GARDENING ACTIVITIES IN ANCIENT EGYPT

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF GARDENS AND GARDENING:

The imaginary garden of Eden, perhaps marks the genesis of gardens and gardening where Adam was the first gardener or the horticulturist while Eve supplied new information concerning a tree and its fruits which served as food and appeared beautiful. Moreover, the fruit engendered a longing for knowledge, which activated Eve to collect more information and to do research on fruits and thus she became the first horticultural scientist. The invention of gardens is as old as the civilization of mankind itself, which dates back to Neolithic times. When man began to build shelter for himself and cultivated the surrounding land, he conceived the idea of a garden with an utilitarian purpose to grow edible or useful plants in his neighbourhood. However, gardens for pleasure and enjoyment appeared to have come into existence much later elsewhere in the Middle East, and these gardens were supposed to have been developed by the rich and the mighty people of those days. Homer in his Odyssey has mentioned two gardens—those of Alcinous covering some four acres and of Laertes, who gave up the crown of Ithaca to cultivate his plot. Then there were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon which Herodotus attributed to the Sumerians. According to an ancient account, Emperor Cyrus laid out the garden to please a courtesan. It has been said that he raised a huge platform on a series of gigantic arches upon which he planted such trees which he thought would please the lady. The tomb of Cyrus was also situated in a garden of paradise with fruit trees. It was the Sumerians who originally introduced the grand and formal style of gardening which actually influenced, later, the art of garden making of the subsequent alien civilizations all over the world.

The wealth of pyramid murals and inscriptions of Egypt throw a floodlight on the ancient Egyptian gardens. According to a writing found on an Egyptian tomb, gardening had thrived in Egypt as far back as 3000 BC. However, the early Egyptian gardens seemed to have no flowers. They were mainly concerned with the cultivation of fruits and vegetables. The gardens were planted in regular rectangles with trees, vegetables and grape vines. Gardens were enclosed first within thorn fences and later brick walls. The temples were the centre of horticulture, where garden designs improved with new plants. The introduction of exotic trees from abroad particularly influenced the temple gardens. Thus, Egyptian gardening added to the art of gardening, making new species, and formal and architectural styles.

CHINESE GARDEN ART Agriculture in China seemed to have prospered around 2700-2400 BC., at a time when Europe had not even left her childhood and remained in an age of barbaric ignorance. The art of gardening also reflected a high level of perfection. The Chinese knew how to acclimatise plants from warmer climates and hasten their growth. They used shelters, forcing frames and heated glasshouses. They also knew about pruning and grafting of trees.Gardens in China, however, have a long antiquity. During the reign of the China and Han dynasties, there were royal palace gardens and landscaped hunting parks. Under Emperor Kie, 18 century BC., there existed vast gardens with ponds and houses, sparkling with gold and precious stones. Ornamental gardening in China has largely developed along the line of idealization of natural scenery. Buddhism reached China in 64 AD. and has a profound effect on the life and environment of the Chinese, their architecture, painting, literature and, above all, on the art of gardening. Tray gardens were frequently depicted in paintings of the Sung dynasty (960-1279 AD). The Chinese valued plants for their distinctive habit and grace rather than for their colour, scent and form. They preferred white flowers with the exception of the chrysanthemum, which was yellow. Gardening in China had a long association with painting, which inspired the spiritual content of the scenes and was introduced by the Emperor Hui Tsung (1100-25 BC). He influenced garden art to a great extent and he was instrumental in popularizing the landscape painters’ ideas among the rich and educated classes. The earliest garden in China were developed under the patronage of China Dynasty (255-206 BC). The China Emperor Shih Huang-ti, who built the 1,500 mile long Great Wall of China is reputed to have had a great park. The Han Emperor Wu Ti (140-87 BC) had a garden with artificial mountains, streams and winding paths. In this garden, he planted rare trees and shrubs.

ANCIENT GREEK GARDENS There is no trace of any kind of evidence for garden art in ancient Greece until well past its cultural zenith. Greeks remained strictly utilitarian gardeners. The first park of Greece was dedicated to Diana, the Goddess of Hunting, at Scillus. It was laid out by Xenophon (434-356 BC), the historian and soldier, on his return from a Persian expedition. In this park, fruit trees were symmetrically planned around the temple, an inspiration from Persian gardens. Alexander the Great (356—323 BC) was waging his great campaign which brought the Greeks into contact with Asia. During the entire Middle Ages, the study of plants was based upon translations and notes of such ancients as Aristotle, Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Theophrastus, popularly called the father of botany, was born about 373 BC on the island of Lesbos, among whose works was An Enquiry Into Plants. He planted a garden with many exotic plants and hence it can be called a botanical garden.In addition to the mass of description that he gave us, he made the first serious attempt to classify the vast plant world

The almost total absence of ornamental garden plants is a notable fact, and indicates that the Greeks did not have gardens in the sense that they are known to us. The contribution of the Greeks to the world of gardening is more in their architecture and art rather than in plants. The Pantheon, a great English garden at Stourhead, is of Greek inspiration. Nymphase, which were altars built on hillocks, where offerings were made to nymphs, became a feature of Mediterranean gardens of the Seleucides and the gardens of Ptolemy in Alexandria. Statues of Venus and Cupid and marble statues of nymphs decorate many gardens of the world. According to Knight Temple, Epicurus did not have the first garden in Athens. Before him, there were others in the countryside, in villages and in small farms. The gardens, he says, were the oldest and commonest possession of man; they took pleasure in cultivating gardens before they even had fields to sow or animals to feed. At the inauguration of the Horticultural Society of Paris on July 6, 827, Viscount Hericart de Thery also pointed out that Pisistratus and Cimon had superb gardens in Athens that were open to the public and permitted visitors to pick fruits. The gardens of the Academy and its Alley of the Philosophers in Lycerum were also public gardens. Greek gardens were, above all, utilitarian in that they were meant for growing vegetables and fruits for eating. The idea of a garden for enjoyment only came after the Persian conquest under Alexander (330 BC). It was at this time that Epicurus, according to Pliny, had a landscape garden within the walls of the city of Athens, with shaded areas and monuments devoted to sensual pleasures. According to Noisette, the Greeks knew how to increase the beauty of their plants by a more enlightened type of gardening.

ROMAN GARDENS The best of the earlier gardens were those of the Romans, in which we find combined the best ideas of the Egyptians, Persians and Greeks. The heartland of the Roman Empire, Italy, is one of the most beautiful countries of the world. It is the smiling land of vineyards, olive orchards, villas and gardens. In the 2nd century BC, parks, fish ponds and villas spread over the countryside. Varro, a gentleman farmer with aesthetic sensibility, lived during 50 BC. At Casinam, he had a pleasure garden in which he kept peacocks and other attractive birds. With its pavilions, loggias, fish ponds and aviaries, Varro’s garden was an enchanting place. Hyams states that real garden art in Italy began with Cicero’s introduction of the gymnasium park. Such parks were large and consisted of a grass enclosure, with a portico and statues, and groves of plane and cypress. Two early authors gave us a great deal of information about the plants and gardens of Rome at about the time of the coming of Christianity. Pliny the naturalist (23-79 AD) produced his Historia Naturalis, which included the natural history of plants, while his nephew, Pliny the Younger, was a writer and orator and it is from his letters that we learn about the design of Roman

gardens. The first garden of medicinal plants belonged to Antone Castor, the famous Roman doctor, in the time of Pliny. Martialis (died 260 AD) wrote a book on agriculture and gave special attention to arboriculture. According to Georgina Masson, Pompeian gardens were of two kinds, namely country and gardens, where plants grew in pots or vases or in small beds surrounding a pool, or plants were grown under a portico opening on the garden behind the house. In the latter type of garden, the interpenetration of the house and the garden and the axial planning are notable features. These influenced gardens and garden making in post-Renaissance Italy and in France. The chief gifts of Rome to architecture were cement and the free use of the arch. The portrait bust, axial planning and the topiary are the main contributions of the Romans to gardens and these were widely adopted in the gardens of France and imperial Britain.

GARDENS OF RENAISSANCE ITALY

The Renaissance which led to a great revival in literature, art and later on in science and gardening, developed in the cities of north Italy after 1300 AD. The gardens of the Romans are the ancestors of the gardens of the Renaissance. The Middle Ages were marked by the construction of castles, cathedrals and monasteries. The gardens of the monasteries in Italy in the 10th century had both vegetables and flowers.The Renaissance gardens were characterised by terraces linked by magnificent staircases often decorated with statues and green walls or rooms of clipped evergreens. Sometimes, an entire hill side was terraced, and separated from its surroundings by belts of evergreens. The design and planting of parterres became a highly developed art, and scented herbs were used for creating knots. The covered walks were shaded by clipped myrtle or cypress. Among the gardens, Villa d’Este created by Pirro Ligorio, was famous and known for its terraces, fountain, sculptures and

cypresses. Hymen stated that in no other garden in the world, water was so vigorously and thoroughly used as in the Villa d’Este. The garden of the Ruspoli castle villa at Vignanello contains the most magnificent box parterre in Italy. The Giustic garden was full of rockeries and grottoes, and had many terraces. The attractive gardens are Aldobrandini, Lante and Medici. At the beginning of the 14th century, M. Sylvester created the first botanical garden in Salerno and in 1333, a botanical garden was said to exist in Venice. The botanical gardens at Pisa, “Pisan Garden”, was founded in 1543 AD. One of its directors, Andrea Caeselpino whose De P/antis, known for its modern systematic botany, served as a guide to Ray and Linnaeus. Orto Botanico of Padua was founded in May 1545 in an area of 20,000 sq. m. The founder-architect was Giovanni Moroni da Bergamo and it was executed by Prof. Pietro da-Noale. Other botanical gardens which deserve mention are Schola Regia Botanices and Otto Botanico at Palermo, Italy, founded in 1795 by King Ferdinand II of Bourbon and Villa Taranto at Pallanza on Lake Maggiore, Italy, 1910, founded by Captain Neil McEacharm. Brauante, an architect, was engaged by Pope Julius II, who set the fashion for shaping bare hillsides into gardens by making a series of terraces set in a frame-work of loggias and choisters; who made an open air theatre a part of every great garden and who used spectacular staircases to link the parts ofhis garden together into a single monumental work. The Vatican garden combines the beauty of the architecture with that of the plants.Other interesting gardens are Villa Gamberaria, Villa Garzoni, Villa Narlia, Villa Lante and Villa Muti. The Villa Gamberaria garden, started in the 16th century, is known for its clipped hedges and topiary. The terraces ofthe Villa Garzoni garden at Collodi of 17th century are decorated with sculptures of beautiful women and are linked by staircases. The formal layout of the garden merges into the forested slopes. The garden of the Villa Mania has a rectangular pool, at one side of which is a temple- like structure with beautiful sculptures. In the background are garden rooms with walls of clipped evergreens. The garden of Villa Lante is known for its topiary and a cascade which flows though a canal with serpentine edges. The mazes of the Villa Muti garden with boundary walls of clipped hedges is known for its geometrical beauty. Rome was the centre of the Catholic world, visiting bishops and cardinals brought bulbs and seeds of exotic plants as gifts. And this led to the enrichment of Italian gardens. Gardens of Renaissance Italy had a profound effect not only on the garden architecture of France and England, but also on the formal architectural gardens of every part of the world.

PORTUGUESE GARDENS The rulers of Portugal after 1260 AD contributed greatly in enhancing the scenic beauty of the country. It has many parks and gardens, including its famous Botanical Garden which is one of the best in Europe. Cintra with its forests, garden villas, convents and palaces is another beauty spot in Portugal.

GARDENS OF FRANCE During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the speciality was the French garden, the kind which for a century was to be the great influence on garden making Montpellier Garden. The 17th century was the French era of culture and the art of garden making was at its peak in Europe.De Serres, in Theatre de’ Agriculture et Mesnager des Champs (1600), distinguished four kinds of gardens namely kitchen garden, fruit garden, medicinal garden and pleasure garden. La Quintine, nearly one century later in 1690, distinguishes a fifth type of garden, the marsh garden. In France, outside the Montpellier in Paris, there was, ever since 1590, a royal garden at the Louvre created by Henri IV, In 1626, Louis XIII ordered the creation of The Kings Botanical Garden (Jardin des Plants) at Foubourg St. Victor in Paris.Only in the beginning of the 18th century did street trees appear, lining long decorative corridors at the edge of the city or within parks. The emergence of the tree on the street achieved its triumph between 1853 and 1868 in Paris, and planting of avenue trees are included in town planning.The Garden of the Tuileries in Paris was designed by Le Notre in 62 acres. The trees are clipped like hedges into geometrical shapes. Against the background of foliage are the marble statues of Greek gods, nymphs and horses. A botanical garden, Les Cedres, at Sam Jean-Cap Ferrat in France, having a beautiful coast, view of the vividly blue sea, of wooded, hilly capes of pretty little bays, ancient towers and churches was founded in 1922 in an area of 15 hectares by Monsieur Marnier Lapostotle

DUTCH GARDENS Holland was as much influenced by France in garden art as was Germany, but she did move to modilj the Frenchness of her 17th and 18th century gardens with native elements. The canals of Amsterdam are lined with avenues of lime and elm trees. In the Jordaan district of Amsterdam, the streets and canals are named after flowers and trees. There is a botanical garden in Amsterdam in which Hugo de Varies did his experiments.From the engravings of the artist Vredemann de Vries, published in 1583 AD. we get the idea of 16th century gardens of Holland. These gardens were formal rectangular enclosed in hedges, with summer houses. Hyams observed that water played a very insignificant part in most Dutch gardens. It may be that people of a water-logged country like Holland, intersected by canals and water ways, do not want features in their gardens which they see all around in their daily life. The Leyden garden of Leyden University, Netherlands was originally founded in 1594 in a small plot of land by Carolus Clusius. By 1729, in this garden, there were more than 8,000 species, of which half were trees.The Dutch were the head of the rest of Europe in horticultural botany, which made difference to their gardens. The Dutch contributions was in new bulbs, in plants from

the southern hemisphere and the Far East and in the art of topiary which the Dutch first learned from the French and then carried to extraordinary lengths. The Dutch finally carried European horticulture into other parts of the world.

GARDENS OF GERMANY Different kinds of gardens were seen in Germany by the mid-l6th century which include ordinary garden for house hold, for utilitarian purposes, medicinal gardens, miscellaneous gardens with unusual type of plants, elegant gardens with ornamental plants for pleasure, show gardens with splendid buildings and features. Botanische Staatsammlung of Munich looks like a picture of a tropical jungle. while the Berlin-Dahlam Botanical Museum of Berlin was founded in 1815 by Heinrich Friederich Link.

GARDENING IN ENGLAND The progress in the art of gardening in England was attained in stages from the 14th to the 19th centuries; a country in which the idea of gardening has been developed to a very high degree. During 1066-1500 AD, the object of gardens was purely utilitarian. The pioneers were Christian monks who planted kitchen-gardens for supplying vegetables to monasteries and developed herb gardens for medicinal purposes. Not till the later 12th century were there references to flowers being used to adorn gardens roses were probably among the first. Until about the 14th century, fruit and vegetable gardens were restricted to a few nobles. Among the several different styles of gardening the most importantamong the early ones were the Tudor gardens. The Elizabethan gardens, which followed closely upon the Tudor, were located in such a way as to have greater

architectural relationship to the house. The real Elizabethan gardens begin with the 6th century and continued through the middle of 18th century, thus setting the date of Elizabethan gardening from 1550 to 1750 AD covering a period of 200 years in garden planning. By the time of Henry 111(1509-1597 AD), gardening had received a great stimulus and, in England, it reached the age of symmetry. In the middle of 16th century, flower beds, knot gardens, pleached alleys, topiaries and terraces were introduced in the English garden from the continent. Through the reigns of James 1(1603-1625 AD) and Charles 1(1625-1649 AD), the love of gardening and of flowers, which has become so characteristic of the English, was introduced to them from the Netherlands. French influence began to impinge upon English gardens in the 17th century. Cardinal Wolsey at Hampton Court made the first garden on a magnificent scale in the new manner. During the late 16th century, the British first realised the extremely wide range of plants that could be grown in their country and became pre-eminent as a nation of plant men.The first botanical garden in England, at Oxford, was opened in 1621. In 1651, Dr. Turner of England had a garden with plants which were very rare at that time. In the 18th century, a revolution originating in England took place. In the hands of William Kent, Lancelot Brown and Sir Humphry Repton, all traces of formality were swept away. The terraces, stately parterres, yew hedges and regular-shaped beds were abolished and the ground laid out in an entirely new line. Charles Barry and Joseph Paxton came to the forefront as wise garden architects after Repton’s death. They reformed the old and indiscriminate carpet-bedding style of flowerbed design. That was the era when plant hunters from England went out far and wide and the Botanical Garden came to the

forefront. Towards the end of 19th century, in England, Gertrude Jekyll introduced a vigorous new approach which has exerted a great influence on garden design in England. She was a pioneer in the art of adopting an arrangement of living plant material on site. The Royal Botanical Garden, Kew was founded by Richard Bennet at the residence of Sir Henry Capel. It became a true botanical garden in 1759 with the appointment of Willian Aiton as Superintendent. The prime maker of the famous Kew Garden was Sir Joseph Banks. Gardening in America, France and Germany was entirely transformed by the English style. Among the basically English botanical gardens are the Hortus Bogoriensis, one of the most beautiful landscape gardens in the world, made by the Dutch in Indonesia; Paradenia in Sri Lanka; the South Yarra garden in Melbourne; the lovely garden of lawns and trees on Lake Victoria at Entebbe in Uganda; the magnificent Botanichevski Sot at Yalta; the garden of the palace at Livadia on the Black Sea; the superb botanical garden of Tashkent in Uzbekistan; the Moscow botanical gardens and those at Mink and Kiev. It is certainly not too much to claim that between 1750 and 1850 the English garden conquered the world of garden art and garden science.

OTHER EUROPEAN GARDENS The growth of gardening in Europe was also influenced by garden art and science as developed in the various other countries in the continent. Monasteries were the pioneers of garden making in Europe’s Middle Age. A plan for a great monastery drawn up in the year 900 AD and preserved at St. Gale in Switzerland includes a paradise garden, medicinal herb garden, psysic garden and flower garden. Botanical gardens like the National Botanical Garden of the Irish Republic (1790), Nationale Rijks-Plantentuin van Belgie at Meise near Brussels in Belgium, the Alpengarten in Belvedere of Austria, Park of Schonbrunn of Austria (1700), University of Upsala’s botanical garden of Scandinavia (1655) and the Botaniska Tradgard ofGothenburg of Scandinavia (1916) have contributed a great deal in the garden making of Europe and other parts of the world.

PRE-COLUMBIAN GARDENING IN AMERICA The art of gardening in South America was an ancient one and highly developed. Both the southern and central zones of civilised living contributed very substantially to the horticultural as well as agricultural flora of the whole world. Maize and potatoes are field crops grown in gardens in America. In addition to the kind of gardening which was familiar in the Old World as well as the New, pre-Columbian Mexico had a kind of gardening which was, perhaps, unique—Chinapas were floating gardens. Every eyewitness speaks of the marvellous flowers and gorgeous colours of Mexican gardens. Mexican gardeners cultivated Dahlia, Zinnia, A istom er/a, Eucharis, Hippeastrum, Zephyranthes, ornamental bromeloiads, Yucca and cactus.

AMERICAN GARDENS American gardens were enriched by the systematic exploration of plant species from the unexplored parts of the country itself and also by the introduction of plants brought from different parts ofthe world.The number of public and private botanical gardens were greatly increased. Francois Andre Michaux (1770-1855 AD) of France, explored the plant wealth of America and published his work in two notable books .This book remained an indispensable work for all botanists and horticulturists as a standard treatise on the trees of the eastern United States. Then the famous expedition during 1804-1806 AD by Lewis and Clark to the guarded communities of the Atlantic Coast opened the way for 19th century explorers to new plant material. Another botanist early in the 19th century who deserves brief mention is Gotthilf H. F. Muhlendburg (1753-1 815) who is the author of Flora of Lancaster. In 1813, he published a catalogue of the plants of North America in which about 3,000 species were listed. Another early plant explorer on the Pacific coast was Iwon lwanowitsch Eschscholtz (1793-183 1) who visited the coast of North America in 1815-181 8 where he discovered a number of plants that he described in the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Petersburg. Pursh (1774-1820) was another explorer who was trained in botany and horticulture in Germany and came to America in 1799 to take charge of a Botanical garden in Baltimore. His work in botany and horticulture came into prominence in 1802 when he took charge of the gardens at Woodlands, Philadelphia, the beautiful estate of William Hamilton; then considered the finest example of landscape gardening in America. Another early explorer-botanist in North America was Nattall. His reputation as a botanist rests chiefly on his Genera of iVorth American Plants, in two volumes, published in 1818. Nattall was a professor of botany and curator of the Botanical Garden at Harvard. In 1842-1854, he published North American Silva, in three volumes. The best known botanist in the southern states in this period was Stephen Eliott (1771-1830). During

the 18th and 19th centuries, a number of public gardens were laid out in America. We find references of tropical garden “Tropicallia”, beach gardens, lagoon gardens. mountain gardens, windy gardens, dry gardens and water gardens. In the past two centuries, several notable gardens were laid out in and around Philadelphia. Bartram’s garden was established by John Bartram in 1728 at Kingessing, on the banks ofthe Schuylkill.At Marshaliton, near West Chester, Marshall Arboretum was founded in 1773. Longwood garden at Kennett Square was founded by the Pierce family in 1800, which is now owned by Longwood, Inc.There is also a garden at Haverford College, established in 1833. A garden known as Upsal” was established in 1811, three miles north of the boundary of Philadelphia, with an objective to grow native plants for the purpose of exchange with different countries. There was another garden known as “The Elgin Botanic Garden”, started in 1801 by Dr. Hosack in 20 acres of land from the corporation of the New York City between Bloomingdale and Kingsbridge. The primary objective of this garden was to collect the native plants of the country, specially those possessing medicinal properties or are otherwise useful. In 1810, this garden became the Botanic Garden of the State of New York under the control of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. Charleston Botanic Society and Garden was founded in 1805 in Charleston, South Carolina, on a piece of land given by Mrs. Savage. Another botanic garden near Charleston was established by William Williamson which, towards the end of the 18th century, passed into the hands of John Company. This garden, located in St. Paul’s district, consisted of 26 acres, out of which 10 acres was the pleasure ground planted with every variety of trees, shrubs and flowers from Europe and America. There was also Evans garden with several remarkable features. On the wooded hillside, along a millrace, were rhododendrons and mountain plants from the Himalayas and from several great American mountain systems. In this, a unique “sand garden” was laid

out with the plants which Evans collected in New Jersey and neighbouring sandy regions. Robert E. Russel planted a garden of botanic rarities in 1830 which is now a part of the State House grounds in Columbia, giving its name “Russel Botanic Garden”. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society established an experimental garden in 1833, the first in America to be supported by a Horticultural Society. It covered 32 acres and was planted with ornamental plants, fruits and vegetables. Plants were exchanged with other botanical gardens all over the world. In the South, more than the North, physicians planted psysic gardens in which many standard medicinal herbs were grown for decoctions or oils. Psysic gardens in Georgia, that of Dr. Lindsey Durham. established about 1810 at Maxey, was best known. United States Botanic Garden was established in the District of Columbia in 1820 with five acres of land, which was expanded to 12.5 acres in 1824. Through the efforts of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, a public experiment station and botanical garden was established in Cincinnati in 1848, at a time when no similar institution existed in this great region. It was the testing place for native and foreign fruitr and plants. There are several important and interesting, gardens like Arnold Arboratum, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Longwood Garden, Missouri Garden, Strybing Arboratum, Huntington Garden and Fairchild Tropical Garden. The best collection of woody plants in America is available in Arnold Arboratum which are planted in a grand landscape garden. The garden was established in 1898 and was extended to 265 acres of soft, rolling hills, drives, walks and shrubs. The Brooklyn Botanic Garden is an enchanting ornamental garden laid out in 1910 on 50 acres and is the best teaching garden in the world. A distinction of Brooklyn Botanic Garden is its three Japanese style gardens like “Dry Landscape Garden”, “Hill and Pond Landscape Garden” and “Roji Garden”. Longwood Garden was laid out by P. S. du Pont in 1906 on 1,000 acres where French and Italian influence is apparent. The Missouri Garden was founded in 1851 by Hendry Shaw covering 75 acres of land in the city’s suburb. Strybing Arboratum has a remarkable collection of magnolias and related genera. This garden was started on 1,140 acres of barren land in the year 1868. E. I-I. Huntington in 1906 created a garden in place of a citrus farm on 200 acres, known as Huntington Garden. It is outstanding for its collection of cycads, cacti and succulents. In 1935, on the outskirts of Miami in Florida, Fairchild, Tropical Garden was eablished by Colonel Robert A. Montgomery on 80 acres of land. Its palmetum is probably the best and longest in the world. The cycad collection of this garden is second only to that of Kirstenbosch in South Africa which has the largest assembly of the species.

THE ISLAMIC GARDENS The Moslem world inherited much of the knowledge of classical civilisation. For a period, Persian gardening and garden design was of high standard. Many of the ideas for early Egyptian gardens were taken to Persia where the garden became more decorative. Iran is said to be the first come of our Aryan ancestors and the birthplace of agriculture. They were fond of gardening. The first Persian gardener mentioned in literature is Cyrus I.According to Xenophon, Cyrus I laid out a garden at Sardis in Lydia and had set the design of Chahar Bagh that Persian gardens have followed ever since. Darius I was also interested in arboriculture and in propagation of new species. In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded Iran and defeated Darius II. The Greek Seleucids ruled Iran from 320 to 261 BC and during this period they introduced a number of Asian plants in Southern Europe. We get an idea of Persian gardens of the 12th century from Nizami’s poem on the love tale of Layla and Majnun written in 1188 AD where mention was made about red tulips, yellow roses, narcissus and pomegranates. The Arabs routed the Iranians at Nahavand in 642 AD and annexed the country to Arab empire. Arab gardening was so sophisticated that it has influenced the development of gardening in Europe to a great deal. In their eastern dominions, in the city states of Shiraz, lsfahan, Baghdad and Damascus, for example, Arabian gardens were

naturally based on the ancient Persian ones which has been modelled on much earlier Mesopotanian gardens. The gardens of Islamic Iran were rectangular, enclosed, architectural and formal with fountains, partitions and many large shade trees. By far the most important flower in Islamic Persian gardens was the rose. Fruit trees were the first in all Arab gardens. In parts of Persia they included citrus, principally the orange. The Islamic gardeners early realised that few trees are more ornamental than fruit trees, and made their apples, pears, plums, apricots and peaches serve a dual purpose. The design of Arabian gardens based on the aridity of their countries, preferred architectural geometrical gardens based on the exigencies of irrigation. The paths of Islamic gardens were never random or winding but always leading straight to some goal, perhaps a pavilion, sometimes to a view through an ornamental unglazed window in the outer wall. Iran formed a part of empire of Timur (1335-1405 AD) at the end of the 14th century. He was a lover of arch itecture and gardens. The tradition of Chahar Bagh reached Samarqand, the capital of Timur from Iran. He planted in the suburbs of Samarqand, ten gardens which were irrigated from the Zarafshan river. Some of the gardens were named Bagh-i-Naqsh-i-Jahan, Bagh-e-Juhan-numa and Bagh-e-Chenar. Clavijo, the Ambassador of the King of Spain, who visited Samarqand in 1404 AD gave an account of these gardens. These gardens were surrounded by high walls, with towers at each corner and the enclosed area was divided into quarters. There was a main water axis through which a canal flowed. The gates were decorated with gold and blue tiles. In some of these gardens, partridges and deer were kept. The layout ofthese gardens was mainly after the Persian four-plot model. The Bukhara School of Painting was developed by Ubaid Khan, Uzbek ruler of Bukhara. The paintings of Bukhara give us an idea of the harem gardens of Bukhara, whose architecture and layout was inspired by Iranian gardens. The favourite trees of the royal places of Bukhara were cypress, peach and plum. During the reign of Shah Abbas 1(1587-1629 AD) splendid mosques and palaces were built; and gardens laid out which gave a character and personality of Ispahan, which was called Nisf-i-Jahan (halfofthe world). There is no complex ofbuildings in the world which is as charming as those which surround the Maidan-i-Shah, which was used by Shah as a polo ground. At the entrance ofthe garden of the royal palace is Alikapu, a six-storeyed building in which the Shah received foreign ambassadors. To the west of the palace area was the avenue of Chahar Bagh leading down to the river Zayandarud. Eight rows of chenars and poplars were planted in this avenue garden, interspersed with roses and jasmine, which were irrigated by five watercourses. The earliest and perhaps the best gardeners of what subsequently became Islamic North Africa were the Carthaginians. North Africa Islamic gardening reached its zenith and can be best studied not in Africa itself, but in Spain. The Moors, as the Arabs were called, made a great impact on the life of the people of Spain. Spain was under Mohammedan rule, during 7th to 11th centuries. During this period, the rulers left their mark on the architecture and gardens of Spain. It is the architecture which gave individuality to the palaces and gardens of Moorish Spain. The dome and the horseshoe arch are distinct contributions of the Arabs to the architecture of Spain. The Moorish gardens of Spain were mainly designed to treat patios of large mansions and were formal and geometrical like Persian gardens. The trees mainly consisted of palms, olives, oranges and other Mediterranean species. The Arabs learnt the Chabar Bagh design of garden layout from the Persians. The gardens were laid out with crossed channels containing fountains of water. The gardens at Cordoba, Seville and Granada were developed on this pattern.

JAPAN: GARDENS IN THE ABSTRACT Japanese garden art was brought from the mainland ofChina about 500 AD with other arts of Buddhist monks, who always surrounded their temple by beautiful gardens. At first, the gardens were crude and consisted of only a pond with an island after the Chinese prototype, but they developed their own designs. The early gardens had the principal features of a mountain, a pond and a bridged island. During the period of Empress Suiko (592-628 AD) this sort of garden art was originated in Japan. In the Nara period (646-794 AD) and in the period ofHeian (794-1185 AD), the art and craft of Chinese gardening influenced further the mode of living of the Japanese. The typical features consisted of an open space, a pond with an island, a hillock on the south ofthe pond and a stream of water. The usual style was to divide the water into two channels, one leading to the pond and other to form a waterfall from a hill. The following Kamakura period (1186-1393 AD) saw the Buddhist priests designing their own gardens, and many grand gardens like Tenryuji, Saihoji, Ginkakaji, Kinkakuji, Ryoajni and Daitotuji were constructed, these Zen gardens were more substantial, more reposeful and were based on good landscaping rules. The prominent features of

these gardens were water, stones and evergreen plants. They were selected in such a manner that the garden would not undergo major changes during the four seasons of the year. The most notable of the Zen gardens is the moss garden of Saihoji temple in Kyoto, which was designed by a priest Muso Kokushi (1275-1351). Under the shade of maples and pines, different kinds of mosses were grown, resembling a green carpet. During the reign of Muromachi (1392-1573), gardening in flat land was introduced. Around 1480-1490, the greatest of all gardens, Ryuan-ji was built. From this time onward, more thought was given to ornamental superficial aspects of landscaping rather than expressing philosophical ideas. In the Momoyoma period (1573-1603), more and more stones of diverse nature were incorporated in ornamental gardens. At that time the tea garden with its simplified buildings was perfected, while in the Edo period (1603-1867), Stroll gardens, came into existence. These gardens consisted of larger lakes with islands surrounded by paths leading to various garden features. Superficial things like miniature Mt. Fujis or literal attempt to reproduce the famous scenes of Kyoto such as the Oi River were introduced in gardening ideas. The present day designs of the gardens of Japan belong to the Meij i period (1862-1912). In that time, foreign influences were apparent. Flower beds, lawns, gravel paths, bronze statues and other such ornaments together with many of the super-facilities of the west were taken over and incorporated into the traditional gardens with the result that very few maintained their unspoiled Japanese character. Despite the brilliance of the Japanese in floriculture, pure botanical gardening has not long been practised in Japan. It started in Japan after World War II with such impetus that during these years some 60 such gardens were planted. The oldest true botanical garden is Koishikawa established in 1684 which turned out to be the Botanic Garden of Tokyo University from 1877 and spread over 40 acres with arboratum, systematic garden, fern garden and psycic garden. Associated with this is the Nikko Botanic garden in the Tochigi Prefecture, established in 1902. This garden is laid out on 26 acres of land, specialising in Alpine plants. This has a sphagnum bog garden, the best of its kind in the world. Another botanical garden in a beautiful location is Kyotos Botanic Garden founded in 1917 and reconstructed in 1955. This garden covers an area of57 acres, and is remarkable for its domed greenhouse. At Hokkaido University, there is the old Sapporo garden which conserves an area of primeval lowland forest. An interesting alpine and bog garden is maintained at a high altitude on Mount Kakkoda by the Botanical Faculty of Tohaku University. This University also maintains a much larger botanical garden on 125 acres in the old Aobayama Castle grounds.

GARDENING IN INDIA Gardening has been popular in India since ancient times. It is also the place of origin of many plants offloricultural importance. The first recorded history of civil isation in India dates back to 2500 BC before the Aryans came. The Aryan civilisation dates back to about 1600 BC. The epics of the Aryans, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, believed to have been compiled during 500 BC, mentioned gardens, trees and flowers. Reference has been made about the beautiful gardens of the city of Indraprastha in the Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata. We have also read about the garden named “Ashokavana” in the Ramayana, in which Sita was in captivity. In the Ramayana, it has been mentioned that the palaces had beautiful gardens with numerous flowers and shady groves and the lakes were full of lotus flowers. As early as 233 BC, King Ashoka planted banyan and mango trees along the roads for giving shade to the wayfarers. This planting of roadside avenue trees was known as “margeshuvriksha”. Sudraka, in 100 BC, has also given an account of flowers and gardens in “Mrchakalikam”. About 57 BC, Kalidasa in his play “Shakuntala”, referred to pleasure gardens with beautiful ornamental trees and climbers. In 1300 AD, Sarangadhara in his “Upavana Vinoda” and “Sarangadhara Paddhati” had described the art of gardening. Vatsyana (300-400 AD) has also rendered interesting accounts of four kinds of gardens namely Pramadodyan, Udyan, Vrikshavatika and Nandanyan. During the Buddhist period, gardens were laid out around the monasteries and stupas and there were beautiful gardens in Nalanda and Taxila. From about 300 BC onwards, the great gardens in India were built by Buddhist monks. The gardens which they preferred, as we have already seen in case of China, were naturalistic parks. The murals in the Ajanta caves, the quintessence of Buddhist art, which date back to 700 AD not only show the high level of art that was attained in that period, but also give us a glimpse of the life of the common people in those times. Some of these pictures show wreaths of flowers in the hair of women, garlands round their neck and bracelets of flowers round their AA arms. Shakuntala. clad in tree bark and decked with garlands of flowers, meets her lover Dushyanta under the shade of an amaltas tree laden with golden yellow flowers. The custom of use of flowers in worship was borrowed by the Chinese and Japanese from India. Since time immemorial some trees were considered sacred in India. It appears from the literature that there were two types of gardens existing in India. One types as billowed in royal palaces and the other type built up around the ashratns of Rishis and Munis.During the reign of Maharajas, the Mughal and the British. many gardens were laid out in India and many ornamental plants were introduced from Africa, China, Japan. Europe and America. Beginning with the invasion of Mahammad Bin Quasim in 712 AD right up to the assault of Jalaluddin Khilji in 1290 AD, India suffered continuously at the hand of foreign invaders, which included the powerful and ruthless Ghaznavi (1001-1024 AD), Shahabuddin Ghori (1176-1196 AD) and others. This distirbing era was not conductive to any permanent garden development in spite of the fabulous wealth of the country. The early Islamic gardens in India were designed by Persians and very much resembled the gardens of Iran. The first glorious period of islamic gardening in india was under the rule of Feroz Shah (1352-1388 AD). Many gardens were established around Ferozabad. as Delhi was known in those days. But the greatest Islamic gardens in India were those planted by the Mughal emperors. Babar (1508-1 530 AD) was the first Mughal Emperor who introduced the gardening techniques of Central Asia. Iran and India. He built the Ram Bagh and Zora Bagh at Agra, besides the two gardens “Bagh-i-Wafa” and “Bagh-i-Kilan” near Kabul, Afghanistan. Only one garden in Delhi bears the name of Emperor Humayun (1531-1556) later knorn as Humayun’s Tomb. This was built by his widow, Haji Begum. This garden is on Char Bagh pattern and Persian in character. Gardens at Fatehpur Sikri, Sikandra in Uttar Pradesh: Han Parbat and Nasim Bagh in Kashmir were established during Akbar’s reign (1556-1605). The zenith of this school of garden art came in the reign of Jahangir (1605-1627) and his garden loving Persian wife Nurjahan. He laid out many gardens all over his kingdom including the famous “Shalimar” and less known Achabal and Vernag gardens in Kashmir, the tomb of l’timad-udDaula in Agra, Khusram Bagh in Allahabad and the Lake Palace in Udaipur. Apart from this, he also laid out Wah Bagh, Hassan Abdal in Rawalpindi and Dil-Khush Bagh and

Shahdara gardens at Lahore, now in Pakistan. The Nishat Bagh. one of the most beautiful and picturesque terrace gardens amongst those of the Mughals, was constructed on the Dal Lake of Kashmir by AsafKhan, father-in- law and minister of Shah Jahan. This garden presents a graceful and unique picture of high terraces, gurgling waterfall and a grand panoramic view towards the hills and along the Dal Lake. Shah Jahan (1628-1658), the most romantic of the Mughal Emperors and husband of Mumtaz Maha 1. constructed Dara Sukon and Pan Mahal, Chasma Shahi and Char Chenar Island in Kashmir; Shalimar Bagh and Red Fort garden in Delhi; Agra Fort and Taj Mahal at Agra; Shalimar Bagh and Lahore Fort at Lahore. Aurangzeb (1658-1707), being ofa religious bent ofmind, laid out a garden in the Badshahi mosque in Lahore, besides constructing Cho Burj Bagh and Nawa Kot. He had laid out a beautiful terrace garden in the plains of India, known as the Pinjore Garden. Roshanara Begum. the sister of Aurangzeb was well known both for her garden and personality. She had laid out the Roshanara garden in the northwestern suburbs of Shahjahanabad. As a memorial to his first wife. Aurangzeb. made a mausoleum at Aurangabad. It is based on the design of the Taj Mahal. The gardens at small places like Jaipur and Jodhpur were modelled on the old gardens of the Mughals and Udaipur in Rajasthan. In Gwalior and other States of Central India and Deccan, some of the old Maratha and Mohammadan Kingdoms followed the Mughal style of gardening for their palaces with suitable changes to maintain local identities. For instance, in the old city fort of Shanwar Wada at Poona, around the old ruins of Bijapur in Kolhapur and in other parts of the country, traces of Mughul style of gardening are apparent. At one time, Rajput Gardens in India were famous. The palace of Amber was built on barren rocks by Raja Man Singh (1590-1695 AD) and was completed by Jai Singh 11(1699-1743 AD). Below the palace, there is a large lake with a beautiful garden with three terraces and parterres of different shapes. The city ofJaipur was also founded by Jai Singh II in 1727 AD. In the heart of the city is the Rajas Palace with a lovely garden. In the garden runs a canal with fountains, which in the past spurted coloured water. Another city famous for garden is Jodhpur, which was founded by Rao Jodha in 1459 AD. Raja Abhai Singh (1724-1749 AD) was also a builder of palaces and gardens. This pleasure-loving king started digging a lake which is named after him as Abhai Sagar and laid out gardens at Jodhpur and Mandore. Mandore is a fragrant garden and its most interesting feature is an octagonal garden pavilion of red sandstone with projecting windows. Another famous garden in Rajasthan is at Deeg in the erstwhile Bharatpur State. In the Deeg palace, the garden is 475 ft. long and 350 ft. wide and in the centre is an octagonal pond. Eastern Rajasthan is the land of red hills and lakes which includes Udaipur, Bundi, Kota and Kishengarh. Rana Udai Singh built a new capital on the Pichola lake in 1559 AD which was named after him as Udaipur. Apart from the palace, the Udaipur gardens are also noteworthy. Bundi is another place with its lakes, gardens, forests and palaces. Bundi developed a style of painting of haunting beauty glorifying nature. Apart from this, Kota and Kishengarh are also known for their palaces and gardens. The Oudh rulers laid out beautiful gardens between 1753 to 1856 AD. Shuja-ud-Doulah (1753-1775 AD) constructed a magnificent mausoleum at Fyzabad, and around this Gulab Ban was developed. The Safdarjang tomb in Delhi was also built by him, in memory of his father, in 1754 AD. It was laid out on the Char Bagh type, surrounded with high walls. Saadat Ali Khan (1798-I 814 AD) built the Farhat Baksh, the place of delight, on the Gomti. The next ruler of Oudh, Nasir-ud-din Haidar (1827-1837 AD) developed Dilkhusha park, filled with antelopes, tigers and peacocks, to enjoy the wild life. The last king of Oudh, Wajid-Ali-Shah (1847-1856 AD) developed a garden named Ryder Bagh. There were two pretty canals on two sides of the garden, Chashma-i-Shirin and Chashma-i-Faid, both studded with fountains with sprays. With the frequent visits and settlement of Western powers on the Indian coast line, a new turn was on the anvil regarding garden making. The Portuguese, who arrived in India in the 14th and 15th centuries, followed by early English and French traders in the 16th century, did not influence garden art noticeably. Nevertheless, the impact oftheir western civilisation was being felt even in the capitals of the old kingdoms. Eventually, when the English were firmly entrenched in India, the garden art of the west began to establish itself. Several great gardens were established by the British people in India. The oldest Botanical Garden in India is Lalbagh, Bangalore, which was founded by Hyder All, the ruler of Mysore (1760). After Tippu’s fall in

1779, the garden was taken over by the English. As the years rolled by, the garden was embellished and enriched and at present the total area is about 240 acres. It is the guiding centre for all horticultural extension, training and developmental activities in the southern States of India. Among the botanical gardens in India, the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah (Calcutta) is the largest of its kind in Asia and was established in 1787. The garden was founded by Lieut. Col. Robert Kyd and occupies an area of 273 acres on the bank of river Hooghly. It has been a centre of excellence for botanists and horticulturists for more than two centuries. The Botanical Garden at Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh), is also another old garden originally established by intizam-ud-Doulla and taken over by East India Company from Mahrattas in 1817. There are two important and interesting Botanical Gardens in the hills of India. The Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling, West Bengal was laid out in 1 873 at an elevation of 2,100 metres under the expert supervision of the famous botanist, Sir George King. The garden is spread over an area of 40 acres comprising different sections. Another most beautiful and picturesque botanical garden in the southern hills is the Botanical Gardens of Udhagai. The garden was established in 1847 at an altitude of2,200 to 2,300 metres above sea level on 51 acres of land. The National Botanical Research Institute. Lucknow was originally established by Nawab Saadat Au Khan (1789-1814) and known to the public of Lucknow as Sikandar Bagh. The garden is spread over 75 acres of land on the south bank of the river Gornti. The Botanical Garden of the Forest Research Institute is the youngest botanical garden in India, established in 1934 at an altitude of663 metres. Planting in the New Forest Estate in which the garden is situated was started in 1925 by R. N. Parkar. It occupies about 8 hectares out of the 445 hectares area of the New Forest Estate of Dehradun. Another young botanical garden is the Botanical Garden, Combatore, Tamil Nadu, which was established in 1908 by the Department of Agriculture, Madras. Rashtrapati Bhavan Garden, New Delhi was laid out in 1929 on the pattern of Mughal gardens with conventional arrangements of squares, terraces, water channels, etc. The main garden area is roughly 134 sq. m. and is bounded from all sides by a paved red stone path. Apart from these, there are several other beautiful and old gardens. The Agri-Horticultural Society Garden, Alipore, Calcutta is one of the best of its kind in India. Though the Society was initiated much earlier by Dr. William Carey, the Society could lay out a garden of its own in 1872 only on 25 acres of land at Alipore Road, Calcutta. This is considered one of the best laid out gardens in India. Brindavan Garden, Mysore, founded in 1927, is a garden famous for its illuminated running water and innumerable fountains decorated by coloured lighting. The garden is in a public park and is one of the most important tourist spots in India. Sim’s Park, Coonoor, Tamil Nadu, is a park established in 1874 by J. D. Sim. The park is spread over an area of 15 hectares at an altitude of about 1,740 metres in the Nilgiri Hills and is the centre of attraction ofthe people of Coonoor and Wellington. In Tamil Nadu, there is another old park, known as Bryant Park, Kodaikanal, established in 1909 in an area of 10 hectares. Sayaji Park at Baroda, Gujarat is named after its founder, the former Maharaja Sayajirao Ill who established it in 1879 over an area of 40 hectares. It is an attractive pleasure garden with a large collection of ornamental plants, toy train, children’s park, museum and zoo with rare animals. The Rose Garden at Chandigarh is situated in the centre of the city on a 15 hectare plot, which was started in 1966 for making a rose museum. There was several Japanese style gardens of recent origin like Roshanara Park, Delhi, the garden at the official residence of the Prime Minister at Safdarjung Road, New Delhi, the garden at the residence of the Lt. Governor of Delhi, Kamala Retreat at Kanpur, and at the residential complex of Gurudeva Rabindra Nath Tagore at Santiniketan. Other notable parks are Cubbon Park, Bangalore; Buddha Jayanti Park, New Delhi; Maitrai Bag, Bhilai, M. P.; Lamaya Park, Burnpur, West Bengal. With the effort of the horticultural departments in several States, big industrialists and industrial establishments, many new parks and gardens are being constructed incorporating different concepts and ideas to catch the eye of onlookers.

PRINCIPLES FOR A GOOD GARDENIn order to layout a good garden some fundamental principles are to be followed. ( i ) Garden should be reasonably laid out for the owners’ comfort and convenience.(ii) Simplicity in design should be the key note and undue complexity be avoided.(iii) Variety in a garden gives the greatest pleasure. But attempting too much in a small space is not desirable. (iv) The natural grade of the ground should be taken as a guide. (v) The ground should be so designed that the entire garden is not visible at a glance. Even in a small plot it should not be possible to view the whole garden at a glance. It should be full of surprises, with each turn of the path revealing fresh vistas, or disclosing new interest. (vi) Long and straight garden paths should be avoided. (vii) Judicious employment of more number of plants of different varieties should be one of the most important fundamental approaches. (viii) Colour and contrast in the garden are very much desirable which are lasting enjoyment and most satisfying means of creating interest in the garden. Garden design involves attention to many considerations connected with the character and position of the site and its surroundings. Each particular site presents a problem to itself iii relation to soil, position, aspect and environment and the designer must carefully consider these factors. Artistic consideration and practical need of horticulture must synchronize. In garden planning proper growth and flowering of plants and the comfort and convenience of those who use the garden must always receive attention. Everything in the garden should be Interdependent, the general picture distinguished by balance, unity of effect and a studied harmony of line and mass. There should be no exaggeration of special features, no discordant note to worry the eye, no forcing of effects.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF A GARDEN

1) LAWN: Lawn is one of the most important elements in the garden design, attractive at all times and providing a pleasant surrounding for house, trees, shrubs and flowers. It is the centre of social life which is always restful to the eyes. A patch of good velvety green lawn is desirable close to the house to secure a greater breadth and dignity to a place. The size of the lawn will depend very much on the availability of space, whereas the shape should be such that it creates an attractive appearance. Once the lawn is established it takes little effort to keep it growing beautifully.

2) ROCK GARDEN: Rock garden is an interesting feature in the garden. In most of the gardens they are laid out in such a non-artistic way and badly contrived that it looks out of place and has no utility of my symmetrical balance with the garden. The common plan of heaping together a mass of stone and mineral curiosities into a

grotto-like structure and sprinkling the whole with soil is the outcome of misunderstanding of the first principles. In laying out a garden to bring nature in home and like other Features introduce rocks in the garden and feel happy to see plants growing well on rocks. In nature rocks serve as flower pots. So any attempt to imitate this natural condition should have naturalistic approach and good technical thinking. It is better to select rocks from material which is porous and the soil in rock garden must be well drained. The rock garden may take the shape of a mountain or the stony slope of a hill, a rock crest or a peak. Careful selection of plants and bulbs suitable for growing in rocks which give long flowering season and beautiful colour effect are desirable.

3) ROSARY: Roses are grown in the garden with great love and sincerity in isolated beds or where the space permits they may be grown together in a special garden, termed the rosary or rosarium. Roses can be grown in a place by itself without a monotonous effect. The most common method is to cut the rose beds in grass and there is much to be said in favour of grass as a setting for roses. The beds should not be elaborate in outline nor too small. The groups should show a geometrical relation between their component beds. Establishing a rose garden involves three things, and these are (a) design (b) choice of varieties and (c) preparation of soil and planting. Design will depend very much on available space in sunny location and personal taste. This may consist of a number of beds grouped together leaving paths and space of green velvety grass in between. This pleasant setting brightens the display of rose flowers of different types and varieties.

4) WATER GARDEN: In landscape gardening use of water in their setting plays a prominent role for many obvious reasons. Garden designers have always produced the most satisfactory results, when they have been able to bring water in some way into their compositions. It is beautiful and attractive at all times and providing a pleasant ever changing surface varying with the change of season and weather. The murmuring stream or dripping waterfall attract the ears and eyes. A sheet of water is not only a welcome feature in the landscape, but also proves useful for boating and fishing in almost all seasons. The beauty of a lake also depends upon reflection of the objects upon the bank. Smoothness and softness of effect have been

recommended as the best treatment of the surroundings of lake. The artificial treatment of water, especially when it is required to form a part of a formal scheme, is one of the most costly affairs in the whole practice of garden craft. When a rock garden combines with water garden it gives more attractive appearance. A formal garden of this type should have a conventional shape of pool with bold stone slab on the sides surrounded by straight paths and geometric beds. The informal type which is most desirable and should be the key note in the rock and water gardening. Here, the pool or a series of small pools should combine in artistic manner surrounded by rock garden.

5) BOG GARDEN: Though not an important feature in garden design, bog garden is interesting if it facilitates to form such type of ground which naturally exists at the site. It is not always advisable to level the low lying areas as it creates opportunity for growing some special kind of plants without taking help of any artificial means. Bog garden can be laid out in a marshy spot, partly in sun and in shade and plants can be selected depending upon lie moisture on the ground. Deposition of organic matter markedly improves the growth of the plants. It should be especially designed in order to fit the overall plan of the garden.

6) WILD GARDEN: With the increasing popularity for informal design in garden planning, laying out wild garden is also getting importance in garden planning. It is the desire of man for direct communication with nature and naturalizing home-living with no touch of artificiality. Combinations of some plants are very attractive in wild garden e.g., fine leaved plants, ferns, climbers, grass, trailing shrubs and flowers if grown together in informal beds of rough undulated places. A wild garden will show its best when the plants have grown well and this type of garden should be attempted in large garden area. Designing a wild garden requires imagination and careful selection of plants depending on their growth

7) TERRACE GARDEN: Terrace garden is increasingly becoming an essential feature of modern garden. This is an area of paving between the garden and the house and it may be of various sizes and attractive, shapes. In order to improve the look of the garden the terraces are constructed for several reasons e.g., (a) for cultivation of plants in pots or raised beds, (b) an outdoor area for sitting and dining (c) dirt-free children’s play area etc. Paving of terraces may be made by flag stone, native stone, brick concrete, wood or gravel. It is important to select the right colour and texture of paving material when planning a terrace. This creates interest in small area which brings beauty of growing things close to paving room and dining room windows at rear living area. Plant material for this area should be chosen with great care.

8)CHILDREN GARDEN: Modern gardens are specially designed and adapted to provide maximum safety, fun and enjoyment for children of all ages. The elements of contended play are sand pits, sand, water, grass, rounded pebbles, a small flowering tree, miniature gardens and other game equipment. A planned yard in any semi-shady corner of the garden containing the above includes children’s need in gardens.

9) KITCHEN GARDEN: Most owners of garden like to devote at least a small part of their garden area to some good varieties of fruit and vegetables which is a rewarding and fascinating garden project. In selecting a site for a kitchen garden, it is usually best to locate it in close proximity to the home and on no account should it be so arranged that a portion of the pleasure ground must be traversed to reach it.The garden should be laid out in a sunny place and enclosed by walls and good high hedge. A convenient water supply is a very important item and good walks in the kitchen garden as elsewhere are necessary. The size of kitchen garden is also a matter which needs careful consideration and for convenience of working it should be divided into quarters.Kitchen garden as a whole seldom presents an attractive appearance; it should be located in such a place so that it does not spoil the garden picture. A delightful and attractive approach may, however, be made by way of arched opening in the wall. Cut flowers for the house may also be grown in this site. Formal design is the best for kitchen garden. 10) CONTAINER GARDENING:It is one of the most interesting and popular methods of gardening. It widens the scope of making gardens indoor as well as outdoor and adds year round colour in the garden with minimum effort. Here lies the scope of using attractive containers of various types, of different shape and sizes; simple shape and subdued colour are, however, desirable. Miniature gardens can even be laid out in one big container or by using series of small containers. For outdoor display large containers are better, small containers can be grouped for bold effect. In order to soften bare steps, to separate terrace from lawn, to make partition, use of foliage and flowering plants tubbed or boxed is very effective.

11) STEPS FOR GROUND AND GARDENS: Steps are means of changing levels in the garden. They may be of brick, stone, concrete, wood, grass, or a combination of two or three of these. They should he of comfortable height and construction should be safe, durable and easy to maintain. Design of steps must fit in the overall landscape planning.

12) WALKS AND PATHS: Garden paths are used for recreative purposes and social intercourse, and should, therefore, offer an inducement for frequent use by well conceived and harmonious lines, easy gradients and perfect metalling or paving. Walks are the skeleton framework of a garden and a means of circulating around the place. They should also be arranged in such a way that the beauty of the place may be exhibited. Walks and garden paths are also necessary for proper working and should be approximately leveled, if not cross-wise certainly length-wise and wherever a fall occurs it should be connected by steps; sloping paths on a terrace are seldom a success.Walks may be made of bricks, gravel, stone, concrete, wood, or grass depending on the availability of material and design. Much care is needed while planning and designing walks and paths. Paths of gravel or stepping stones through flower beds give an informal look. Stepping blocks, round paving blocks and angled squares also makes the garden walk interesting. Stone, brick and concrete are suitable for the important and much-used paths in the garden. Delightful edging to garden paths may be made by planting lawn grass but it requires careful maintenance, otherwise it will spoil the look of the garden.13) FENCES FOR UTILITY AND BEAUTY: Fence provides clearly defined boundary line, screening, security and allows the gardener to make the best use of the land. The materials may vary from split rails to the most sophisticated modern plastic or plywood sheet. The immediate surrounding and architecture of the house is important in deciding on the design of the fence. Sometimes fences support climbers and shrubs which assure considerable privacy. Combination of stone walls and the common sheep wires look extremely interesting..

14) GARDEN GATES: A gate with its attractive and simple design in garden welcomes the visitor and is a point of interest. It should be ornamental as well as functional. The design must blend well with the architecture of the house.

When the ground is undulated and the line of fence arranged to fit the contour, some strong but simple form of continuous railing would make a good and cheap fence. Stone walls may be built a so many ways to correspond with the surroundings. As a cheap fence round a cottage garden, there are few forms which look so well in carpenter made lattice from bamboo slits. Hedges of different kinds and forms are also used far this purpose, this gives lasting pleasure, variety of hue and harmony with the surroundings

15) ARCHES AND PERGOLAS: Arches are generally used in garden to form a sort of screen or connecting link between one part of garden to another. They may be of different shapes and sizes with variety of design. Its proper place is astride a path arid its avowed purpose is to support climbing plants. Pergolas are a very pretty feature in a garden. A series of rustic arches embowered with climbers are termed as pergola. A path shaded with pergola is as much a necessity against the heat of the sun as a welcome visual feature. This may be used to cover a path leading 1om one part of the garden to another. The materials for making a pergola are brick, stone, timber or bamboo poles. Arches and pergolas are to be erected in such a place of the garden that their design and existence harmonise with the entire planning of the garden. Climbers on the pergola should create interest at all seasons of the year.

16) GARDEN WALLS: Walls around a garden have almost infinite possibilities and variation in design, material and usefulness, and are usually constructed by using bricks, stones, flints and concrete blocks. They add beauty to the garden if designed properly. The architecture of the house and immediate surrounding of the place is also important in deciding on the architecture of the wall. It is usually desirable to have some planting on or near the wall which otherwise looks bare.

17) GREEN HOUSE AND GLASS HOUSE: Green house is essential to give shelter to all tender and special kind of plants which cannot grow in the open for months together. It also adds to the beauty of the garden, if properly designed and placed in a suitable place. Design of the green house should have close relation with the character and design of other features in the garden including the building.In a tropical country glass house is not suitable to maintain plants in good condition but glass on the top protects the plants and seedlings from rains. Green house plants may also be grown in glass top green house in shade.

18) SUMMER HOUSE: The summer house is a useful adjunct as a shelter from wind and the scorching rays of the sun particularly during the hot months. It is also a pleasant feature in the garden, redeeming the general flatness of the site and offering an inducement to enjoy the garden even during the summer months. It is frequently used to hide some unsightly object on neighboring premises. In locating the summer house two things are taken into consideration—its relation to the garden scheme as a factor in the general picturesque effect, and to the flowers in the garden. A summer house should not stand detached and isolated like a sentry box. If it is not convenient to place it against a boundary, it should remain associated with a tree or a group of trees or shrubs. It may stand among the flowers, where one may enjoy their fragrance and colour and hear the drone of bees. In any case the summer house should not be used as a store for flower pots, garden stakes, and tools.

19) GARDEN FURNITURES: Good design in garden furniture is as necessary as the selection of furniture of the house itself. A wide range of attractive garden furnitures are used in modern garden design. They make outdoor living attractive and comfortable. To add fun and pleasure in the garden simple material and attractive designs are preferred.

20) SEATS: Comfortable seats are usually made of wood and fabric. Iron and stone seats are too hard and absorb temperature. Nylon, PVC and aluminum are largely used for making light and attractive furniture. Cast iron work for benches, tables and chairs look very charming in white colour.

21) BRIDGES: When water is introduced into the garden Particularly in the form of lake or canal it may be necessary to bridge the bank at some point, either as a matter of convenience or for the sake of an attractive feature. A well designed bridge has not only an aesthetic value but it is very useful in viewing the water vista. The design of a bridge should fit in with the character of the garden and unnecessary decoration should be avoided.

STYLES OF GARDENS In the history of garden making, initially there have been two styles, the formal and the informal. Thereafter, the ideas of landscape style, freestyle and wild garden styles developed.

The idea of formal style gardening is as old as primitive man when he started construction of houses for living. Symmetry is the main characteristic of formal style of garden. The Persian gardens, the Moorish gardens of Spain, Mughal gardens and Italian gardens were formal in design. Geometrical formalism also influenced the French and British gardens of the pre-Industrial Revolution. Geometrically designed landscapes with trimmed hedges, paired flower beds, straight line planting and equal length of the sides of the area are the main features of formal or symmetrical gardening. Formal treatment is best for small compounds where there is no room for a wide lawn or spreading trees. The outline of the whole garden as well as the outline of different parts like flower beds, paths, hedges and lawns are of geometrical shape. Depending upon the availability of space, some of the features like lawns, water pools or tanks are used. Water impounded in large pools is often used as a reflective surface. The central water body may have a fountain or a statue at the centre. A well clipped topiary, straight pergolas, architectural statues and paved paths are generally included in the garden. Attractive focal points at the terminals and intersections of paths and roads are essential to make such formal gardens more effective. These gardens are, however, scarcely thought of in present day garden design, and are found mostly in the front portion of public buildings.

FORMAL STYLE

INFORMAL STYLEThis style of gardening is aimed to imitate nature and strives to produce a natural effect in a closed area. In the informal gardens, geometrical designs are employed without insisting on symmetry. The early Hindu and Buddhist gardens laid no emphasis on formalism. In Chinese and Japanese gardens, the art of asymmetrical balance was amply demonstrated. A completely informal style provides a natural appearance but such gardens are not usually suited to very small sites. Planting is often of a mixed nature and there is a complete absence of set lines. An informal garden should have just as much design as a formal garden. Smooth, curvaceous

outlines are more appropriate in this design rather than rigid lines. Informal gardens are laid out with open large lawns, bordered by clumps of shady trees or shrubs. The shape of the garden may not be square, rectangular or circular. Straight paths are avoided and irregular beds are introduced instead. Shrubbery and herbaceous borders are so designed as to fit the periphery of the lawn. Sometimes, these designs contain scenes depicting lakes and islands, sinuous streams and the embankments, cascades, rocks, etc. In this gardening design, nature is preserved in an artificial way.

LANDSCAPE STYLE

In this style of gardening, irregular massing of the landscape elements predominates. The nature of the garden is preserved in a natural way in landscape style. While designing such gardens, natural sloping and elevation of the land is maintained. Such gardens are designed so that it looks like natural scenery from a distance. Flowering shrubs and perennial plants are grouped together and bulbous plants are naturalized in grass land. The areas of lawns have informal boundaries and paths and are laid out in pleasing curves. The undulating surface adds to the effect and retains the natural atmosphere. Hillocks, small ponds, rivers, lily pools, large lawns, dry and dead trees, bird nests, mass plantation of trees and shrubs, natural ups and downs of the land, natural forests, irregular paths, beds and grasslands are some of the important features in landscape style gardens. While laying out such gardens it must be ensured that there is some unifying medium distributed throughout the design welding the plan together. Nothing should be allowed to stand out in a scene which strikes a discordant note or does not seem to belong to it. There should be a natural and logical transition from one part of the garden to another

FREE STYLE

In this style of garden design, the good points of formal, informal as well as naturalistic features are aesthetically mixed so as to create a picturesque scene. Formality and flatness of the geometrical styles are dispensed with. There is enough freedom in treatment while choosing the essential of different styles. This style can, however, be adopted to suit the needs of almost all situations.

WILD GARDEN STYLEThe concept of a wild garden is against formalism. Such gardens are laid out for more agreeable communication with nature. It enables the growing of many plants that have never yet found a place in a trimmed garden. In this style, grass should remain unmowed as in nature and bulbous plants should be grown scattered in the grass to create a wild effect. Ornamental trees and shrubs are planted in forest flora and creepers are allowed to grow over the trees. Hundreds of the finest hardy flowers thrive much better in rough places than they ever did in the old-fashioned beds. The passage to the garden is generally opened in woodland. In small gardens, every inch of space is needed to grow choice plants while the wild garden style is attempted only where a vast area is available. This type of garden combines a pleasing blend of beauty and utility with ecological and environmental needs.

TYPES OF GARDENS

EGYPTIAN GARDEN These gardens were planted in regular rectangles with trees, vegetables and grape vines. Gardens were enclosed first by thorn fences and later by brick walls. The temples were the centre of horticulture, where garden designs improved with new plants. The introduction of trees from abroad particularly, influenced the temple gardens. Thus, Egyptian gardening added to the art of garden making a new species of formal and architectural styles.

PERSIAN GARDENS In these gardens, water was used for providing reflections and create different movements along the course, trees were grown more for their flowers and odour. More attention was paid to maintain symmetry in the garden. Both Persian

and Japanese gardens were based on their respective ideas of heaven. Except for this similarity, they differ widely from each other. They used for their gardens all crafted material such as masonry, curved and pierced marble stones and highly polished stones. The gardens were laid out by cutting terraces on hill sides. In the centre of the garden, lily pools occupied an important place, which were surrounded by flowering plants. Goldfish were bred in these pools. The selection of material and their placement in the garden was very judicious. In the garden, cypress, white poplar and weeping willows were grown on the canal banks. Other favorite trees were chenar, pine, ash, walnut, and myrtle trees. Among other fruits, orange, lemon, almond, plum, cherry, apricot, and pomegranate trees occupied an important place in the garden. Numerous varieties of roses, tulips, marigolds, violets, daffodils, poppies and all English flowering annuals beautified the gardens.

ROMAN GARDENS Most Italian gardens were located on hillsides which required the use of terraces. The gardens were made very decorative by the use of steps, ramps and balustrades. Massive flights of stairs, generally of marble to connect the different levels of the garden were the essential and most prominent features of these gardens. Fountains were provided on the terraces, starting at the top of the garden. Fountains around the stone sculptures and decorative urns were the other features of Italian gardens. The spectacular staircases were often decorated with statues. Italians combined the beauty of architecture with that of the plants. The art of topiary, clipped hedges and fountains were highly developed. The gardens had scented plants,

such as rosemary, rue, lavender, jasmine and roses. The gardens were also planted with fig, apple, pear, olive, mulberry, myrtle, pomegranate and cypress trees. In addition, there were iris, daffodils, daisies, anemones, gladioli, lilies, etc.

FRENCH GARDENS The main features of his mode of gardening rest upon long and wide avenues and vistas. Rectangles, squares and circles gave an orderly appearance to the garden. It is, in fact, a perfect example of the application of geometry to garden design, clipped hedges, framed walls and greenrooms. Trees were clipped into the shape of spheres, cubes and cones. Against the background of the foliage were displayed marble statues of Greek gods, nymphs and horses. Plants used in the gardens were olive, peach, apricot, fig, almond, walnut, plum, cherry, orange, and European horn beans (Carpinus hetulus), apart from several ornamentals.

CHINESE GARDENS Ornamental gardening in China has largely developed along the line of idealisation of natural scenery. The basis of any Chinese garden is mountains, water and rocks. Thus, gardening becomes an effort to bring mountains and lakes into one’s own courtyard by arranging rocks, trees and water to suggest an image of nature. Trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants were important in gardens and bamboo was a great favorite of the garden artists on account of the beauty and elasticity of the stem. The favorite of the Chinese was the plum tree with its pure white flowers. Other favorites were roses, lilies, hollyhocks, water lilies, orchids and poppies. Some other perennial plants in Chinese gardens were , Gledishia sinensis, Robiniapseudoacacia, Albi;ia chinensis, A lbftia julibrissin. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Catalpa ovata, A ilanthus altissima and Lagerstroemia indica. The indigenous trees include cedar, cherry, chestnut, date, medlar, mulberry, oak, pear, plum and willow. Thus, the naturalistic pattern of the Chinese garden has become the traditional style and remains so to this day.

These types of gardens were intimately associated with the temple and monastery. The designs were entirely naturalistic. Rivers, streams, lakes and forests were taken into consideration while laying out gardens. Ornamental flowering trees predominated in the gardens. Among the flowering annuals, marigold, amaranth and tulsi were important. Asoka and Kadamba trees were very popular. The pipal tree was especially sacred to them. Evidence of banyan, neem and mango tree plantations along the roads was also common. Trees like asoka, sal and palash are associated with the birth of Lord Buddha. The ponds and lakes of these gardens were filled with white and pink lotus. Clumps of green and yellow bamboo trees also adorned the gardens. Apart from these, the early gardens were scented with the fragrance of jasmine, champa. chameli, queen of the night, mehndee, and parijita (harsinghar) trees. Other favorites were Erithrina, Tabernaemontana, Hibiscus, Hiptage and Echitis. Sculptures were another important feature in these gardens. The sculptures depicted the motherhood, beauty, affection and services of women. Various kinds of deer and domestic animals were an integral part of the gardens which were laid out in such a naturalistic manner that different types of attractive and beautiful birds, including peacocks, were attracted to the gardens. In the lakes and ponds ducks, cranes and other water fowl were also found in abundance.

HINDU-BUDDHIST GARDENS

ENGLISH GARDENS English gardens were purely utilitarian, orderly and very formal during the period 1066 to 1500 AD. During this period, gardens developed herb gardens for medicinal purposes. The herb gardens of the monks, apart from medicinal plants, also contained roses, hollyhocks, carnations, violets and lilies. The gardens were also planted with apple, pear, peach, mulberry and cherry trees and vegetables. During 1500 to 1700 AD, the utilitarian gardens changed to flower gardens. In the late 16th century, introduction of various exotic plants took place in British gardens. The plants comprised carnations, rosemary, lavender, thyme, lilies, etc. According to Le Notre—a French garden architect method, trees and shrubs were planted very closely and strictly according to geometrical designs. In the 18th century, William Kent, Lancelot Brown and Sir Humphry Repton introduced the informal style of garden design. This consisted of miniature fountains, streams and torrents, the latter crossed by bridges and the making of paths with serpentine curves entailing needless labour to traverse. Towards the end of the 19th century in England, Gertrude Jekyll appeared as a garden designer and adopted the art of arranging living plant material onsite. According to their plan, instead of clipped hedges, informal groups of shrubs were planted. The basins of trees were planted with bulbous plants. Vast expanses of lawns were developed covering the grounds with a carpet of green. The planting of trees was not haphazard but highly aesthetic, with due regard to harmony, balance and proportion. Conifers were mixed with broad-leafed deciduous trees to achieve a variety of textures. There were magnificent forest gardens, rock and water gardens and rose gardens.

DUTCH GARDENS Dutch gardens were formal, rectangular and enclosed with clipped hedges. The yews were clipped into columns and pyramids. Water played a small part in most Dutch gardens. Tulips, hyacinths, narcissus, crocus and daffodils were the most- liked flowers. The flowers were arranged in tapestries in front of the lawns of houses. Use was also made of shells, stones and glass beads to fill the spaces in the scrolls. Some figures, like a Turk smoking a hookah or a gardener looking at a flower basket or a Dutchman in a tub were also kept in the garden.

A typical Mughal garden is square or rectangular in shape. It is surrounded by a high wall, adorned with serrated battlements and there is a straight entrance gate with huge wooden doors studded with heavy iron bosses, nails and spikes. The garden itself is divided into two or more terraces with a small brick-paved canal of running water flowing down from the tanks provided with fountains. The presence of seven, eight or twelve terraces in the garden

MUGHAL GARDENS

symbolised plants, paradise or the zodiac, respectively. In many gardens, the entrance is at the lowest terrace and the terminal building at the last terrace. Terraces were also made on flat ground by dividing land into terraces. Broad water canals were made in overall proportion to the area. The central water course was strong and dominant. In the centre of these canals, there were fountains which make for the central axis also. There were different types of cascades and ‘chadars’. Generally, paths ran parallel to the canals so that a person walking on them could see and admire the beauty of the colorful paved marble reflected in the crystal-clear

water. To create a pleasant site, at dusk, tiny lamps placed in the niches behind the artificial water falls were lighted, and the diffusion of light through the water cast shimmering reflections. The permanently built flowerbeds were geometrical patterns. Beds of flowers were constructed near the main building or along the built up water channels and paths. Selection of plants was dependent upon the local climatic conditions. Fragrant flowers were the main attraction of the garden. In Kashmir, the Mughals planted chenar, white poplar, apple, peach, plum, sour or sweet cherries, pomegranate. In the plains, the gardens were planted with fruit trees like mango, grape, fig, orange, citron, peach and plum. Fragrant flowering shrubs like harsinghar, queen of the night, jasmine, rose and screwpine were commonly planted. Herbaceous plants like narcissus, daffodils, carnation, hollyhock, larkspur, stock, sunflower, amaranthus and coxcomb were dominant.

JAPANESE GARDENS Japanese gardens are an imitation of nature. The characteristics that made the Japanese gardens most favourable were space and vista effect, privacy and tranquility, sense of age and antiquity, manifestation of the rhythm of nature in the elemental forces, imagination, humanised naturalism, static quality and evergreens, opposite concepts and symbolism. Broadly speaking, there are five important types of gardens: hill garden, flat garden, tea garden, passage garden and sand garden. In these gardens, Japanese artistry combines plants, stones, water and other material in simple, unrestrained but uncluttered association. Materials used include carefully selected plants, natural flow of water, stone lanterns, sand, pebbles, rocks, boulders and symbolic ornaments. In the hill garden, the most important feature is the hill with which is combined a pond and a stream. Rock arrangements are combined with plantings along the shore of the pond and the banks of the stream While a flat garden is laid out on level ground with no hills or ponds, stones, trees, stone lanterns, water basins and wells, which form the various features. There is an outdoor and an indoor garden. The outer garden will have simple plantings and stone surroundings. The inner garden is a subdued area planted with evergreens. The entrance to the tea house is through a low door so that the guests have to enter bowing their heads, simulating respect and humility. Some gardens are laid out in narrow passages which are known as passage gardens. The layout of this type of garden is simple and is not over-crowded. Hardly any ornaments are placed in the garden. The important features in the garden are a few key rocks, slabs of stone and a few plants with open form and slender shape. A sand garden is the simplest type and is totally devoid of plants. The only features in these gardens are gravel and stones. The gravel is raked in very simple patterns to simulate the rippling of flowing water. The main features in the Japanese garden are stones; water features like streams, ponds and lakes, waterfalls, islands, wells and fountains; arte-facts like lanterns, water basins, bridges, sculptures and towers, sand designs; enclosures like fences, walls, hedges and gates and stepping stones and pavements. The selection and planting of needle and broad-leafed trees play a major role in the garden. The broad

principles of using plants in a proper manner are to give a large perspective to a comparatively small garden, to give a garden a distant view, to get difference in levels, to get the right shape and size of the garden, to introduce varieties as per demand of the design, to avoid colour clashes and also to utilise the changing colour of leaves. To fulfill certain objectives, the trees are grouped as principle trees, view finding trees, trees of solitude, cascade screening trees, trees of the setting sun and distancing pines.Most of the important plants used in Japanese gardens are Abelia grandflora, Acer plarn atum, A rundinacia gram ineae, Camelliajaponica, Cryptorneria japonica, Luonymus japonica, Gardenia jasminoides, Hydrangia macrophylla, hex crenata, Juniperus chinensis, Lagerstroemia indica, Lonicera japonica, stellata, Nandina domestica, Pinus sp., Prunus sp., Rhododendron japonicum, Spireajaponica, Thuja orientalis, and Wisteria sinensis. Other commonly flowering plants are chrysanthemum, carnation, Irish, lotus, peony, orchid, freesia, etc. Bamboo is an important plant in Japanese gardens, since it casts a beautiful shadow along paths. Among the bamboos, Bambusa nana and Bambusa aurea are commonly used.

PLANNING OUTDOOR GARDENS SMALL RESIDENTIAL GARDEN This type of garden is laid out as per the personal taste and choice of the owner. Emphasis is given both to beauty and utility. Here, the arrangement of three essential portions like approach, the service and the living portions are considered in relation to each other on the lot. The approach is two sorts, one a walk to the front door for the use of the general public and the other a driveway or walk to the rear door and garage which is entirely for general service purposes. These comprise front yard, driveway and porch. It is better to have a doorway or foundation planting with low growing shrubs, bulbous ornamentals or herbaceous perennials. As for the availability of land, this area can have a grassy lawn and flowering plants. The portion of the ground that is given over to the practical working of the establishment is known as service area. This area includes the kitchen and the cut flower garden, compost bin, nursery, tool shed, garage, animal or poultry shed, badminton court, etc. If space permits, papaya, banana, lime and guava can be planted in that area. A swing or slide may also be accommodated in the area for small children. The view of these areas can be obstructed by planting of thick hedges or a row of shrubs.A living area or private garden area may be considered as the outdoor living room of the house. The direct access of the house should be provided through a porch, terrace or a direct entrance into the living room by a door or a French window. This area should be screened, preferably by plants, to have complete privacy. This area, with a long stretch of lawn along with a shrub or herb border or a few annual beds and a collection of exotic or rare plants, should be designed according to the taste and need of the family. Several features like sundials, birdbaths, statues, rockeries, lily pools, etc. can also be introduced.

LARGER HOME GARDEN IN SUBURBAN AREAS In this type of garden a close relationship of the house with its surrounding landscape is emphasised. Here, the house is kept in such relation to the broad sweep of the landscape that it is brought in and included as a part of the composition. While planning, emphasis is given to the existing natural conditions. The success of such planning, however, depends on the fundamental organisation of the plan in regard to the location of the building group and its orientation, so as to allow the most convenient arrangement for the entrance, lawn, view, garden and service. The emphasis of a larger home garden in suburban areas is the open view of nature. The long axis of the house is placed so as to feature this. The garden and service sides of the house are arranged in such a manner as to fit the natural requirements of the problem. The available ground space around the house must first be adapted to the requirement of each problem regarding the size and shape and then to the natural landscape condition of the surroundings. In such gardens, the entrance portion of the residence is planned in a magnificent manner along with majestic front garden gates. This enhances the dignity of the house and gives the visitor a good first impression of the place. Decorative plant material and flowers are important features of this type of garden. In addition to its surrounding value, the entire scheme must harmonies with the natural and artificial features with a well studied colour scheme and gracious lines of design. ROOF GARDEN This type of garden is becoming popular because of the limited available space in the grounds of a house. Particularly in the big cities and towns, the only space left for garden enthusiasts is the roof of the house and the balcony. To ensure the success of a roof garden, there is need to assess the capability of the site. With hundreds of pots, boxes and tones of soil, the roof becomes very heavy. If expense is no object, and the structure of the building is strong enough, the whole area may be paved with 30 cm square tiles. These are easy to clean and handsome in appearance.Generally, roofs are utilised for growing pot plants like cacti and succulents, dahlias, orchids, bougainvillaeas, roses, seasonal flowers and several kinds of shrubs and herbs. In a strong roof structure with waterproofing system, the area can be laid out with lawns and herbaceous borders which require at least 30 to 45 cm soil depth. Such planting can be done by placing the soil between the outer wall or the parapet and the wall built on the inner side of the roof. It is a good idea to have some other colour of the roof than the traditional off-black on the surface. Colours like green, brown or soft venetian red are suggested. If considered desirable, the whole of the wall area can be treated with ‘Snowcem’ or any other durable exterior paint. Some framework or screening devices will enhance the beauty of the garden. Hence, free-standing trellis or wall-attached trellis may be introduced for supporting plants. While fixing the trellis to the walls, it is better to leave a gap to minimise the seepage of water to a vulnerable patch. According to the availability of sunlight during different periods of the day, sheltered spots, shady locations and depth of soil, there may be a wide choice of plant material. The roof garden needs a few large permanent shrubs and climbers. Tubs and boxes of different sizes and shapes will be helpful in growing such plants.

TERRACE GARDEN Terraces usually refer to the area in the immediate vicinity of a building. This is a raised ground space constructed around a dwelling house or on the sides of a hill. Gardening in terraces is aimed at providing privacy and leisure time pursuits. If the house is built on sloping ground, it will appear to slide downhill; hence, a flat area around the building has an immediate stabilising effect. The size of the terrace is important, but shape and treatment also need careful consideration. Terrace garden involves land raising and construction of steps, ramps, walls and paved paths as well as planting of lawn grasses and other plants. It is desirable to have plants on the terrace but it should be restricted to the edges so that the middle is left open for circulation. Since such gardens are mainly for relaxation, they should provide both sunny and shady areas. Sheltered, paved terraces invite dining outdoors, lounging, entertaining and children’s activities. It must offer a fine year-round view of the entire garden. Addition of sculptured rocks, a small lily pond with a fountain and water plants will lend visual enrichment.

CHILDREN’S GARDEN Children’s gardens are specifically planned and adopted to afford the maximum of fun, safety and enjoyment for children of all ages. Several apparatus like swings, teeters, slides, climbing ropes, poles and ladders, horizontal ladders, trapezes, traveling rings, horizontal bars of varying heights, giant strides, jungle gyms, merry-go-rounds, sand boxes etc. are recommended for the garden. The playground apparatus has to provide an opportunity for the children to do the kind of things they have done from time immemorial in a more natural environment than the modern town or city can provide. These apparatus should be placed in the largest possible open space. Loosely organised games of many kinds require open spaces. While the open area may be bordered by trees or shrubs, the actual play area should be free of plantations of any kind. Children enjoy quiet games of different kinds and especially making things with their hands. For quiet games, shaded places with trees will be preferred. A heap of sand is irresistibly attractive to children. Washed silver sand is the best play material. Making tree houses with low spreading plants will add to the interest of the garden. Many children like to experiment with seeds. Some of the quick growing vegetables and flowers like coriander, radish, lettuce, spinach, marigold, nasturtium, candytuft and alyssum are easily grown and are most likely to satisfy the children.

SCHOOL AND INSTITUTIONAL GARDEN It is now realised that a school or institutional building is not complete until the walks, drives, lawns and recreational areas are properly developed in the compound. The modern method requires a large area of ground for proper school development. In considering development, school grounds can be divided into two well defined areas. First, the portion of the ground adjacent to the building and, second, the remainder of the area, usually at the rear of the building, should be developed for recreation use by the students. In the first area, that of the public portion of the grounds, the drives and walks should be primary structures in order to give quick access from the points of approach to the entrance of the building. Planting treatment of the institutional ground should be simple. Selection of trees and their location should depend upon the architectural style of the building and by the requirements of shape.

There are set specifications for open play space per pupil. Recreation areas are planted with trees after careful consideration. Use of shade trees is restricted to the borders of the area, away from the land used for game courts and the athletic fields. For a children’s playground, however, it is advisable to plant shade trees so that the games equipment can be set up in the shade. In the recreation area, the use of cement or brick is inadvisable due to injuries it could cause during active games. In order to enhance the beauty and attractiveness of the building, certain areas can have the best lawns, seasonal flowers, bulbous plants, rare and pretty shrubs and arches and pergolas covered with climbers. Each situation and pocket pose problems and bring different requirements, but they can be solved by applying the principles of good landscape design.

PARK The importance of parks and open spaces in towns and cities is realised nowadays by all town and city planners. The boundaries of the park should be accurately marked and enclosed. The designing of various types of areas for establishing parks presents many different and difficult problems. The primary functions of a park are to provide, in an environment of growing things, rest, relaxation and breathing space for the people of the area where they are located. Parks are generally beautified by plants, by erecting some interesting structures and buildings, by illumination through lighting and by introducing some recreational activities. It is desirable that the boundary of the park be planted with a border of trees and shrubbery. The entire area should be landscaped with various types of plants in a simple fashion. Proper fencing, drinking water facilities, fountains, sitting arrangements, shaded areas, lawns, pathways, lighting, flagpoles and some play equipment for little children like swings and teeters are essential in a park. Depending upon the area available and the purpose of the park, several items can be introduced in it. Space and equipment/structures for organised games like basketball and hockey, volleyball, tennis, football, baseball, bowling, clock golf, etc. should be included. Space and apparatus is needed for children to swing, climb, hang by their hands or feet, moulding in sand or clay or mud and wading and paddling in water, etc. Picnic places, camping areas, bathing and boating facilities, refreshment stands, stadium, library and pleasure driveways may also be suitably incorporated in the park. Apart from this, special areas should be designed devoted to zoos, botanical gardens, arboretum and similar features in a large park.

INDUSTRIAL GARDEN These gardens are designed to check pollution and also to beautify the area. The majority of the industrial units are surrounded by weeds, debris and unkempt areas. These units are the main source of air, water, noise, and soil pollution. Beautification of factories and industrial townships to create a better environment for living, working, recreation and circulation are the objectives of landscape planners. Planting is done in the industrial gardens to arrest the drifting dust and to cut down noise. Suitable plants to cut down this type of pollution are Eucalyptus citriodora, Ficus religiosa, Ficus benjamina, Tamarindus indica, Acacia auriculaeformis, Albizia lebbek, ,Alstonia scholaris, Bombax ceiba, Dalbergia lanceolaria, Cassiajavanica, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Grevillea robusta, Madhuca indica, Me/ia azadarach, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Cordia sebestina and Ponganiia glabra. A large number of such trees are to be planted, either in groups, clumps or in multiple rows which will enhance beauty, provide shade and regulate the environment. Industrial townships consist of factory sites, various types of public buildings, institutional buildings, community centres and residential complexes.For a landscape designer, there is ample scope to implement his aesthetic ideas in such units. Different areas are to be improved by providing streets, sidewalks, sewers and sanitation; installation of public utilities such as water, electricity, gas and other conveniences. Between the factory and the residential area, green belts may be created by planting trees as mentioned above.