre-Colonial

A.1. KampongA.2. Residential Structures

A.2.1. Traditional Malay House (Compound)A.2.1.1. Architectural CharacteristicsA.2.1.2. Parts of a Malay HouseA.2.1.3. Traditional Malay House Types

A.2.1.3.1. Bumbung Panjang A.2.1.3.2. Bumbung LimaA.2.1.3.3. Bumbung Meru Tingkat-tingkatA.2.1.3.4. Bumbung Perak

A.2.2. LonghouseA.2.2.1. Architectural Structures A.2.2.2. Parts of a LonghouseA.2.2.3. Longhouse Types

A.2.2.3.1. Iban LonghouseA.2.2.3.2. Rumah Tinggi (Melanau Tall House)A.2.2.3.3. Orang Ulu LonghouseA.2.2.3.4. Bidayuh Longhouse

A.2.3. Istana (Royal Palace)A.3. Ecclesiastic Structures

A.3.1. MosquesA.3.1.1. Types of Spaces in the MosqueA.3.1.2. Traditional Vernacular Style

B. ColonialB.1. Portuguese Colonial

B.1.1. Architectural Characteristics and Building PoliciesB.1.2. Civic and Military Structures

B.1.2.1. A’FamosaB.1.3. Residential Structures

B.1.3.1. TranqueiraB.2. Dutch Colonial

B.2.1. Architectural Characteristics and Building PoliciesB.2.2. Civic and Military Structures

B.2.2.1. StadthuysB.2.3. Ecclesiatical Structures

B.2.3.1. Christ ChurchB.2.4. Residential Structures

B.2.4.1. TownhouseB.3. British Colonial

B.3.1. Architectural Characteristics and Building PoliciesB.3.2. Civic Structures

B.3.2.1. Administrative BuildingsB.3.2.1.1. Sultan Abdul Samad Building

B.3.2.2. Transportation StationsB.3.2.2.1. Ipoh Railway Station

B.3.2.3. Educational CentersB.3.2.3.1. Penang Free SchoolB.3.2.3.2. Malay College

B.3.2.4. Memorial StructuresB.3.2.4.1. Queen Victoria Memorial ClocktowerB.3.2.4.2. Brooke Memorial

B.3.3. Commercial BuildingsB.3.3.1. Banks

B.3.3.1.1. Chartered Bank “Chartaban”, KLB.3.3.1.2. Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, Ipoh

B.3.4. Recreational BuildingsB.3.4.1. Clubs

B.3.4.1.1. Royal Selangor ClubB.3.4.1.1.1. The Spotted Dog

B.3.4.1.2. Malacca ClubB.3.5. Residential Buildings

B.3.5.1. Westernized PalacesB.3.5.1.1. Istana BesarB.3.5.1.2. Istana Maziah

B.3.5.2. MansionsB.3.5.2.1. Carcosa Seri Negara

B.3.6. Ecclesiastical BuildingsB.3.6.1. European Classical Style Mosque

C. Immigration ContributionC.1. Chinese Influence

C.1.1. Ecclesiastical BuildingsC.1.1.1. Temples

C.1.1.1.1. Sino Eclectic Style MosqueC.1.1.1.2. Examples

C.1.1.1.2.1. Cheng Hoon TengC.1.1.1.2.2. Chan See Shu Yuen Temple

C.1.2. Residential BuildingsC.1.2.1. Shophouses

C.1.2.1.1. Architectural Characteristics C.1.2.1.2. Shophouse Types

C.1.2.1.2.1. Utilitarian/TransitionalC.1.2.1.2.2. NeoclassicC.1.2.1.2.3. Art DecoC.1.2.1.2.4. Modern

C.1.2.2. KongsiC.1.2.2.1. Architectural CharacteristicsC.1.2.2.2. Examples

C.1.2.2.2.1. Leong San Teong Khoo KongsiC.2. Indian Influence

C.2.1. Ecclesiastical BuildingsC.2.1.1. NorthIndian Style MosqueC.2.1.2. Gopuram

D. Modern Structures and SpacesD.1. Between the Wars

D.1.1. Residential BuildingsD.1.1.1. Bungalow D.1.1.2. Colonial Mansion / Villa

D.1.1.2.1. ExamplesD.1.1.2.1.1. Bok Houses in Kuala Lumpur D.1.1.2.1.2. Chan Chin Mooi Mansion in Batu Pahat

D.1.1.3. Link Houses D.2. Independence and After

D.2.1. Sixties D.2.2. Seventies D.2.3. Late Seventies and Mid-Eighties

D.2.3.1. Civic BuildingsD.2.3.1.1. VIP Pavilion in Kuching Airport, Bank Negara Building in Ipoh

Handicraft Centre in Seremban D.2.3.1.2. Syariah Court, Kuching and the Religious Council Buildings in

Kota Kinabalu D.2.3.1.3. Chinese Temple of Thean Hou, SESCO Building in Kuching,

Civic Halls in Kuching, Sarikei, and SebuD.2.3.2. Ecclesiastical Buildings

D.2.3.2.1. Post Modern Revivalism Style Mosque

IV. FURNITURE & ACCESSORIESA. Furniture B. Ceramics

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY

VI. APPENDICES

I. INTRODUCTION

A. BackgroundThe Federation of Malaysia is comprised of the Malay Peninsula (West

Malaysia) and Sarakaw and Sabah on the Borneo Island (East Malaysia), while the South China Sea is located between the two sides of Malaysia. Malaysia is located 7 degrees above the equator; thus, it experiences a tropical climate wherein there is the wet and dry season. Its land area totals to 329, 759 square kilometers, having a population of 29.95 million which consists of Malays, Chinese, Indians, and Bumiputeras. The national language is Malay, although English is still widely spoken. The official religion is Islam, yet there is still the presence of Buddhism and Christianity.

B. Historical PeriodsB.1. Cape Route

Malaya is strategically positioned near Johore, Selangor and Kra Isthmus. It can then be seen that Malaya is virtually controlled by these external spheres of influence. Its independence is obtained through the balance of influence between these stronger powers. ‘Malay’ is used to describe any Muslim who is not Indian or Chinese and is a range of ethnic groups ranging from semi-aboriginal people in the Negri Sembilan to the Bugis of Selangor.

Malacca is considered to be the first Malay Kingdom which was at first dependent on Thailand. Later, it formed an alliance with China and thus, their allegiance to Thailand was renounced and their control was extended to other river kingdoms, specifically Pahang which was an important source of gold. Malacca was a port from which gold was shipped, and was a vital trade center since Europeans passed through Malacca to arrive in China. Eventually, the Portuguese saw the importance of Malacca and sought to gain control of it. In 1511, they managed to capture Malacca. The Dutch envied this vital position so they aimed to overthrow their rivals. By the year 1641, after naval attempts and successes, the Dutch captured Malacca – marking the start of the Dutch period.

B.2. Straits SettlementThe British East India Company established supremacy in the Indian Ocean

between 1661 and 1763 after defeating the French with the help of the Royal Navy. During that time, in the year 1759, the Dutch was defeated as well. In the years after 1763, the French was then getting stronger. Thus in 1786, the British Indies decided to make a base in the island of Penang to further protect India. The British captured Malacca as well in 1795 and this marked the start of British Malaya. After a series of events which involved the distribution of colonies among the European powers, the Straits Settlements was established having trade centers situated in Penang, Province Wellesley, Malacca, and Singapore. The objective of the Straits Settlements Association was to extend the British influence in Malaya.

B.3. British MalayaSir Andrew Clarke took the Malay States of Perak, Selangor and Sungei

Ujong under British protection, having a Resident in each as an adviser. Under

these Residents, the Malay states achieved order, prosperity and progress. These seen in the construction of multiple railways and the cultivation of rubber. Since the British occupation had extended to Pahang and to the Nergi Sembilan, they then formed a single Federation in 1895, having Kuala Lumpur as the capital. However, British control was only seen in the states known to be productive of tin. On another hand, Chinese immigration was common at this time due to the Taiping Rebellion of 1850. This contributed to the many Chinese influences in Malaya.

B.4. The World WarsAround 1914, the Japanese had already begun to show an interest in Malaya.

The absence of British warships made it possible for the Japanese to use Singapore facilities. The British Alliance with Japan was due for renewal in July 1921, but Mr. Lloyd George allowed the alliance to lapse. The Four-Power Treaty of December 1921 replaced the alliance, which led to the loss of Britain to fortify Malaya, excluding Singapore, against any Japanese hostilities. As a last chance to uphold British supremacy in the Indian Ocean, the development of the Singapore Naval Base took place in 1923. However, construction was stopped in 1924 because the British voters decided that the funds must be used towards themselves, rather than on the naval base. Britain then resolved to leave the Singapore Base without a fleet – leaving Malaya undefended.

While the British fleet was in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, the Japanese took the chance and struck at Pearl Harbor and northern Malaya in 1941. The Japanese then invaded Malaya, wherein the naval ascendancy last six months. The Japanese occupation lasted for three years, from which the Malays, Indians, and Chinese endured hardships through tortures and executions. All these led to a collapsed system, wherein the Malayan economy was down and there was a shortage of food supplies. Although, secret resistance movements began to form. The British, Indians, and Malays hid in the jungles and these resistance groups helped one another by supplying arms, ammunitions, supplies and technical assistance.

After the bombing at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 which led to the surrender of the Japanese, the said resistance groups emerged from the jungles and took control. Sadly, not only was there physical damage, but the Malays endured mental and psychological damage due to the Japanese occupation. Many people had learnt how to seek safety or wealth through treachery, blackmail, and corruption. The British Military Administration then launched the operation for the recovery of Malaya. However, British protection had failed Malaya during its hour of crisis. This then sparked the independent thinking among the Malays.

B.5. Self-GovernmentThe first Malay organization was formed in 1926, having the name Kesatuan

Melayu Singapuru (Singapore Malay Union), being the evidence of the growing Malayan nationalism. Later in 1946, the Malay organizations joined and formed the Pertuuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu (The United Malays National

Organization). On the other hand, the British government promised the Malays ‘merdeka,’ which means ‘virtual independence.’ However, the Federation of Malaya went straight into achieving merdeka in 1957, having the Reid Commission to prepare a constitution. These proposals were then sent and accepted by the Queen, upon which Malaya gained independence in August 31, 1957. Britain further granted independence to North Borneo and Singapore in August 31, 1963; thus, Malaysia was formed with Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj as the first Prime Minister. Two years later, Singapore was then separated from the Federation of Malaysia.

II. DEFINITION OF TERMS

MATERIALSTRADITIONALATAP (Attap)

Thatch made from nipah and other palm trees found in local natural vegetationBELIAN (Borneo Ironwood)

Eusideroxylon zwageriA wood that is categorized under the heavy hardwood group and of high market value. The wood is very hard, does not rot easily and is naturally resistant because of the unique anatomical features. Belian wood is widely used in heavy construction and large-scale production such as for house structures, pillars, floors, and walls. Belian wood is also made into shingles for roofing. (Naimah, 2014)

PELEPAHPalm midrib; often used as a roofing material

PELUPOHFlattened bamboo interwoven as wattle that’s used for wall coverings

INTERIORS AND ARCHITECTURETRADITIONALANJUNG

The covered porch of a traditional Malay house which is used for entertaining guests (esp. unknown visitors). It also functions as a marker between the public and private space.

BAGANFramework of the house

BAYUK/BARUKA separate residence for unmarried men and male guests within the same vicinity as the Bidayuh Longhouse. It is octagonal/round in shape with a conical roof.

BILIKAn apartment found inside a longhouse

BUMBONGRoof ridge

BUMBONGANRoof

BUMBUNG LIMAA traditional Malay house type that is of colonial Dutch and British influence. As reflected on the name, it has a five-ridged, hipped roof.

BUMBUNG MERU TINGKAT-TINGKATA distinguishable traditional Malay house type that has a 2-tiered pyramidal roof

BUMBUNG PANJANGA traditional Malay house type that’s defined by its long gable roof. It is the oldest, simplest and most common out of all four house types.

BUMBUNG PERAKA gabled hipped roof that is of colonial Dutch influence. Among the 2 other foreign-influenced house type, this is the most famous one, in terms of popularity in usage.

DAPURThis is what they consider the kitchen of the home. But, other than cooking, the users of the home also dine her. It acts as the center of the back portion of the house.

DINGINGWall

DINGING TEPASA strong wickerwork made of split midrib of the kumbar palm’s (sometimes the bertam palm) frond which is used particularly in Kedah and Perak. It has a natural dark brown on the outside & has a light brown color on the inside, and is accentuated by dyeing.

GIRUF ROOFRoof pitch type (acute angle)

ISTANAThis word in English literally translates to “royal palace”

JENDELAA floor-to-ceiling window type paired with railings just outside.

KAMPONGA village; A rural settlement sustained by subsistence activities (e.g. padi-growing, fishing, agricultural practices, etc.)

KELARAIThe diamond-shaped pattern of a dingding tepas which commonly found in Kedah.

LANTAIThe elevated floor of a vernacular Malay house which has loosely spaced planks that make it convenient to sweep dirt off the floor, as well as bathing the deceased (for religious purposes)

MASTAKA The bulbous pointed sculpture reminiscent of the Buddhist head dress, used to

decorate roofs (usually of minarets)MINARETS In Islāmic religious architecture, the tower from which the faithful are called to prayer

five times each day by a muezzin, or crier. Such a tower is always connected with a mosque and has one or more balconies or open galleries.

MIHRABNiche

PENAIThe principal entrance of the Iban Longhouse

PERANThe roof loft in a vernacular Malay residence. In traditional houses designated to singular families this was used to store some of their crop. For longhouses, it served the aforementioned purpose, and acted as the quarters for the unmarried women of the tribe.

PINTUDoor

RUAIAn unobstructed hallway in a longhouse that is used as the common access to the biliks, as well as a communal space for doing different activities (depending on one’s gender).

RUMAH IBUIt is the core area of the vernacular Malay home where most activities are held, which explains why the front portion of the residence is centered around it. It has the largest floor area, as well as the highest floor level.

RUMAH TENGAHThe dining area in the back portion of the house found alongside the dapur.

RUMAH TINGGI A longhouse type also known as the Melanau Tall House. It is known for having 3 storeys, unlike the rest that only has 2 at the most

SELANG (or SELUNG)The transitional space between the front and back portion of the traditional Malay house. When guests are invited over, this acts as the entryway for the female inhabitants so that they won’t be seen from the typical access route.

SERAMBI The main prayer area in a mosque

SERAMBI GUNTUNGThe hanging veranda of a vernacular Malay house. It acts as the main area for entertaining guests mostly because of its low windows, letting its inhabitants experience a nice view, as well as sufficient ventilation.

TANJUThe exposeded veranda of a longhouse that’s connected to the ruai, and is used for drying clothes, fish, and other crops

TARA ROOF Roof pitch type (obtuse angle)

TEBARLAYARGable ends

TINGKAPWindows

COLONIAL PORTUGUESEMANUELINE (Portuguese late Gothic)

A colonial Portuguese architectural style that was named after King Manuel. Its form is characterized by square-shaped, barn-like structures (although in colonies, these characteristics were mostly evident in the mere façade and not the entire building)

PORTUGUESE BAROQUEA colonial Portuguese architectural style that developed simultaneously with the

Renaissance period in Europe. It is defined by a richly ornamented, over-decorated style which fused European and oriental characteristics and motifs.

COLONIAL DUTCHSTADTHUYS, Malacca

The oldest Dutch structure in the east which served as the Dutch governor’s residence and accommodated the Dutch civil administration whenever they were in need of a meeting venue. It is distinctly red in color and is basically a replica of the Stadthuis in the Netherlands.

COLONIAL BRITISHCLUB

A building type that became famous during the British colonial period which served as the expatriates’, as well as some locals’, recreational retreat for social interaction, sports and games (such as cricket or rugby) after a long day at work. This sort of structure is usually seen in major towns, and its form ranges from the humble attap hut to grand stone mansions.

FIVE FOOT WAYA building policy which required shophouses to have a sheltered footpath with a depth of at least 5 feet. Apart from giving shade to the pedestrians, it also enables the shopkeeper to gain extra space by spreading out merchandise during business hours.

PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT (PWD)The colonial government’s department in charge of the design and construction of public sector buildings.

CHINESE KONGSI (Clan house)

This building type housed clan associations as they settled in Malaya when it was still “unfamiliar territory”

SHOPHOUSEA vernacular Malay building type, that developed around the 19th century, which accommodates the families economic and domestic needs (with their shop on the ground floor and the residential area placed above it). Through the years, this structure has undergone changes which resulted to many different forms (Utilitarian/Transitional, Neoclassical, Dutch Patrician, Art Deco, Modern).

STRAITS ECLECTICAn architectural style brought about the Southern Chinese who settled along the straits, and developed around the 15th to mid-20th century. It is a combination of Chinese, Malay and European characteristics.

TOWNHOUSE (Row house)The precedent residential building type of the Chinese shophouse

BETWEEN THE WARSBUNGALOW

A type of private mansion which served as the dwelling of the civil servant and colonial entrepreneur wherein its form was basically a carbon copy of the ones in India.

PRIVATE MANSIONA residential building type which overtook the torch of extravagance from the public sector buildings in terms of architecture

VILLAAlthough it is a type of private mansion more popular than the bungalow, in terms of form, it fused elements from it, as well as from the traditional Malay house .

FURNITURETRADITIONALBABA NYONYA

Baba is an honorific manner of addressing a Straits-born gentleman and Nyonya which addresses a Straits-born lady. It is a term for the culture and style of the Chinese upper class which exudes the Straits Eclectic style.

KAKI LESONGA large leg-powered pounder

TEMPAYANThe water jar placed at the side of a house’s stairs/ladder for washing one’s feet before they enter.

III. ARCHITECTURE AND INTERIORSAs discussed in the historical background of Malaysia, it is a country that has so

much cultural diversity brought about by its rich resources and strategic position. Due to the aforementioned reasons, trade had always been one of their major industries, which eventually led to it falling under the control of foreign powers. With such a colourful history, it is but natural for this country to have such variation in its edifices given that, other than having their very own interior and architectural style, they have absorbed their immigrants’ & conquerors’ style.

A. Pre-ColonialBefore Malaysia had fallen under colonial rule, it already had its own

architectural style which catered to their need of protection against the harsh aspects of a tropical climate such as humidity and excessive solar radiation. But, this particular traditional style is not solely Malaysia’s; many elements are alike, if not the same, with those in other Southeast Asian countries who face the same sort of terrain and climate.

A.1. Kampong (The Village)Malaysia during the pre-colonial times may be defined by their way of living

as seen in the kampong, or in English, the village.

The typical layout of the kampong is characterized by the random distribution of house sites, as well the unclear boundaries between houses. Some researchers say that this may be because Malaysians are very communal people that is why they are not bothered by this indistinctness. But, even with such an open setting, it has been observed that there usually are 2 sorts of spatial arrangements of houses that have become common due to several aspects in their lifestyle. The first is the linear spatial arrangement; here, houses face the rivers or coasts – their economic sources – which, from above, looks like a set of houses being plotted on a “line” in the form of a river or coast. The second one is the concentric spatial arrangement; as the names suggests, the plotting of the houses may be compared to a sunflower: the houses around the public space are the petals, the public area in the middle are the central seeds of the flower, and the serambi (veranda) are the connecting points of the petals and the center since it is the part of the house that faces the public area. Another factor affecting the location of these houses is the sound of the mosque’s calling drum. The clearer and louder the sound of the drum is to one’s home, the higher social status he/she has.

House compounds are set far apart from each other due three reasons. The first reason is the practice of the addition system; they build house extensions when more members are added to a family (usually due to daughters getting married, and more children being born) which reflects the family-centric culture that they have. Another reason as to why compounds are set far apart is so that they have enough space for planting trees, crops and other vegetation which will serve as their source of food/income. And lastly, this far distance set in between houses is also a form of privacy. Since there really are no formalities regarding boundaries between the house sites, they compensate for the overall openness of the kampong by setting their houses apart as not to invade each family’s personal space.

A.2. Residential TypesA.2.1. Traditional Malay House (Compound)

A.2.1.1. Architectural CharacteristicsAlthough traditional Malaysian architecture doesn’t have as

many published works as traditional crafts and cuisine, the traditional Malay house is the most prominent product of Malaysian material culture (Vlatseas, 1990). It only makes sense because every element of the house – from its parts to its areas/rooms – is a reflection of their culture, religion, terrain and climate; in short, it is a physical manifestation of the Malay way of life.

The construction of the house, especially considering that the family, together with other neighboring villagers are the ones who build their own homes, reflects their culture of close family and community ties. Another aspect of the Malay house which responds to the cultural and religious needs of the people is its East-West orientation; they place their house this way so that it faces Mecca.

Other than the previously mentioned factors, many, if not all, parts of the Malay house turned out to be the way it is now because of the tropical climate and diverse terrain Malaysia has. Based on that statement, one may conclude that the reason why other Southeast Asian nations have similar forms of traditional architecture is because Southeast Asia is a generally tropical region with the countries in it experiencing similar surroundings.

Much like other neighboring countries, the form the traditional Malay house takes is a post and lintel structure on stilts; this is so because tropical regions oftentimes experience flooding and this is their way of coping with such an environment. Another distinct feature is its bumbongan (roof) which is pitched and is usually of the same height as the body of the house. They made it this way so that convection may properly take place, with the heat rising up high enough and exiting through the pierced tebarlayar (gable ends), and the cool air being kept down where the inhabitants are. Also, the roofing material was usually made of atap thatch which heats up slowly and cools quickly. The roof also has large overhangs which act as some sort of protection against the harsh glare of the sun especially during noontime. A relatively open plan is another distinguishable characteristic of the traditional Malay house. It has almost no interior partitions, and if ever there are, they don’t go all the way up to the ceiling; the reason for this is so that the breeze from the huge tingkap (windows) may easily come in and circulate inside the interior space, cooling it down through cross ventilation. Its windows take on different forms depending on the region; it may be an openable floor-to-ceiling jendela, a huge horizontal window by the serambi (veranda) which looks like a hole in the wall or a simple square windows. The dingings (walls) are usually kept at a low height

due to the large eaves that tower over it and are often decorated with strong wickerwork called dingding tepas which is usually in a repeated diamond pattern (kelarai). Meanwhile, for cleaning (sweeping the floor) and religious purposes (bathing the deceased), it was common to have gaps in between the planks of the elevated lantai (floor). As for the pintu (door), it was just a gap in the wall that was usually covered by a sliding panel.

Different kinds of wood are used for the Malay house. Hardwoods such as cengal, belian, resak and merbau are used for the main structure which consists of the posts, cross beams, tie beams and the roof structure. Meanwhile, moderately hard timber such as meranti or jelutong is used for the secondary structures (rafters, floor joists, wall studs, window frames and door frames), as well as non-structural members.

A.2.1.2. Parts of a Malay HouseThe parts of a Malay house may be divided into the front and

back portion. In the front portion, one enters the anjung (covered porch) where the residents first accommodate their guests, and at times unknown visitors. Moving further inside, one sees the serambi guntung (hanging veranda) which usually has a big window open to a nice view of the exterior. The rumah ibu (core house) is located at the end of the front portion. It is the area where most activities (sleeping, entertaining guests, praying, etc.) are held, that is why it has the largest floor area and has the highest floor level because of its importance. Connecting the front and back portion of the house is the selang; other than it being a transitional space, it also acts as the entrance for women during ceremonies for they are not allowed to enter through the main entrance when they have guests. As for the back portion, it may be divided into two: the rumah tengah and the dapur. The rumah tengah acts as the dining area, while the dapur serves as the kitchen and has the lowest floor level. Underneath the entire house is a semi-private storage area which is also used for work. In between the front and back portion and adjacent to the selang is a court space which acts as the “wet core” of the house where most of the washing and drying takes place. Sometimes, it also acts as an emergency toilet in case the person can’t wait to get to the actual pour-flush jitra toilet located away from the actual house, but is still inside the compound. Another part of the house compound that is away from the actual house but is still in the compound is the well which is used for bathing, washing clothes, as well as drinking.

A.2.1.3. Traditional Malay House TypesThe element that distinctly differentiates the varied types from

each other is their roof shape.A.2.1.3.1. Bumbung Panjang

The traditional Malay house type that’s defined by its long gable roof. It is the oldest, simplest and most common out of all four house types.

A.2.1.3.2. Bumbung Lima A traditional Malay house type that is of colonial Dutch

and British influence. As reflected on the name, it has a five-ridged, hipped roof.

A.2.1.3.3. Bumbung Meru Tingkat-tingkatA distinguishable traditional Malay house type that has

a 2-tiered pyramidal roofA.2.1.3.4. Bumbung Perak

A gabled hipped roof that is of colonial Dutch influence. Among the 2 other foreign-influenced house type, this is the most famous one, in terms of popularity in usage.

A.2.2. Longhouse A.2.2.1. Architectural Characteristics

This is the residential house type that is common in Sarawak. As the name implies, it literally is a long house because instead of it being just a single family dwelling, the entire community lives in it. It is usually placed with a North-South orientation parallel to the river. One enters the longhouse through its penai (entrances) found at its ends which may be accessed through notched logs carved with anthropomorphic faces which are believed to drive away evil spirits. Taking a look inside, one may observe that there are usually 40 families occupying the structure (which results to the longhouse being approximately 180m. in length), but sometimes larger communities have 120 families (approx. 365m in length), wherein each family has a designated their own bilik (apartment) that’s usually 4m wide. The floor width ranges from approximately 9 to 18m.

The spaces are organized based on gender. For example, the loft located in -the upper level of the bilik (apartment), called the peran , which is mainly used for storing crops, acts as the sleeping quarters of unmarried women. Meanwhile, there is a separate residence for unmarried men and male guests called the baruk, which acts a bachelor’s pad – but this is not a common characteristic for most longhouse communities, it is usually only found in a Bidayuh longhouse community.

A.2.2.2. Parts of a Longhouse The longhouse may be divided into 4 parts. The innermost

private area of the longhouse is the bilik. A bilik is an apartment assigned to a family of usually 3 generations. It is accessed from the ruai (communal gallery) and is where dining and cooking takes place. These apartments are arranged in a row on one side of the building and are separated by walls that do not extend all the way up to the ceiling. The aforementioned ruai is an unobstructed public gallery

which not only acts as the access to the apartments, but is also a communal space where gender-based activities are held: for women, this is where they work on pounding the rice and weaving; for the men, it serves as a recreational area where they can lounge about, drink, and socialize. Connected to the ruai is the tanju, also known as the exposed veranda. Here is where they dry their laundry, fish, and crops. Lastly, there are outbuildings which act as storage huts located within the same vicinity as the longhouse; these are used for the storage of grains, and one is assigned per family.

A.2.2.3. Longhouse TypesA.2.2.3.1. Iban Longhouse

This longhouse type is commonly found in the lowland of Sarawak. It usually has 2 storeys (A ground floor with a loft/peran per apartment/bilik.).

A.2.2.3.2. Rumah Tinggi (Melanau Tall House)It is a longhouse which is known for having 3 storeys,

unlike the rest that only have only 2 at most. The ground floor is used as the communal area, while the second floor is where the separated residences are located. Meanwhile, the topmost floor is used as a storage area for family valuables (e.g. brassware, tools, fishing nets). Its overall construction is designed to cater to their need of protection against pirates. People of the Melanau ethnic tribe are usually found along coasts or rivers. Given that way of living, there is a big probability of them getting attacked by pirates. In response to this kind of scenario, they built their longhouses higher than normal and constructed their floors with a double layer of palm trunks, so that in case hostile visitors do come around, they won’t easily be able to attack from below.

A.2.2.3.3. Orang Ulu LonghouseThis longhouse type is usually found on uneven terrain

of the interior highlands. It is much like the Iban longhouse, except it’s larger and has more evident signs of a hierarchical society. The latter description of this longhouse may be seen in the tuai rumah’s (chief) apartment; his bilik is grander and bigger than the rest and is stationed at the center with a raised roof. Also, the closer one’s apartment is to the tuai rumah’s, the higher is one’s social status.

A.2.2.3.4. Bidayuh LonghouseThis type of longhouse is typically found at the foot of a

mountain, which entails a rugged terrain. Given that kind of environment, what resulted was a longhouse similar to the Iban’s, except it was smaller, had no external veranda. Also, unlike other longhouses made of hardwoods such as belian and icengal, this type was made of lighter timber or bamboo instead due to the scarcity of hardwoods. As mentioned earlier,

the Bidayuh tribe also has a separate building for their unmarried men called the baruk.

A.2.3. Istana (Royal palace) In the 2 previously mentioned residential buildings types, they may be

occupied by anyone in the tribe; your social status does not matter. As for the “Istana”, it is the home of not just any villager; it is the residence of the “royals” or the family of the chieftain.

Although it is similar to the Javanese kraton and some Thai palaces, it remains much like the traditional house except that, in building the structure, the villagers were more meticulous; more rituals had to be considered before making any major construction decisions such as orientation and the time at which one must lay the foundations. Also, the result differs from the usual domestic dwelling for it has more technical accomplishment.

Considering that these structures were made of timber, not many considerably old istanas have made it through the test of time; the oldest palaces can be dated back to the mid-19th century.

A.3. Ecclesiastical StructuresA.3.1. Mosque

Mosque architecture in Malaysia embraced many forms throughout history in response to environmental, technological, and social-political issues. The idea of a consistent architectural style is not what Mosque architecture is all about. Mosque architecture allow the variety in architectural language to adapt to the various cultures and belief systems of the different types of people that follow the religion, as long as it does not contradict the main function of mosque architecture, which is, worshipping God.

The styles were also influenced greatly by the six typological styles used in the whole world namely, the Arabian, Spain, and North African typology, the Ottoman and Central Asian type mosque, the Iranian Typology, the Indian Subcontinent, the Chinese Mosque typology, and the Nusantra typology.

Because of this, various styles of mosque architecture can be

observed in Malaysia. In this paper, the various styles that will be mentioned are identified based on the architectural forms, as well as their possible socio-political rationales.

A.3.1.1. Types of Spaces in the MosqueThere may be differences in form between the different types

of mosques but these spaces are present in all types of mosques. The main space is used for the prayer ritual and the delivery of religious lectures and feasts. In some types of mosques, this part has a separate space for females and males. The second type of space is

the veranda. It is similar to a covered porch surrounding the main space. It is used to cater for the overflow of worshipers. In other cases, it can also be used as a place for eating and leisure.

Other spaces include those for ablution, toilet, kitchen, storage, and for the children’s religious activities. The types of spaces found in the different mosque styles may vary mainly because of two factors. The first is the changing of the mosque’s roles throughout history and the use and perceptions of the religious significance in a certain typology.

A.3.1.2. Traditional Vernacular Style

As the name suggests, the Traditional Vernacular style refers to the use of materials as well as the ideas and methods practiced by the Malays before the colonists arrived in the country. This style is very similar to the traditional malay house in terms of architectural features. Like the traditional malay house, it takes the post lintel structure, with the main building supported by a king post called ‘tiang gantung’. It’s primarily built out of timber, which is an indigenous material in the country. It has a single space lay-out with no indication of subdivision.

Another architectural feature of this style is the three types of roof namely, Three-tier pyramidal roof (e.g. Kampung Lau tang Kampung Tuan; 16th -17th c.), the Two-tier pyramidal roof forms (e.g. Papan ang Lengeng mosques; 18th – 19th c.), and the Gable roof form.

It is built close to a river, and is open to the community, without any indication of isolation like fences. The mosque is the center of religious life in the community, which is manifested in the concept of the ‘kampung’, which was mentioned earlier. The form was dictated by religious scholars.

The most remarkable example of this type of mosque is the

Kampung Laut Old Mosque (KLOM), which is located in the district of Nilam Puri in Kelantan.It is the oldest mosque in Malaysia which is still standing, usable and intact in the original condition and is recognized as one of the earliest signs of Islamic arrival in Malaysia. Here, the mosque not only functioned as a place for prayer, but it also serves as the administration centre for the mosque officials and caters for Muslim religious celebrations (Rasdi, 1998; Sharif & Hazumi, 2004). The mosque represents the Islamic religion by portraying the concept of the Muslim's prayer house through its design which adapt to the environment and the surroundings. The design also suits with the local culture, climate and surrounding and simultaneously represent the beauty of Islamic architecture (Sulaiman, 2007; Omer,

2010). The statement above was supported by Rasdi(2007) which stated that there are varieties of mosque designs and forms in the world. According to Ariffin(2005); Hassan (2010), the important spaces of the mosque are the main prayer hall, niche (“mihrab”), verandah and ablution area while the mosque orientation must face the Kiblah direction.

B. ColonialThe colonial structures found in Malaysia are the physical manifestations of the

conquerors’ trying to make alien locations more familiar by building edifices similar to those in their homeland. But of course, the surroundings they have in Europe are very different from the ones found in Southeast Asia. As a result, although some retained their original form, other initial cookie-cutter designs for these colonial buildings eventually transformed into plans that were more appropriate for a warmer climate. Colonists were able to achieve this, not by looking outside, but inside – where the indigenous people were already living comfortably in homes and mosques they have built that were suited for such a climate.

B.1. Portuguese Colonial (1511-1641) Given that Malacca was the main trading port of the Malaysian

Peninsula during the 16th to 17th century, this became the target of the Portuguese colonists. This is also the reason why most, if not all, colonial Portuguese buildings are seen in Malacca.

B.1.1. Architectural Characteristics and Building PoliciesColonial Portuguese architecture came in 2 styles: Manueline and

Portuguese Baroque. The first one developed simultaneously with the late Gothic period in Portugal, which explains the name of the style because at that period in time, King Manuel was the king of Portugal. The Manueline style had the same barn-like box shaped characteristics of the late Gothic period; but, it was only evidently seen and the façade, and not the building as a whole. Meanwhile, the latter style was a derivation of the Renaissance fashion in Europe. It was basically a richly-ornamented and over-decorated style full of European and Oriental motifs and characteristics fused together.

The Portuguese also made popular materials such as stone and laterite. Also, they introduced roofing tiles as a means to prevent the frequency of fires. They also implemented heavy taxation on frontage widths, which led to buildings being narrow (this characteristic got carried over to 19th century Chinese shophouses).

B.1.2. Civic and Military StructuresB.1.2.1. A’Famosa

A’ Famosa is considered to be one of the oldest European architectural remains in Southeast Asia. It was completed in the year 1512 under Alfonso d’ Albuquerque’s command after defeating the armies of the Malacca Sultanate. The fortification was located on a hill (which they now call St. Paul’s hill) near the sea with its walls encircling it. These defensive walls

which were 60 feet high and 15 feet thick had broad tops with walkways and stone parapets. It had four main towers serving an important purpose: one was a four-storey keep; another served as a storage area for ammunition; the other one was considered to be the captain’s residence; meanwhile, another was used the officers’ quarters. Inside the fort’s walls were 5 churches, a hospital, a few palaces and a hall for State Council.

Today, the only remnant of the once great fort is Porta Santiago which is known as the earliest milestone of European conquest in Southeast Asia.

B.1.3. Residential StructuresDomestic dwellings didn’t really change much in terms of the actual

structure, but the décor did change from being simple and bare to being decorated with Catholic symbols and imagery (e.g. religious portraits placed high on the wall, having an altar).

B.1.3.1. TranqueiraThis served as the main suburb of the city outside of A’Famosa. The

houses were mostly made of timber, except for their tile roofing – a material brought by the Portuguese.

B.2. Dutch Colonial (1641-1795) B.2.1. Architectural Characteristics and Building Policies

Exactly like the buildings in the Netherlands, colonial Dutch buildings usually had thick masonry walls, louvered shutters, heavy solid timber doors set into archways, and at times, fine Dutch wood carvings.

As for urban planning, the Dutch standardized the use of bricks and implemented defined building lines, a concept that is unlike the haphazard random distribution of house sites in the traditional kampong. There was also a strict inspection of drain construction and party walls whenever new structures were built. In addition, industrial zoning1 was introduced.

B.2.2. Civic and Military StructuresB.2.2.1. Stadthuys (Town Hall), Malacca

The Stadthuys is the oldest colonial Dutch structure in the East. This distinctly red institution acted as the Dutch governor’s residence and was the venue of the Dutch civil administration’s meetings. Based on its form and function, it was intended to be a replica of the Stadthuis in the Netherlands.

B.2.3. Ecclesiastical StructuresB.2.3.1. The Christ Church (1753)

It was built between the Genera Post Office and the Stadthuys. Like the two structures mentioned, it is characterized by its massive walls, red granite plinths, and Dutch roof tiles. It is rectangular in plan; 82 meters long, 40 meters wide, and 42 meters high, and its interior has no aisles. Its façade consists of a symmetrical half circle topped

by a small bell arch. The Dutch transplanted forms that responded little to contextual settings.

B.2.4. Residential StructuresB.2.4.1. Townhouse

The Dutch townhouse was basically a antecedent of the 19th century shophouse . Most owners of such residences were Chinese merchants who fancied the European style that’s why it would usually result to a townhouse with an evident fusion of styles. Windows could have either been louvered shutters, huge gaps in the wall, or maybe even floor-to-ceiling jendelas. The European character in these buildings are seen in their deep plan, narrow frontage, implementation of columns and pilasters, doors with an upper and lower half (like those found in barns), as well as in the brickwork of their drainage system. Meanwhile, the Chinese influence is seen in the use of rounded gable ends and the application of feng shui when deciding on things such as the orientation of the residence and the layout of the rooms and the stairs.

B.3. British Colonial (1791-1941; 1945-1957) B.3.1. Architectural Characteristics and Building Policies

British colonial architecture may be described as a mix of Moorish, North Indian, European and Malay styles; the reason for this is because most of the head architects and project supervisors sponsored by the Public Works Department2 were first architects in the British colonies stationed in India. In the earlier stage of construction during the British colonial rule, structures took an over-decorated form due to the lack of professional architects, hence the buildings that were built were by amateurs who based their knowledge on foreign handbooks and guides translated into English (e.g. Vitruvius Brittanicus, Palladio’s Opus Magnum, etc.). Another reasons for this so-called “opulence” was due to cheap labor, and not imperial intentions focused on marking their territory.

As for building legislations, the Brtish colonists, specifically administrator Frank Swettenham, required for structures not to be built of attap or any other thatch since it is highly flammable. Instead, they suggested the use of more durable roofing materials such as tiles. Another implemented policy is the “Five Foot Way”; it dictates that there should be a sheltered footpath on the ground floor of shop fronts. This rule is applied to the Malay vernacular Chinese shophouses.

B.3.2. Civic StructuresB.3.2.1. Administrative buildings

B.3.2.1.1. Sultan Abdul Samad Building (1896)The Sultan Abdul Samad Building is one of Kuala

Lumpur’s first architectural landmarks and was designed by A.C. Norman. This 2-storey structure is flanked by the Sanitary Board and High Court Buildings, and faces the Royal Selangor

Club. During British colonial times, it housed the entire Federated Malay States (FMS).1 Also, this edifice looks over a great green expanse which was once used for games and sports such as cricket.

Norman initially suggested a classical Renaissance plan for it, but Spooner argued that it was out of context in terms of environment and culture. Instead, he suggested the application of a more oriental style.3 As a result, an edifice with a European function, but with Islamic forms, was created. Many different arch forms may be observed on this building (e.g. pointed, ogee, Tudor, horseshoe). Also, a 3 ½ meter deep colonnaded arcade skirted both floors. The building has 3 towers, all of them made of red brick with imitation stone dressing and onion-shaped domes with copper coverings. The rest of the building has the same exterior wall treatment as the towers, Indian patent stone floors with Islamic geometric patterns, and tiled roofs.

B.3.2.2. Transportation Stations B.3.2.2.1. Ipoh Railway Station

During British colonial times, the railway station was considered as the ultimate sign of modernization which would only be possible if a town had a booming industry of some sort. A quintessential example of such an area would be the very first railway station built in Malaysia which may be found in Ipoh. Ipoh had a booming tin-mining industry – one of the country’s major exports at that time to be exact. Hence, this prosperity was reflected on the railway station that transported these goods – the Ipoh Railway Station.

This particular station was designed by none other than architect Hubback – one of the handful number of architects who, together with Norman, designed most of the buildings in Kuala Lumpur. This stop looks more like a mosque rather than a railway station, because, as previously mentioned, the imported architects were heavily influenced by the British colonial buildings in India which were a mix of Moorish and European elements. It had domed turrets and neoclassical elements such as keystones, Corinthian columns, pilasters, half-globed domes and different types of arches. Also, it was built to adapt to the tropical climate through its deep continuous arcaded loggias on the ground floor, its broad verandas on the upper floor, plus its high ceiling. But, other than foreign concepts being applied to this structure, an old traditional Malay practice may be concluded to have been used here. Just like the old longhouses oriented parallel to the

river, this railway station is placed parallel to the road of transportation.

B.3.2.3. Educational CentersB.3.2.3.1. Penang Free School (1916)

Penang Free School is the first English school built in Southeast Asia. In the beginning, the school catered only to European children. But later on, it eventually opened its doors to the locals. Plenty of Neoclassical elements may be observed here.

B.3.2.3.2. Malay College (1905) Malay CollegeThe Malay College is an all-boys school modelled after

the English public school system and is considered to be the “Eton and Harrow of Malaysia.” It has garnered such a prestigious reputation since most of those who graduated from here became extremely successful in terms of career (wherein most of them ended up as high-ranking government officials). It was Neoclassical in style, had vast classrooms, dining rooms, as well as dormitories.

B.3.2.4. Memorial StructuresB.3.2.4.1. Queen Victoria Memorial Clocktower, Penang

This clocktower stands as a testament of Penang’s royal connections. It is 60 feet tall with every foot symbolizing a year of Queen Victoria’s reign. Like most British colonial structures, it is a mix of European and Moorish influence with its pilasters, cornices and Moorish dome.

B.3.2.4.2. Brooke Memorial, Kuchin, SarawakThis short obelisk was built in commemoration of the

White Rajah of Sarawak – James Brooke. On its chamfered corners are cameos of each major ethnicity within the region which stand for the harmony between the four races.

B.3.3. Commercial BuildingsCommercial buildings sported stone and brick with either a boxy

utilitarian look or an expensive Renaissance-style stone façade. Given these templates, majority of the commercial edifices of this time looked as though they were done by the same hand.

B.3.3.1. BanksB.3.3.1.1. Chartered Bank “Chartaban”, KL

The Chartered Bank headquarters in Kuala Lumpur is another result of the fusion between Western and oriental styles. Proving the previous statement correct are its deep balconies, square windows, and Moorish archways.

B.3.3.1.2. Honkong and Shanghai Bank (HSBC) “Honkers and Shakers,” Ipoh

The Neoclassic style HSBC branch in Ipoh is much like the Chartaban headquarters in Kuala Lumpur, except the

European influence is more prominent due to the application of the “loggia style.”

B.3.4. Recreational BuildingsB.3.4.1. Clubs

Clubs acted as venues for sports and games such as cricket and rugby. These were built for the benefit of the British expatriates stationed in Malaysia. It was their place for social intercourse after a long day at work, but membership was limited to males only. These structures sprung up only in major towns, so one may infer that if a town has a club, then it must be in great economic condition. The forms that these clubs took ranged from simple attap huts to solid stone mansions.

B.3.4.1.1. Royal Selangor Club, KLThe Royal Selangor Club was built in a

mock-Tudor/Tudor revival style. The reason for it being built in the aforementioned style, because the ones who built the club wanted to capture the atmosphere of the elite Tudor houses in Europe, as well as imply the same prestigious status those houses implied.

B.3.4.1.1.1. The Spotted DogThe Spotted Dog is the main clubhouse of the Royal

Selangor Club which was named after the 2 Dalmatians owned by the wife of the Selangor’s police superintendent. It applied the same style as the exterior with its steeply-pitched gable roof, application of half-timbering4, arches, textured walls, and clustered tall windows.

B.3.4.1.2. Malacca Club (1911)The Malacca Club is a recreational area that was built

by the planters of the town. It is a bungalow made of stone with a fine façade, large windows, and copper domes like those usually seen in mosques. It has a wonderful view for it directly faces the Malacca River. Today, it is used as a Memorial Hall.

B.3.5. Residential BuildingsB.3.5.1. Westernized Palaces

These palaces were gifts commissioned by the State Residents to the local rulers of the Malay States.5 With its completely European design, and the gaining popularity of the said style among the highest-ranking local leaders (which eventually affected the common folk’s view regarding architecture and design), it threatened to kill the traditional way of building.

B.3.5.1.1. Istana Besar, Johor BahruThis is a royal palace in the Neoclassical style which

was given to the Sultan of Johore.B.3.5.1.2. Istana Maziah, Kuala Trengganu

The Istana Maziah is a 2-storey palace built specially for royal receptions and meetings of the State Council. It took 8 years to complete (1895-1903), and during its construction, although the end result is undoubtedly European, they used egg yolk instead of cement mortar – a traditional way of building.

B.3.5.2. MansionsB.3.5.2.1. Carcosa Seri Negara, KL (1897)

The Carcosa Mansion today is a luxury hotel and a historic heritage site, but on the year of its completion in the late 1890’s, it was the official residence of Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham upon his appointment as the Resident General of the Federated Malay States. The administrator’s home was designed by none other than Norman himself, under the supervision of Spooner.

Its eclectic appearance is a mix of the Tudor and Neo-Gothic styles. It has 8 bedrooms and 11 bathrooms – all of which overlook the balcony. The residence is surrounded by a vast 40 acres of manicured English gardens. But, even with its European aspects, Norman and Spooner didn’t fail to make it a comfortable living area which responds effectively to the tropical climate it is set in. It has broad veranda’s where the administrators and his guests can lounge about to catch some of the night breeze, a front porch which protects one from the elements as he/she enters the residence, and full-length windows (much like the traditional jendela) with balustrades.

B.3.6. Ecclesiastical BuildingsB.3.6.1. European Classical Style Mosque

This style refers to the High-Renaissance architecture that was derived from the Greco-Roman Heritage. Its distinct characteristic is the use of definitive tripartite division of base, middle, and top with double column supporting semi-circular arches or walls with pilasters. It is symmetrical in terms of the composition of the massing and space.

Its common architectural features are minarets, either with a dome or a pyramidal roof, the main prayer hall covered by a hipped roof, elaborate exterior cornice work, and semi-circular or flat arches. Examples of this style of Mosque architecture are the Sultan Abu Bakar Mosque in Johor Bahru, the Pasir Pelangi Mosque, and the Sultan Ibrahim Mosque in Muar Johor.

It has been observed that all examples are found in Johor. There is no known definite reason for this but one hypothesis is that

the sultanate of Johor may have desired to be culturally Western, thus adapting the style particularly, the English Cottage Architecture.

C. Immigration Contribution C.1. Chinese Influence

The Southern Chinese traders and immigrants brought the Straits Eclectic style to Malaysia – a style which fuses European, Malay and Chinese influences together.

C.1.1. Ecclesiastical BuildingsC.1.1.1. Temples

C.1.1.1.1. Sino-Eclectic Style MosqueIn this context, the two terms used are: ‘sino‘ which

means of Chinese influence and ‘eclectic’ which means the combination of two or more influence of architectural language. Having this definition, one may conclude that the Sino-eclectic style refers to the combination of the traditional vernacular and Chinese temple style.

The feature this style adapted from the traditional vernacular style are the roof forms. There were two roof forms used in this style. The first is the Three-tiered pyramidal roof from, which is similar to the proportion of the traditional vernacular roof form. The second type is the Double-tiered pyramidal roof form, which can be seen in the Kampung Hulu Mosque, Tengkera Mosque, Kampung Keling Mosque, all of which can be found in Melaka. These two types are similar in majority of their features, except for the prominent curvature of the roof ridges.

Unlike that of the vernacular style It sits on the ground

and has slabs which are raised half a meter high with stone stairways accessing to the main floor plan. Its main feature is the Serambi or the main prayer area that surrounds the sides of the square plan. Roof structure is made of timber, which is covered with clay. The whole structure is supported by nine or twelve perimeter columns.

This type is located in the dense urban area and is surrounded by a masonry fence or a roofed gateway, which is almost reminiscent of Chinese temples. Inside the mosque compound, a cemetery, a madrasah(religious school), and the imam’s residence could also be found. The compound has a pleasant environment. The seating under the shady trees serves as a good place of interaction for the users.

Motifs used include plant forms and the mastaka. Chinese Muslim Merchants serve as their patrons, who dictate

the form of the mosque. This explains its resemblance to Chinese architecture, particularly the gateways.

C.1.1.1.2. Examples C.1.1.1.2.1. Cheng Hoon Teng in Melaka (1645)

This temple was founded by Kapitan China Lee Wei King. It is said to be the oldest existing temple in South-East Asia. It caters three eastern religions namely, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Some of its architectural features are a ridgeline of the roof (either horizontal or curved), decorated with flowers, bird, plant, and human figures dragons, phoenix, and religious pieces made of ceramic pieces, exposed structural elements. This allows proper ventilation for the halls that are often filled with smoke because of burning of joss sticks.

C.1.1.1.2.2. Chan See Shu Yuen Temple in Kuala Lumpur (1906) This temple features exterior wall

decorations called Shek Wan which are clay figurines depicting scenes from Chinese epics. The temple is covered by a gable roof.

C.1.2. Residential BuildingsC.1.2.1. Shophouses

C.1.2.1.1. Architectural CharacteristicsThe shophouse is a residential housing type which

accommodates the economic and domestic needs of its inhabitants; the shop is on the ground floor while the residential area is on the upper floor. Certain building policies carried over from periods as early as colonial Portuguese times affected its form greatly: it has a narrow frontage and a generally deep plan due to the implementation of heavy taxation on frontage width during the reign of the Portuguese; the use of more durable materials was an effect of a Dutch legislation which dictated the standardized use of bricks; the British “Five Foot Way” policy dictated the usual façade of this particular building type that we see in Malaysia today - shophouses with sheltered footpaths on the ground floor. The Chinese influence is seen in its typically curved gable roof and its glazed ornamental tiles found inside. Meanwhile, the European style is implemented through the use of Venetian arches, pediments, festoons, ornate columns, Venetian balconies, Palladian windows, stucco decor and consoles.

The division and use of spaces was dictated by the need for sufficient ventilation and the fulfilment of several feng

shui requirements. An example of the previous statement is the presence of the airwell – the area of the house which lets in a sufficient amount of sunlight and air until it circulates inside the actual building through the windows.

C.1.2.1.2. Shophouse TypesC.1.2.1.2.1. Utilitarian/Transitional

This type of shophouse has very simple décor and usually has only 1 window on the ground floor that is covered with wooden shutters.

C.1.2.1.2.2. Neoclassic- The shophouse in the Neoclassical style usually

stood with an elaborate façade (it could have been Neo-gothic, Baroque, Palladian or Renaissance in its design) as seen in its parapets, open balustrades, flamboyant gables, columns, molded plaster swags, Grecian pediment and ornate windows framed by Classical columns with foliated capitals. Although the European influence is more prevalent in this style of the shophouse, some local motifs and décor were still applied (e.g. fanlights above the shutters were decorated with Malay inspired carved grilles or Venetian glass).

C.1.2.1.2.3. Art DecoThis shophouse type is simpler compared to

those of earlier styles. It makes use of more geometric shapes and simplified lines.

C.1.2.1.2.4. ModernNot too far off from the Art Deco type is the

modern shophouse. It is much like the type preceding it, except it is now more devoid of ornamentation.

C.1.2.2. Kongsi (Clan houses)C.1.2.2.1. Architectural Characteristics

Kongsis first housed the Southern Chinese clan associations as they settled in Malaya when it was still “unfamiliar territory.” These clusters of 2-storey homes may be characterized by their clay tile roofs comparable to those seen in Buddhist temples, and their big entrance doors. The houses in this type of compound are also designed to adapt to tropical climate due to the common presence of light wells, verandas and cast iron lattices.

C.1.2.2.2. ExamplesC.1.2.2.2.1. Leong San Teong Khoo Kongsi, Cannon Square,

PenangThis compound consists of the clanhouse Leong San

Tong, an administrative building (which was made to mimick a Chinese imperial palace) with a meeting hall and offices, an opera stage, and 62 units of terrace houses and shophouses. Although this kongsi was built by a

Chinese community, Western influence is still evident, seen in several elements of its buildings.

C.2. Indian influenceC.2.1. Ecclesiastical Structures

C.2.1.1. North Indian Style MosqueThe term is used to describe the imitative Moghul type

architecture that once flourished colonial Malaya. Its distinct architectural features include small and large onion domes (which are characteristic of Indian architecture), multitude of spires, which are the analogous pyramidal construction surmounting a tower/minaret, small domed canopies, multiple minarets, and horseshoe or multi-foil arches over decorated columns. It has the same plan as the Sino-Eclectic style and also features a perimeter fence.

There are two possible reasons for the proliferation of this style. The first is the colonialist choice of ‘Islamic Architecture’ to perhaps pacify the people into accepting their version of ritualistic Islam. The second reason is the rise of the Indian Muslim Merchant class. They became the patrons of these mosques which gave them the power to dictate their form. However, when they prospered, they went back to India, which would explain why the style was no longer used for mosques. (Rasdi, T.) An example of this type of mosque is the Ubudiah Mosque in Perak and the Kapitan Keling Mosque in Penang.

C.2.1.2. GopuramThe gopuram refers to the gate towers that acted as beacons

guiding pilgrims to the temples. The temple itself is simple, so the gopuram was given emphasis through the very elaborate ornamentation. The elaborate and colorful decoration depicted the stories of deities in their religion, mythology, and epics.

The architectural structure was said to be brought by the Indians because of the extraction of latex developed in the Botanical Gardens of the straits Settlements in Singapore. Because of this, a lot of South-Indian men were recruited as laborers who, in time, brought in their families to live in the country. They brought in their Hindu culture and religion, which in time affected the architecture in the region. An example of this is the Gopuram of sri Mariamman Hindu Temple in Kuala Lumpur.

D. Modern Structures and SpacesD.1. Between the Wars

Professional architects toned down the exuberant and eccentric styles of their predecessors in beginning of the twentieth century. Architecture may have then took the road to classicism in some aspects. There was then a decrease in expenditure on public buildings.

D.1.1. Residential Buildings

D.1.1.1. BungalowThis structure served as the private dwelling for the civil

servants and colonial entrepreneurs. It was based on India’s bengalee, a cottage-like structure with one floor. Made out of timber, the bungalow is comprised of a verandah, where the wives would wait and stay, and three to four apartments with bathrooms and dressing rooms. It had floors on brick piers and wooden posts that supported a thatched roof. These were later on replaced by grander houses because of the competition between towkays.

D.1.1.2. Colonial Mansion / VillaOvertaking the bungalow, the private mansion was the torch of

the ornate and extravagant architectural styles. The style was mostly of the Palladian villa, though upper storey rooms were added along with more columns and ornamental pilasters. Also, some of its elements came from the bungalow and layout of the traditional Malay house. This imposing and ostentatious residence was the result of the age of prosperity brought about by a good combination of western efficiency and oriental dynamism, foreign trade, and the Nouvaux riches.

D.1.1.2.1. ExamplesD.1.1.2.1.1. Bok Houses in Kuala Lumpur

A fine example of this type of architecture, it became part of the capital’s folklore in the pre-war years, having increasing width from its porch to its rear quarters. It was said to have been built by Chua Cheng Bok in order to win the hand of another towkay.

D.1.1.2.1.2. Chan Chin Mooi Mansion in Batu PahatThis mansion had more of a Straits Chinese

Baroque style, with the presence of round columns, square columns, balustrades and a palanquin on top of it all.

D.1.1.3. Link HousesA type of house that came after semi-detached houses, link

houses were for the middle class, among which were the small businessmen and shopkeepers. It was simple and quiet in design, having both Western elements and traditional patterns – seen in the thick walls and small windows, as well as the roof pattern.

D.1.2. Ecclesiastical Structures The two types of mosques being discussed show the flexibility of Islam in terms of its adaptation to the problems of the present and its progression, without changing the value or the ‘real meaning’ of Islam.

D.1.2.1. Modern Vernacular Style MosqueThis style is characterized mainly by the use of reinforced

concrete structural frame with plastered brick infill for construction. The term ‘vernacular’ was used because the practice and the materials are prevalent in this country. The style proliferated because

of the desire of the architects to portray the flexibility of Islam in its contemporary adaptation to the problems of modern day living.

Some of its distinct architectural features include a gable or pyramidal roof with a small dome (or a bigger dome for more expensive mosques).The roofs are made of asbestos corrugated decks, clay tiles, or metal decking, while floors are usually tiled. A single prayer space is also present with a separate area for women, which are either screened off by a curtain or movable partitions. It may also feature one or two minarets. In the back potion of the compound, the kitchen area is located, which is used for the slaughter of animals during the Qurban Festival.

It has a fenced perimeter, which projects the idea of separation between the daily lives and the ritualistic life of religion. This is a way of expressing their idea of Islam as a total way of life. The adaptation of the vernacular features, particularly the roof form, is mainly because of wanting to have a more local identity so as to replace the ‘borrowed ones’ (foreign influences).

Examples of this type of mosque is the Rusila Mosque in

Terengganu and the Nik Aziz Mosque in Kelantan.

D.1.2.2. Modernistic Style MosqueThe term ‘modernistic’ is derived from the ideas and main

principles that govern the early revolution of architecture in Europe in the early twentieth century. The notion that ‘a true architecture is one that rejects historical revivalism in any form, that celebrates abstraction in forms, and that celebrate the structural expression in architecture, greatly affected the mosque architectural forms. (Rasjid, T.)

There were two types under this style. The first one is Modernistic Expressionism. The term is derived from William J. Curtis’ classification of ‘expressionism’ as any form of architecture that carries a metaphoric message through the use of structurally expressive form.

This style is the combination of Curtis’ concept of expressionism and the general modern architectural language. An example of this type is the Masjid Negara. This mosque has a folded plate ‘dome’ which resembles the ‘royal umbrella’ (symbol for royalty). It has technological and spiritual qualities of architecture, which satisfies Curtis’ definition of expressionism.

The second type is the Modernistic Structuralism. This type is based on the classic Miesien tradition of treating the building as a mere machine of structural expression, nothing more, nothing less.

The structure of the mosque contains no deeper meaning. It’s just a simple expression of a basic shelter. This may symbolize the dynamism of Islam. As observed in the previous types, the Mosque embraced various forms, but still retained ‘its value’. A good example of this type is the Kota Samaran Mosque in Sarawak. It features a concentric ring and used steel delta trusses with stretched Teflon tensile fabric as roofing material, very different from the previous forms.

D.2. Independence and After

D.2.1. Sixties The “modern” look prevailed during this time, as seen in the new

houses and shop houses. These structures were two or three storeys high, had straight and simple lines, and were identifiably devoid of decorations. This style was the product of oversea training of the architects and was the reflection of the modernist trends occurring in Britain, Australia, or America. High-rise buildings may seem fit in American cities, though still taking into consideration the tropical climate. Evidences of such are the use of window hoods, shade screens and a covered porch. However, these elements may seem out of place among the other Western elements of the buildings.

D.2.2. SeventiesTower blocks and apartment buildings were common at this time.

Commercialism was seen in the government-funded and private structures. Sadly, buildings were put to a budget – ignoring symbolisms and following western patterns instead. Elements that were used were the flat roofs, reinforced concrete and the structural framework. This was a period wherein shapeless forms and uniformity dominated.

D.2.3. Late Seventies and Mid-EightiesThe revival of traditional patterns were commissioned by several

government agencies and big businesses to attract buyers due to the World Recession. Malay and Islamic forms were predominant. Furthermore, internal layouts and quality of finishes improved and the traditional forms were then seen in places of worship.

D.2.3.1. Civic BuildingsD.2.3.1.1. VIP Pavilion in Kuching Airport, Bank Negara Building in

Ipoh Handicraft Centre in SerembanThese buildings showed the traditional roof patterns.

D.2.3.1.2. Syariah Court, Kuching and the Religious Council Buildings in Kota Kinabalu

These buildings added grace to modern Islamic lines. D.2.3.1.3. Chinese Temple of Thean Hou, SESCO Building in

Kuching, Civic Halls in Kuching, Sarikei, and Sebu

D.2.3.2. Ecclesiastical Buildings

D.2.3.2.1. Post Modern Revivalism Style Mosque

To better understand the style, let us first define the key terms used in the style. The term Postmodern denotes an approach that contradicts the principles and edicts of what was understood as modern design. On the other hand, Revivalism denotes one of the many ways the postmodernist attempts to create an architecture of meaning for the general public rather that for the elite few. (Rasjid, T.)

This type of mosque is isolated from urban areas, located in the highest points of the region or in the middle of man-made lakes. There are two kinds of this style. The first one is the Foreign Revivalism. In this style, the mosque is used as a vocabulary of what they call the ‘Islamic Glory’, which is the preferred language by state and federal governments to express their ‘deep concern’ over the important symbol of Islam. Here they used an array of architectural features from foreign architecture such as the Iranian and Turkish domes, Persian Iwan gateways, etc. They aimed to depart from the British lead Moghul venture. This may be because of the desire of the politicians and architecture elite from any reminders of the British revivalism. Examples of this kind are the Putra Mosque and the Shah Alam Mosque.

The second kind is the Vernacular Revivalism. Compared to the first type, it is slightly less monumental. It features a three-tiered pyramidal roof (either of concrete or timber). They are pretty much the same. Two main differences are the absence of a perimeter fence for the Vernacular Revivalism type. It blends more to the environment compared to the first type. An example of this type is the Malacca Strait Mosque. This features lavish compounds filled with fountains, paved grounds, and grass lawns with much sculptural landscaping.

IV. FURNITURE & ACCESSORIES

A. FurnitureA.1. Traditional

A.1.1. Kaki LesongThe kaki lesong is a piece made of one major log and other supporting

wood parts. It is a leg-powered rice pounder that is usually found in the semi-private area underneath the house.

A.1.2. TempayanThis is a water jar placed beside the staircase/ladder leading to the

main door. Whether one is the owner or a mere guest who is visiting, he/she must wash his/her feet before entering the house.

A.2. Baba NyonyaA.2.1. Tok Panjang

Tok Panjang is a long dining table. Its name literally means what it is — Tok is a Hokkein Word for table, Panjang a malay word for long. Older family members would have eaten with their hands like the Malays, while some would have adopted the more English style of eating with utensils. (Chan, 2015) [Refer to Appendix D for visual aids.]

B. CeramicsB.1. Baba Nyonya

B.1.1. Porcelain ceramicsThe Peranakans are well-known for their porcelain ware. Different sets

were used for different occasions: Red porcelain was used for brought out during special occasions such as birthdays and weddings. Daily porcelain would have been a mix of English patterned plates bought from Robinsons Singapore. Johnson’s Brothers porcelain was the popular brand of the day. Blue and white porcelain were used for funerals. (Chan, 2015) [Refer to Appendix D for visual aids.]

Endnotes:1 Industrial zones are tracts of land designed for a particular cluster of businesses and

factories2 The Public Works Department (PWD) is the British colonial government’s department

assigned to tend to the construction and design of public sector buildings. It was established in the year 1872 and mostly got expatriate architects from British colonial India to serve as its head architects and supervisors. Among those imported professionals are Arthur Charles Norman (Senior Government Architect), Charles

Edwin Spooner (State Engineer and Director), and Arthur Benison Hubbock. As for the draftsmen, technicians, and carpenters, they hired locals.

3 The change of style of this main administrative building was not merely for its local adaptation, this act is said to have been an act of the British colonists feeding the Malays a sweetened imperial pill so that it would be easier for them to rule the natives.

4 Half-timbering is a method of building wherein external and internal walls are constructed using timber frames and the spaces between the structural members are filled with materials such as brick, plaster, or wattle and daub.

5 Unlike other conquerors who force their authority onto the locals of territories they intend to take over, the British took a more indirect approach in taking control by appealing to the locals, especially the leaders, by granting them gifts such as these palaces. Once these gifts are granted, the recipients are secretly expected to have a debt of gratitude - the colonists’ supposed “hold” on them. This sly act of control is evidence of the changing intentions of the British from merely commercial to imperial.

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Rasdi, T. (n.d.) Mosque Architecture in Malaysia: Classification of Styles and PossibleInfluence. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

2. Parkinson, C.N. (1954). A short history of Malaya. Singapore: Malaya Publishing House Limited.

3. Hilton, R.N. (1956, August). The Basic Malay House. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 29, No. 3 (175). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org

/discover/10.2307/41503100?sid=21105199137621&uid=2134&uid=2475072843&uid=60&uid=3&uid=2&uid=70&uid=2475072833

4. Padua, I. (1990) A History of Malaysian Architecture. Longman Singapore Publishers Pte Ltd.

5. Vlatseas, S. (1990). A History of Malaysian Architecture. Singapore: Longman Singapore Publishers Pte Ltd.

6. Dumarҫay, J. (1991). The palaces of south-east asia. Singapore: Oxford University Press.

7. United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2000). Chapter 6: The Traditional Malay House. Sharing Innovative Experiences, Vol. 4, pp. 73-97

8. Chun, H., Hasan, A., & Noordin, N. (2005, September 11-14). An Influence of Colonial Architecture to Building Styles and Motifs in Colonials Cities in Malaysia. 8th International Conference of the Asian Planning Schools Association. Retrieved April 18, 2015 from http://www.hbp.usm.my/APSA2005/

9. Sim, S. (2010). Redefining the Vernacular in the Hybrid Architecture of Malaysia (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Name of Institution, Location. Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

10. Hassan, A.S., Nawawi, M.S., (2014). Malay Architectural Heritage on Timber Construction Technique of the Traditional Kampung Laut Old Mosque, Malaysia. School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM, Penang, Malaysia

11. Chan, M. (2015). Book Tour: Baba and Nyonya House Museum [Unpublished]. Malaysia: Baba & Nyonya House Museum

VI. APPENDICES

pre-7th cen7th cen. early

mid INFLUENCES FOUND INlate STRUCTURES IN

8th cen. early MALAYSIA THROUGH HISTORYmidlate

9th cen. earlymidlate Legend:

10th cen. early Malay Vernacularmidlate Indian Kingdoms

11th cen. earlymid Straits Eclecticlate

12th cen. early Chinese Baroquemidlate Chitya Indian Vernacular

13 cen. earlymid Colonial Portugueselate

14th cen. early Colonial Dutchmidlate Colonial British

15th cen. earlymid Modernlate

16th cen. earlymid Source of Information:late

17th cen. earlyVlatseas, S. (1990). A History of Malaysian

midArchitecture. Singapore: Longman Singapore

late Publishers Pte Ltd.18th cen. early

midlate

19th cen. earlymidlate

20th cen. earlymidlate

21st cen. - present

Fig.A. Influences Found in Structures in Malaysia Through History

Fig.B.1. Parts of a Traditional Malay House

Fig.B.2. Climactic Features of the Traditional Malay Hosue

Fig.B.3. External Areas of the Malay House Compound

Fig.B.4. Different Configurations of the Addition System

Fig.C.1The six typological mosque styles

Fig.C.2. Typical Mosque Floor Plan

Fig.D.1. Tok Panjang

Fig.D.2. Nyonya Porcelain dishes

APPENDICES’ SOURCES

Fig. A. Guiang, G. (2015) Influences Found in Structures In Malaysia Through History [Time Table].

Fig.B.1. United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2000). Chapter 6: The Traditional Malay House. Sharing Innovative Experiences

Fig.B.2. United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2000). Chapter 6: The Traditional Malay House. Sharing Innovative Experiences

Fig.B.3. United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2000). Chapter 6: The Traditional Malay House. Sharing Innovative Experiences

Fig.B.4. United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2000). Chapter 6: The Traditional Malay House. Sharing Innovative Experiences

Fig.C.1. Vlatseas, S. (1990). A History of Malaysian Architecture. Chapter 4: Islam. Singapore: Longman Singapore. Publishers Pte Ltd. p. 42 the six typological mosque styles

Fig.C.2. Typical Mosque Floor Plan [Scanned Image]. Retrieved from http://mosqueappeal.org/2007/images/theproject_plan02.jpg

Fig.D.1 Chan, M. (2015). Book Tour: Baba and Nyonya House Museum [Unpublished]. Malaysia: Baba & Nyonya House Museum

Fig.D.2 Chan, M. (2015). Book Tour: Baba and Nyonya House Museum [Unpublished]. Malaysia: Baba & Nyonya House Museum