holt, rinehart and winston p sychology principles in practice board work define on flashcards the...

HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON

PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE

Board Work

Define on flashcards the first three words on page 227

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Chapter 10Chapter 10



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Question: What are the major theories of development?

MAJOR THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Some psychologists believe that biological factors

play a greater role in development, while others contend that environmental factors are most important

Some psychologists also assert that development occurs in stages, while others believe that development occurs continuously

Section 1: The Study of Development



Developmental Psychology

Because developmental psychologists want to see how people change across their life span what types of studies are they most likely to use?

Longitudinal Cross-sectional

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PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Nature vs. Nurture

Nature / heredity

Some behaviors are biologically “programmed” to develop.

Studies of twins & kinship support this theory.

Heredity reveals itself in the process know as maturation – genetic signals establish sequence to development (readiness / critical period)

Gesell

Nurture / environment John Locke – mind of infant is

like a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) Watson & behaviorists believe

factors such as nutrition, family background, culture, and learning experiences play key roles.

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PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Stages vs. Continuity

Stages (stairs)

Gesell – rapid changes usher in dramatically new kinds of behavior and a new stage of life.

Example: sitting, crawling, standing, and walking

Piaget – cognitive development progresses in stages much as physical. (more about him in section 4)

Continuity (incline)

Flavell – continuous development occurs like walking up a slope

Example: steady growth in weight and height.

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Question: How do infants develop physically?

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS Height and weight increase rapidly Muscles and nervous systems soon develop

allowing them to crawl, walk, and generally act more purposefully

Section 2: Physical Development



A newborn enters the world possessing certain physical characteristics and equipped with certain abilities.

Length Weight Reflex

Changes in these are examples of physical development.

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Height & Weight 1st eight weeks of pregnancy embryo develops

eyes, toes, fingers, nose, mouth and heart. At 1 ½ months embryo becomes a fetus and

develops body systems like respiratory system and organs

A baby at birth weighs a billion times more than it did at conception.

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Height

Grows about 10 inches in the first year

1-6 inches in the second year After 2nd birthday, averages 2-

3 inches per year

Weight

Doubled in first five months of life

Triples by first year 4-7 pounds in the second year After 2nd birthday, averages

4-6 pounds per year

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Usually proceeds in stages (chart pg. 231)The point these behaviors occur vary by infant and even culture

For example: Ugandan babies walk at an average of 10 months while American babies are typically around 12 months old before they walk. Why?

Motor Development

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Reflexes are inborn, not learned.

1. Lifetime reflexes Breathing, sneezing, coughing, yawning, blinking

2. Infant reflexes (that disappear over time) Grasping Rooting – turn head when cheek or corner of mouth is

touched Moro (startle) –pull back legs and arch back to painful or

loud stimuli Babinski – raise big toe when soles of their feet are touched http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY&feature=

related

Reflexes

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Perceptual Development

The process by which infants make sense of sights, sounds, tastes, and other sensations.Infants tend to prefer new and interesting stimuli

Age affects these preferences 5-10 week old babies look longest at patterns that are most

complex (faces not preferred, variety and complexity) 15 – 20 week old – patterns begin to matter and face-like

patterns become popular (better eyesight?)

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Studies on depth perception

Visual cliff - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA

Sound perception Babies turn toward sound Respond more to high-pitched voices Are soothed by singing or soft talking

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Read Section 3 and define the vocabulary words on page 227 from attachment to conditional positive regard on flashcards.

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Question: What are some of the ways infants and children develop socially?

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN AttachmentAttachment Styles of ParentingStyles of Parenting - 2 types Child CareChild Care – has both positive and negative effects on social

development Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem – value or worth that people attach to themselves

Section 3: Social Development



Feelings of attachment are essential to a infant’s survival

AINSWORTH’S STUDY OF ATTACHMENTo At birth babies don’t have a preference as to who holds them,

just being with someone over being alone is preferable

o About the age of 4 months is when infants develop specific attachments to their main caregivers

o By 6 months the attachment grows stronger and will cry or complain when separated from their caregiver (mother)

Attachment- emotional ties that form between people

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o 8 months is stage when stranger anxiety beginsoLess if held by caregiveroHeightened if stranger is touching them

o About the same age separation anxiety developsoDistress if caregiver leaves themoWhy? Research suggest contact comfort and

imprinting

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Contact Comfort – for along time psychologists believed that infants were attached to those that fed them…then

Harry Harlow – conducted a study of monkeys that proved it was the comfort, not the food that attracted infants and provided them with a sense of security that enabled them to explore the outside world.

Imprinting – attachment is an instinct for most animal that occurs during a critical period (geese, ducks)

Humans are different – THEY DO NOT IMPRINT ON THE 1ST THING THEY SEE – for humans it takes several months and there is NO CRITICAL PERIOD ! How is this helpful in considering adoption?

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Secure Attachment Caregivers are affectionate Bonding takes place Protests if caregiver is

removed Happier, friendlier and more

cooperative with parents Get along well with other

children Less likely to misbehave Do well in school

Insecure Attachment Caregiver is unresponsive or

unreliable Don’t mind if removed from

caregiver Make little or no effort to seek

contact with caregiver May cry when picked up by

caregiver as if they are angry

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PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Styles of Parenting

Warm or Cold? Warm parents show a great

deal of affection toward their children (kiss & smile at them)

Cold parents are not as affectionate and appear not to enjoy them

RESULTS: Children with warm parents are well adjusted, more likely to develop a conscience –a sense of moral responsibility and those with cold parents are more interested in avoiding punishment than doing the right thing.

Strict or Permissive? Strict parents impose rules and

supervise their children closely; some cannot tolerate disorder

Permissive parents impose fewer rules and tend to be less concerned about neatness and cleanliness

RESULTS: Research suggests consistent and firm enforcement of rules can foster achievement and self-control especially when combined with warmth and support. BUT, physical punishment & constant inference can lead to disobedience & poor grades

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Authoritative – w/ authority Parents combine warmth

with positive kinds of strictness.

Parental demands for responsible behavior combined with affection and support usually pay off.

Children are more independent and achievement oriented.

Authoritarian

Believe in authority for its own sake

Have strict guidelines they expect their children to follow w/o question

Often are rejecting and cold Children often become either

resistant or dependent on other people

Tend to be less friendly and less spontaneous

They generally do not do well in school

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PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE Self -Esteem

Gender & Self-Esteem• In grade school, girls “predict” that

they will be better at tasks that are “feminine” and boys that are “masculine”

• People generally live up to the expectations they set for themselves.

Age & Self-Esteem• Self-esteem reaches a low

point around age 12-13.• It increases again in later

adolescence.

What we know!Gives people the confidence they need to overcome difficulties.

What factors influence self-esteem?Secure attachmentsAuthoritative parenting Closeness to parents because they are lovingUnconditional positive regard Children who know they are good at something, competent Warmth and encouragement from teachers and parents

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Jean Piaget•Studied the cognitive development of children.

•Worked on intelligence tests with children in his early career.

•Intrigued by how they answered questions incorrectly, he began to study the patterns.

•Core belief was that looking carefully at how knowledge develops in children will clarify the nature of knowledge.

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Question: What are the stages in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

PIAGET’S THEORYFour stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:1.1. Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage – learning to coordinate sensation and perception with

motor activity2.2. Preoperational StagePreoperational Stage – children begin to use language to represent objects3.3. Concrete-Operational StageConcrete-Operational Stage – begins at about the age of seven when

children begin to show signs of adult thinking4.4. Formational-Operational StageFormational-Operational Stage – begins at about puberty and represents

cognitive maturity

Section 4: Cognitive Development



Assimilation & Accommodation

Piaget believed humans organized information in two ways:

1. assimilation, processing information into categories that already exist

2. accommodation, changing how we process in light of new information.

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The Sensorimotor Stage - Infants

Learning to coordinate sensation (pain) and perception with motor activity (kicking crib rail).• Fascinated by own hands and legs• Easily amused by watching themselves• Exploring cause-and-effect relationships• Object permanence develops at this age.

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Preoperational Stage – two years of age

Thinking is one-dimensional – children can only see one side of a situation. Do not understand the law of conservation They are unable to see another person’s point of

view Think the world exists to meet their needs Are artificialistic and animistic.

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Concrete Operational Stage – seven years of age

Children begin to show signs of adult thinking, they are logical only when they think of specific objects, not about abstract ideas.• Thinking is still grounded in concrete experiences• Seeing and touching help them understand abstract concepts

(math)• Can focus on a two-dimensional problem (understand law of

conservation)• Are less egocentric, can see the world from another’s point

of view• Can see that other’s see things differently

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Formal-Operational Stage – Puberty (cognitive maturity)

People in this stage think abstractly and realize that ideas can be compared and classified mentally just like objects.• Understand what is meant by x in algebra• Capable of dealing with hypothetical situations• Realize they can’t control the outcome of a

situation.• If one approach doesn’t work they will try another.

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Question: What are the stages in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A woman was near death from a unique kind of cancer. There is a drug that might save her. The drug costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried every legal means, but he could only get together about $2,000. He asked the doctor scientist who discovered the drug for a discount or let him pay later. But the doctor scientist refused.

Section 4: Cognitive Development



Kohlberg

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Kohlberg wasn’t particularly interested in whether children thought Heinz was right or wrong, more importantly he wanted to know the reasons why the children thought Heinz should or should not steal the drug.



The Pre-conventional Level – through age 9

Base judgments on consequences of behavior

1. What is “good” is what helps me avoid punishment.

Heinz was wrong b/c he’d be caught for stealing and go to jail

2. “Good” is what satisfies a person’s needs.

Heinz was right b/c his wife needed the drug

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Conventional Level

Make judgments in terms of whether an act conforms to conventional standards of right and wrong.

3. “Good” is what meets one’s needs and the expectations of other people. Moral behavior. (13 year olds)

Heinz should NOT steal the drug b/c good people do not steal

4. Judgments are based on maintaining social order. High regard for authority (16 year olds)

Breaking the law for any reason sets a bad example so he should NOT steal 33




Post-conventional Level – rarely occurs before adolescence

Moral judgments reflect one’s own personal values, not conventional standards.

5. The law represents agreed-upon procedures, and have value, and should not be violated without good reason.

Heinz should steal the drug, even though it is against the law, b/c the needs of his wife have created an exceptional situation.

6. Reasoning regards acts that support the values of human life, justice, and dignity as moral and good. They do not necessarily obey laws or agree with other people’s opinion.

Heinz had the moral right to steal the drug

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Question: What factors influence human behavior, and how does development occur?

Nature Stages ContinuityNurture

holt, rinehart and winston p sychology principles in practice board work define on flashcards the...

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