Dimitri Quaglierini

Honors Contract #2

Spring Semester 2016

Professor Gabriel Pihas

The Beauty of Sports over Decades of Time

Over the course of time, sports have significantly changed when comparing

ancient sports to modern day sports. Although both modern and ancient day sports

share many similarities, they also have significant differences between them. In

terms of gladiatorial fights, athletes were focused and intent on injuring the

opponent. Comparing that to modern day sports of baseball, basketball, football, etc

that is not the case by any means. Sports over the span of decades have changed

immensely. Despite there being some similarities between modern day and ancient

athletes, the atmosphere and the world surrounding them has altered.

Injuries have been on the rise in sports such as hockey and football, but they

are not done with malicious intent. According to a National Football League survey

conducted from the years 2000-2014 (a 15 year span), “30,186 injury reports have

been filed, leading to 51,596 regular-season weeks missed, an average of 1.71 weeks

missed per injury” (Binney). According to these statistics, the most common injury

was knee (either ACL or MCL) injuries, which are never on purpose. On the other

hand, the purpose of gladiatorial combat was to fight until either opponent dies. The

competition factors between modern and ancient sports were that of two different

worlds, yet they still share many similarities. The sporting world has drastically

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changed over the course of thousands of years, but the iconic persona of athletes

always remained.

The beauty of sports has remained prevalent for thousands of decades and

“Many athletes have characterized their sporting activity as an art form, and a

number of philosophers of sport have supported that conviction in writing” (Hyland

103). Although times have drastically changed between the Imperial era and

modern day, athletes have always been portrayed as being bigger than just sports.

Gladiators or roman warriors were seen as more than just fighters, they symbolized

authority and Rome as a whole. They are iconic to their respective cities and have a

lasting impact on the world. When one thinks of Derek Jeter in MLB or Kobe Bryant

in the NBA, they have made contributions to the world of sports. When comparing

modern day athletes to ancient athletes, “More than this, the heroes of sports field

and battlefield have much in common. They are both viewed as symbols of national

prowess, quality, and virtue. The warrior and the athlete are crucial to the perceived

success of the state” (Mangan). In today’s generation, sports teams and players

represent a city. Fans rally around their team in the regular season and postseason

of sporting events to create an atmosphere that is like no other. Sports do not just

represent a team playing for the love of the game; it symbolizes the name that is

across the front of the jersey. According to a recent poll of major league baseball

players who have made a tremendous impact in their career both on and off the

field, “Derek Jeter means more than just baseball to me. He represents an era. An era

in baseball yes; but more so an era in [my] life. As a kid who grew up dreaming

about playing for the New York Yankees and worshipping baseball and its star

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players; Jeter represents the dreams of millions of kids and one of the main people I

associate with the second half of my life-to this point” (Abbamonte). When an

individual grows up rooting for a team, that bond and connectedness lasts forever.

The passion for a team or player lasts for generations. Although players must retire,

their legacies will last forever.

Similar to a sporting event, fighting in gladiatorial combat serves as building

one’s identity. Being a gladiator and fighting for one’s own country shows heroism

and bravery. Although the idea of playing in a baseball game and fighting in the

Coliseum are completely different, they represent more than a game or fight.

Player’s fight or play for their country or team. It more than just about themselves,

but rather a team or nation as a whole. In addition, player’s merchandise has been

on the rise in the world today. According to a recent poll, “Today’s sporting heroes

have lots of merchandise with their names and faces celebrated on everything from

t-shirts to cereal boxes. Gladiators also had items that commemorated them and

their valiant battles. Two examples are the Colchester Vase and the Gladiator mosaic

at the Galleria Borghese” (Fleming). These items are symbolic of the impact that

player or warrior has had on one’s country or team. When an individual sees a

merchandise of their favorite sports player, our first initial reaction is to feel a

connection with it. For example, when a young child sees a Kobe Bryant figurine

they are excited to see it. That young child idealizes with Kobe because he grew up

watching him play basketball. He represented an era in basketball that was arguably

unlike any before his time, apart from Michael Jordan’s. As young children, we are

looking to connect with an object that we can relate to. A Kobe Bryant figurine not

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only epitomizes what it means to be a basketball player, he is a role model for young

children across the world. Another iconic emblem of a sports player is their attire or

jerseys. A similarity between football players and gladiators is that,

While the armour of the gladiator was meant to stop sword and spear thrusts, the armour of the American footballer is there to lessen the impact of the opposition’s tackle. Unfortunately, armour and padding is not enough to prevent many injuries, and like today’s players, gladiators were a significant investment and were cared for especially well” (Fleming).

A team’s attire creates a sense of belonging for sports fans across the world. It

creates a type of camaraderie that allows fans to bond with each other. The attire of

a sports franchise wears is deeply rooted into the fan base. Whether it is wearing

pinstripes for the Yankees, purple and gold for the Lakers, or black and white for the

Oakland Raiders, it allows fan bases to share in the experience as if they were a

community. A jersey represents one of the most potent symbols when referring to

sports. It creates a bond between player and fan base, which is something beautiful.

When looking at a fan base, “Jerseys are a tangible way for fans to connect their

identities of their team and favorite players” (Loverro). This bond shared by player

and fan is so strong, yet so breakable. For example, fans in Cleveland were so

amazed by LeBron James in the beginning of his career. He was a young man from

Akron, Ohio and drafted by his hometown team in Cleveland. Fast-forward to seven

years later in his career, he spurned the city of Cleveland, the state of Ohio for that

matter, to join the Miami Heat to win an NBA Championship. After this move via free

agency, many of his fans in the world were so quick to turn on him. There were

videos of his number twenty-three Cavalier jersey being burned by his once most

beloved supporters. Jerseys in a sense can often times signify the end of a

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relationship between fan and player. Some of the time, those relationships end

where a player has spent his entire career with one organization and his jersey is

retired, but that is not the case with most athletes. Nowadays it has become a trend

for professional athletes to join together to create “super teams” in order to win a

championship, excluding Derek Jeter and Kobe Bryant from those scenarios. To

further that point, “When the athlete does something to let them down, they can’t

take them to court, so symbolically they burn a jersey. It’s like someone throwing a

ring back in the face, as publicly as they could possibly cut off the ties to the athlete”

(Loverro).

Unlike modern day athletes in professional sports, gladiators did not have

jersey numbers. Crowds did not share that unique relationship with a gladiator, but

instead supported classes of gladiators. For example,

They supported certain classes of gladiators and each group had its own name: the Romans that supported the secutor class of gladiator were called secutarii, while the thraex and murmillo classes’ supporters were called parmularii because those gladiators were equipped with small shields (Fleming).

Much of the hype and competition of modern day sports was still prevalent with

ancient sports. Rivalries, culture, and competition were still very much in existence

during the Imperial era. Fan bases for these gladiatorial classes are comparable to

modern day sports fanatics. Similar to fans getting into an argument after a game,

One such occasion occurred at Pompeii during the reign of Nero in 59 AD; insults that were traded by Pompeian and Nucerian fans sparked a riot during a set of gladiatorial games, which caused Nero to ban games in Pompeii for ten years. This incident is depicted on a fresco in the National Museum of Archaeology in Naples, taken from a domus in Pompeii (Fleming).

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Idealizing with certain individuals on a “team” or “class” were different

when comparing modern day and ancient sports. Regardless of that

discrepancy, many of the same morals remained the same over the

course of time. Fans were still passionate about who they rooted for

and sports was always a part of the culture in the Imperial era.

Although there are many similarities between ancient sports and

modern day sports, one of the focal differences is that women were not

able to participate in the Olympic games. During this era, women were

treated very poorly and thought of as being second class to men.

Controversy struck as, “One view argues that however equal women

might be to men intellectually, women are simply and clearly weaker

and smaller than men physically, and therefore naturally inferior as

athletes” (Hyland, 17). Racism in sports was at an all time high during

this era, which was made for women to feel inferior. This lack of

equality often angered women and rightly so. In addition to being

claimed as weaker than me, women were also not allowed to

participate because of the demands in regards to physical and mental

activity. This is explained more as, “Women, thanks to childbirth, their

supposedly more emotional natures, and even their menstrual cycle,

are so naturally in touch with their bodies that they do not experience

a diremption between mind and body and so does not need sport to

overcome it” (Hyland, 18). This separation of genders remained

prevalent for nearly many centuries. Due to the physical and emotional

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traits possessed by both men and women, a separation was put into

place. This separation was so extreme that, “If a female participant

was caught in the Olympic stadium, the city of Ellis stated that they

were to be thrown into the river from Mount Typaion” (Scanlon).

Feelings of rejection and racism began to overtake the minds of

women and there was no one to turn to in hopes to put an end to this

discrimination. Women appeared to be labeled under general

assumptions in regards to their athletic abilities. It was extremely

stereotypical for women to be portrayed as weaker or possessing more

of mental/emotional nature because this was not the case for each

individual woman. Some women did not have children and were even

more physically inclined than men, but no one was willing to see past

that idea.

If women were given the opportunity to compete in the same

sports as men, they would have been equally as committed to men.

For example, “The tennis courts, the softball diamonds, road races,

and fitness centers are increasingly full of women just as committed as

the men to the sport of their choice. Once given the opportunity, it is

clear that the significance, satisfaction, and depth of involvement of

women in sport can equal that of men” (18, Hyland). Men were fearful

of women surpassing them in sports. By not allowing them to

participate, it eliminated all possibilities of that happening.

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Even in today’s society, women sports do not get the same type

of advertisement or publicity that men’s sports do. The WNBA

(Women’s National Basketball Association) playoffs is set during the

same time as when Spring Training for Major League Baseball. Spring

Training in baseball is irrelevant for the regular season and only offers

an opportunity for players on the verge of making the roster a chance

to prove themselves. Other than that, there is no notable reason as to

why Spring Training garners any attention. In addition, there are not

nearly as many women’s sports team or sports compared to men’s

sports. There is no Women’s Major League Baseball or Softball, as that

ends after college. There are also only 10 Women’s Major League

Soccer 10 teams compared to a vast 20 teams in Men’s Major League

Soccer. There always appears to be twice s many men’s sports team,

than there are women’s. According to a journalist for the Atlantic,

“Men’s sports are going to seem more exciting. They have higher

production values, higher-quality coverage, and higher-quality

commentary. When you watch women’s sports, and there are fewer

camera angles, fewer cuts to shot, fewer instant replays, yeah, it’s

going to seem to be a slower game, [and] it’s going to seem to be less

exciting” (Bodenner). There is no beauty in the idea that men’s sports

are more elite than women’s sports. It is possible to argue that the

competition is more fierce in men’s sports, but that should not

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undermine a female athlete or their choice of sport in any way

whatsoever.

In addition, much of women’s sports is not broadcasted

nationally unless it is a major sport and tournament. Even then, it is

still not always likely. “800 million dollars comes from television and

marketing rights, and much of it with Turner Sports” (Brown). The

University of Minnesota Golden Gophers women’s hockey team

recently won the National Championship and their 49th consecutive

team. This was a historic mark to reach as no other women’s collegiate

hockey has ever reached such a milestone in history. Unfortunately,

the national championship game against the University of Wisconsin

Badgers was not televised nationally. This was a result of, “Turner

Sports and the Big Ten Network could not reach an agreement to

televise the Frozen Four. Turner Sports holds the rights to televise the

women’s championship game” (Brown). Many have speculated that the

reason for not televising the game was due to money or lack of

interest, but if a game is not televised, then how are people supposed

to gain interest? It does not seem to add up. The NCAA and Big Ten

Network did a poor job of handling this, especially with such a historic

record of 49 straight victories being recorded. Perhaps a reason for this

for all of this is the fact that “98 percent of network sports coverage is

about men. When [you] constantly see or read about men’s sports,

that’s what people will think is interesting and valuable and exciting”

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(Brown). Although men’s sports may garner more attention from media

outlets due to its supposed prowess, the competition of women’s

sports should not be undermined. College sports, as a whole is a thing

of beauty. For example, the University of Connecticut women’s

basketball team recently one 2016 National Championship for the

fourth time in the past four years. That means that the 2013 freshman

recruits to the University of Connecticut won a National Championship

in each of their four years on campus. This is something that no other

program or group of players in the history of college basketball can

attest to. UCONN, under still head coach Geno Auriemma, also

produced a record of 90 straight victories from November 2008 to

December 2010 (Martinez). In the recent WNBA draft in 2016, three

University of Connecticut women’s basketball players were drafted

numbers one through three. This is the first in the history of the WNBA

that three players from the same program were drafted with the one,

two, and three picks in that order. Throughout these past and present

records from the University of Connecticut, the media and people

continue to demoralize women’s sports. Regardless of all the records

held from this historic college basketball program, men’s sports

continue and will continue to receive more attention and something

must be done about this. Women during the Imperial era, when the

Ancient games were being held, were similarly viewed as being lesser

to men. This is an issue that has been dating back to centuries.

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Although there has been significant progress, there is much left to be

desired.

Throughout centuries, sports are talked about in relation to art.

Many claim that sport and art are opposites, as sports are not

paintings or drawings in the sense that art is. On the other hand, “It is

clear, in fact, that our discourse on sport is shot through with the

vocabulary of the arts. And not just the vocabulary; in some sports,

such as gymnastics, diving, figure skating, and synchronized

swimming, explicitly aesthetic criteria are employed to determine the

winner” (Hyland, 102). When one is watching a sporting event

(baseball, basketball, soccer, etc), we are engaged in the activity,

similar to art. We perceive, imagine, and create images in our head

when watching a sporting event. The same type of notion is used when

we are examining art forms. In terms of aesthetic, “An athlete is in

good form when he carries no superfluous flesh; when his muscles are

strong, his carriage good, his movements economical” (Wertz). When

imagining or looking at a piece of art, as human beings we make a

connection. When we are moved by art based upon a past experience,

we tend to view it as aesthetically appealing. Similar to how Picasso

transformed modern art by instilling the subjective form into his

artwork, sports do something similar. Although it is done in a unique

manner, “There is a certain flow or organic movement to a player’s

actions, which we as spectators many times label as natural in

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appreciating a stroke, swing, pitch, or kick” (Wertz). There is always a

form of perfection and completeness when it comes to sports. Both art

and sport aim at this idea of perfection, ultimately leading to a unity

between art and sport. Many questions still remain as to which sports

are considered art, but the case for all of them can be made.

Sports are separated into two categories, which include aesthetic

and purposive.

Aesthetic sports are judged by the manner they are performed and generally involve an athlete’s execution of a creative routine. Activities such as figure skating, gymnastics, diving, and certain forms of dance are considered aesthetic sports. These sports should be considered art because they are very similar to plays or any kind of acting in the sense that they involve performing a planned out routine that generally conveys some kind of message or feeling in front of a live audience (Hyland, 104-105).

It has been argued for centuries that purposive sports do not aim at

aesthetically pleasing an individual. Purposive sports are viewed as

“ones in which the aesthetic is relatively unimportant and where the

means to the end are many and varied” (Rachel). Although some may

argue that purposive sports offers no aesthetic beauty, the case for an

opposing viewpoint can be made. Art is not just limited to drawing,

painting, sculpture, or visual imagery. Art relays emotion and

expression, which is something, is something that sports does as well.

Human emotion is a type of art and competition exists in each. Despite

some of the differences between sport and art, each category shares

significant similarities. Emotions are expressed through art and in

sports, “sports were created to convey emotion! If we truly think about

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how deeply the emotions of some die-hard fans are affected by every

snap of the football, we realize that this game developed the way it did

to elicit a wide array of human emotion” (Rupp). Art also uses emotion,

whether that be present or past. Our experiences shape how each

individual interprets the world. Sport should be categorized into a type

of art because it appeals emotionally, physically, and appeals to our

senses.

Despite the many similarities between ancient day sports and

modern day sports, there also lies quite a few differences. Ancient

sports revolutionized modern day sports and in fact, many of the

sports played nowadays began during he Imperial era with gladiators

and chariot racing. A notable change between an ancient day athletes

in comparison to modern day athletes is the amount of training

required for one’s sport. In today’s society, a season for each sport

lasts for many months throughout the year. Baseball begins in April

and last until October (pending postseason play), basketball extends

from October until June, football lasts from September until February,

and Hockey begins in October and concludes in June. The schedule for

each of these sports is relatively the same, except in football a regular

season consists of 16 games which also includes one bye week for

each team. A baseball, hockey, and basketball schedule are all

extremely demanding on the mental and physical aspect of an athlete.

A basketball season is a total of 82 games, hockey is 82, and baseball

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is a vast 162 games. Baseball (MLB) is a unique sport because

organizations are allowed to carry 40 players on their roster in the

regular season. This is barring any setbacks or injuries for a starter on

the team, thus allowing teams to have replacements. Once an MLB

team clinches a berth to the postseason, those roster must be cut

down to 25 come October. Within each of these four major sports, time

and dedication is of the essence. There is so much preparation,

studying of hitters and pitchers in baseball, offenses in basketball, and

defenses in football that it becomes extremely overwhelming to

consistently produce at such a high level. Although the style of training

and dedication put into the sport remained relatively the same, the

demands of 6-8 month schedule took a much more deliberate toll on

modern day athletes versus ancient athletes.

In both ancient and modern day sports, competition was and still

is at an all time high. For competitors in Ancient Greece, “Training for

the Ancient Greek Olympics involved a complex routine of exercises,

including cardio-vascular, stamina, strength, and endurance routines.

In order to qualify for the great sport, competitors had to undergo a

minimum of ten months in an intensive physical training program”

(Sapere). Although training for the Olympic games required an

extensive amount of work, it is not comparable to an 82 game NBA

schedule or a 162 game MLB schedule. In today’s society, the top

athletes in their respective sports are invited to try out for their

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national teams. In basketball for example, this invite comes after a

grueling 82 game NBA season and for most of the athletes invited,

their respective team qualified for postseason play. This adds an

average of 5-15 games to their schedule. Ancient athletes, who were

involved with chariot racing or gladiator fights did not have to endure a

long season, like many of the modern day athletes. The training was

also very different for modern athletes, as they had to prepare more

mentally and physically. Ancient athletes never had to endure a long

season, but instead only had to prepare for fights or races once in a

while. They primarily trained for the Olympic games. Training included,

The training expectations for Olympians have remained consistent over the ages. Ancient Olympians began their quests at an early age, and preparation involved a comprehensive approach to mental and physical readiness. They had personal coaches and underwent stringent activities that were rooted in tough treatment. Similarly, modern Olympians show their commitment to training, often by leaving home to train with a coach at a special facility. Training centers and training tools may have progressed, but the level of focus and attention to discipline remains consistent. For example, Kathryn Bertine writing for ESPN about her brush with Olympic training mentions wearing a 30-pound weight belt while swimming 500 meters during training at the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs (Meier).

While training for the Olympic games remained similar over the course

of time for athletes, there still remained an abundance of differences.

Training for the regular season is unlike any other experience, which is

one that gladiators or ancient Olympic athletes never underwent. For

baseball, basketball, and players; each of their training routines were

different. Gladiators focused primarily “different fighting styles and

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weapons used by specific types of gladiators” (Alchin). Quickness,

agility, and upper body strength were all key in fighting techniques for

gladiators. Modern day athletes such as baseball players, train in a

variety of ways. They must have a high endurance, practice running,

catching, as well as lifting weights. For a pitcher, upper body and leg

strength are the keys to a dominant delivery. Unlike gladiators and

chariot racers, training for baseball is unlike any other sport because of

the preciseness in training that is required. In the Roman Empire,

neither baseball nor basketball existed as “Ball games tend to get a

relatively low profile in [our] accounts of ancient sport. The reasons for

that are pretty clear: they were not part of the standard athletic

festival programmes, at Olympia or anywhere else” (Konig).

Regardless or ball sports not being the primary sport played in ancient

Rome during the Imperial era, ancient Olympians trained in different

ways in comparison to modern day athletes.

A similarity that remains prevalent over the course of millions of

year in the industry of sports is having a referee during matches.

Referees are individuals who step in when the game gets out of hand

or deals with players when tempers start to flare. They are there to

manage the time of game and fluidity of their respective sports of

expertise. In Gladiatorial games, the referees were commonly referred

to as “summa rudis” which stands for senior referee. Although having a

referee to situate and manage the game or fight was crucial, there

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were still concrete differences between a referee during Gladiator ages

and a referee in the modern sense. According to a recent study done

by archaeologists,

One rule was that if a man pleaded for mercy, it was up to the sponsor of the fight to decide if the defeated gladiator should live or die. Another rule was that if a gladiator fell without being pushed down by his opponent, he was allowed to get up and retrieve his weapons before the match continued (McLachlan).

In today’s society, exhibition/regular season games are managed with

the utmost care. Referees go through rigorous training routines.

Experience and excellence is the prime motivator for referees hoping

to make it to the collegiate and pro level in their respective fields.

Unlike gladiator referees, pro referees (NBA, NFL, NHL) or umpires

(MLB) must have successfully achieved getting a high school diploma.

Nowadays, it is urged that individuals training to become referees have

completed a sport-specific training referee program in addition to a

state certification. As for gladiator fights, it was typically wealthy

individuals who would referee during fights. Furthering that idea,

gladiators were often slaves of the referees (their masters) and would

fight until death. Refereeing rules varied for each arena that was being

fought in, which is not the case for modern day sports. In the NBA,

whether a game is being held at Staples Center, the Boston TD Bank

North Garden, or Madison Square Garden, the rules and regulations are

the same across the country. In addition to that, even professional

teams in Europe possess the same rules and regulations. The style of

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play when looking at European basketball is different than how we

know it in the United States. Europeans are more focused on team

basketball, whereas players in the United States tend to be more

focused on individual stardom. Although referees were prevalent

throughout the history of sports, times have significantly changed and

for the better. In today’s society, the NBA has recently hired the third

woman referee. In the gladiator times, a woman was not even allowed

to fight; let alone manage a game or a fight. This significant

transformation undergone in the world of sports has influenced society

in a positive manner.

Despite modern day athletes and gladiators sharing a common

interest in the field of sports, there have been many changes

undergone in that immense timespan. Whether it be the training

routine for athletes, the media-hype, the amount of injuries, or even

allowing for women to play; all those examples have played into how

sports has evolved since the Imperial era. This positive change has

allowed for more individuals to participate (men and women of all

ages), whereas this was not the case previously. The evolution of

sports in the modern world continues to grow and evolve, with many

new strategies and methods being thought of each new day. With each

new method or technique being implemented, it creates a sense of

beauty for both the athlete and the spectators who are watching.

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Works Cited

Abbamonte, Lee. "What Derek Jeter Means to Me."

Http://www.leeabbamonte.com/random/world-sport/what-derek-jeter-

means-to-me.html. N.p., 26 Sept. 2014. Web.

"Aesthetics in Sports." Rachelsthoughtsonsports. Rachel: Aesthetic in

Sport, 04 Nov. 2012. Web. 08 May 2016.

Alchin, Linda. "Gladiator Training." Gladiator Training. Siteseen Ltd., 05

Mar. 2015. Web. 08 May 2016.

Binney, Zachary O. "NFL Injuries Part 1: Overall View."

Http://www.footballoutsiders.com/stat-analysis/2015/nfl-injuries-part-i-

overall-view. Football Outisiders, 25 Sept. 2015. Web.

Bodenner, Chris. "Why Aren't Women's Sports as Popular as Men's?

Your Thoughts."

Http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/06/women-

and-sports-world-cup-soccer/395231/. The Atlantic, 09 June 2015. Web.

Brown, Heather. "Good Question: Why Do Women's Sports Get Less

Attention?" WCCO CBS Minnesota. CBS, 25 Mar. 2013. Web. 08 May

2016.

Fleming, Russell. "Roman Gladiators: How They Compare to Modern

Sporting Heroes." AntiquityNOW. Russell Fleming, 02 Oct. 2014. Web.

08 May 2016.

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Hyland, Drew A. Philosophy of Sport. New York: Paragon House, 1990.

Print.

Konig, Jason. "Ball Sports in the Roman Empire." Ancient and Modern

Olympics. N.p., 25 Jan. 2013. Web. 08 May 2016.

Loverro, Thom. "How Did Jerseys Become the Key Symbol of Fandom?"

Sports on Earth. MLB.com, 01 Aug. 2013. Web. 08 May 2016.

Mangan, James A. "Sport and War: Combative Societies and Combative

Sports | SGI Quarterly." Sport and War: Combative Societies and

Combative Sports | SGI Quarterly. N.p., July 2006. Web. 08 May 2016.

Martinez, Courtney. "7 of the NCAA's Longest Active Winning and

Postseason Streaks." NCAA.com. NCAA, 20 Feb. 2016. Web. 08 May

2016.

McLachlan, Sean. "Gladiator Died Because of Ref's Error, Says

Archaeologist - Gadling." Gadling. N.p., 19 June 2011. Web. 08 May

2016.

Meier, Kelly S., Dr. "How Are Ancient Greek Olympians the Same As

Modern Olympians? | The Classroom | Synonym." How Are Ancient

Greek Olympians the Same As Modern Olympians? | The Classroom |

Synonym. Demand Media, n.d. Web. 08 May 2016.

Rupp. "Sports: Discovering Aesthetics." Discovering Aesthetics. Penn

State University, 26 July 2013. Web. 08 May 2016.

Sapere, Richard. "Training for the Ancient Olympics." - Ancient Olympic

Sports, Ancient Greek Sports. Sapere, 2005. Web. 08 May 2016.

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Scanlon, Thomas. "Ancient Greek Women in Sport." Greekwomen. The

Archaeological Institute of America, 2004. Web. 08 May 2016.

Wertz, S. K. "Beauty in Play: Aesthetics for Athletes." Towards a Sports

Aesthetic. N.p.: n.p., 1977. 77-83. Print.

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