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How Fabric is Made?

By: Javad Madanipour

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Fiber To Fabric Process Flow

Fiber

Yarn

Fabric

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Fiber Classification

Natural Man Made

Natural Polymer SyntheticVegetable Animal MineralBast

(Jute, Kenaf, Flax, Ramie)

Leaf (Sisal)Seed

(Cotton)Fruit

(Coconut)

Wool

Hair (Alpaca, Rabbit..,

Silk (Cocoon)

Asbestos

Fiberglass

Micore

Cellulose(Viscose Rayon)

Cellulose(Ester)

Protein(Casein) from milk

Cuprammonium

Polyeseter

Polyamides

Polyolefins

Polyurethanes

PolyvinylDerivatives

Polyvinyl

ChloridePolyvinyl Alcohol

Polystyrene

Polyacrylonitril

PLAPoly-Lactic-Acid

Metalic

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How Yarn Is Made?

A large number of fibers twisted (spun)together form a yarn. If a thread isuntwisted, the fibers can be separatedand it will be seen that each fiber is longcompared with its thickness. In fact, it issaid to have “a high length: diameterratio”. For example, the length of a cotton fiberis about 2000 times greater than itsdiameter.

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Ring Spinning

Bobbin

Ring

Traveller

Traverse2 ply yarn

Guide

Driven Pulley

The system is the ring-spinning machine. The system consists of the spinning elements and the accessories for assisting the spinning elements. The fibers or filaments are given twist to form the yarn. The yarn passes through the traveller and gets wound on the bobbin. The traveller spins around the ring up to 25000 rpm and inserting twist in the yarn, and there by the yarn being formed.

Ring Traveller

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Spinning Frame

Drawing M/c

Drafting Zone

Sliver

Drawing & Drafting

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Yarns can be satisfactory spun only, if the fibers are sufficiently fine and long enough to grip each other. A large number of long, fine fibers grip each other better when twisted in a yarn than a lesser number of coarse fibers. To form a yarn, the fibers are processed by a various textile machineries, such as Blending & Mixing, Carding, Drawing & Drafting and finally Spinning, in which fibers are arranged and paralleled to each other and twisted together to form a yarn.

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The natural fibers, such as cotton, linen, wool, hair and silk, develop naturally in a fibrous form. Man made fibers are made by extrusion of fiber – forming substances in liquid form (molten or in solution) through fine holes in a spinneret. The jets of liquid are hardened in one of several ways to form solid filaments. These are drawn or stretched and may be twisted slightly together to form yarns of virtually any desired length, which are known as continuous filament yarns.

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The filaments may be collected together intoa thick rope or tow and then cut into shortlengths to form staple fiber; this may bedrafted and combed into spun yarns, bytechniques similar to those used for naturalstaple fibers, such as cotton or wool, formingstaple or spun yarns. These consist ofunbroken filaments, which are held togetherinto a yarn by a slight twist. They are smoothand generally compact and are used forSatins, Poults, Taffetas, Failles and similarfabrics.

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Spun or Staple Yarns

As mentioned earlier, these consist of shortfibers held together by the twist, which given topact them into a yarn. They are generally muchfuller (Bulk) in handle than continuous filamentyarns. The short fibers lie at various angles withrespect to the long axis of the yarn, the degreeof uniformity depending upon the fiberorientation, which process by Drawing,Drafting & Combing given to the fiber strandsbefore being twisted together.

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The surface of a spun yarn is rougher tothe touch, owing to the fiber endsprotruding from it, and spun yarns arein general fuller and warmer thancontinuous filament yarns. They areused for sports shirts, suiting, sheets,blankets, furnishing and other fabrics.

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Spinning(Man - Made)

In production of man made fibers, theextrusion of liquid fiber – forming material,followed by hardening of the fine jets to formfilaments, is described as “Spinning”. The hardening of the jets from the spinneretmay be carried out in one of several ways:

* Wet Spinning (Viscose Rayon)* Dry Spinning (Acrylic, Acetate Rayon)* Melt Spinning (Polyester, Nylon, Polyolefin..)

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Melt Extrusion (Polyester)

Polymer(PET)

Dryer Dryer

Melt HopperMelt HopperSpinneret Spinneret

Filament Yarn

Un-drawn Yarn

Draw Twist M/C

Feed Rollers

Crimper

Heater

Cutter

Draw Rolls

Staple Fiber

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Drawing & Stretching

Orientation of the long molecules is completed,by stretching the filament. This has the effect ofpulling the long molecules into alignment alongthe longitudinal axis of the fiber, so that theyare able to lie alongside one another anddevelop their cohesive forces.The degree of orientation will have an impacton the physical & chemical properties of thefinal product (Fiber / Yarn / Fabric).

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Dyeing PolyesterLoose FiberPET polyester loose stock and slubbing are commonly dyed bythe high temperature process, using Disperse or Azoic colors.Staple YarnsPolyester staple yarns may be wound directly on to Cheeses orCones for dyeing.

Filament YarnsTwist must be inserted in PET polyester filament yarns to obtaina dyeing package of sufficient permeability. The minimum twistlevels vary with deniers (150 denier yarn to have at least 6 T.P.I)or 235 T.P.M. The yarns should be wound on perforated tubesand relaxed in steam.This eliminates the potential shrinkage. When undyed yarns areto be used in the same fabric as dyed yarns, it is essential tostabilize the undyed yarns to prevent puckered effects duringfabric finishing.

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Package Dyeing MachinesVertical Spindle Machinesare common today. The packages are press packed onto the vertical carrier spindles so as to increase the payload. It also aids in the dye liquor circulation and minimizing the liquor to fiber ratio. Machineries of this sort can operate at liquor ratios as low as 4:1. The Figure shows a typical package dyeing machine where the yarn packages are held on multiple spindles.

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Fabric dyeing

Woven PET polyester fabrics are handled usually on high temperature equipment, such as Jet, Beam or Jig dyeing machines.

A typical Jet Dyeing Machine:- Capacity : 200-250 Kg. (Single

Tube) - Liquor Ratio - 1:1 (Wet Fabrics) - Dye - 30 To 450 gr./M. Sq. Fabrics

(Polyester, Polyester blends, Woven & Knitted Fabrics)

- High Temp.- Up to 140 Deg C. - Fabric Speed - 300 Mtrs./Min.- Dyeing time: 60-90 Minutes

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Warping / Slashing

Before weaving, warp yarns are first wound on large spools, or cones, which are placed on a rack called a creel. The warp yarns are then unwound and passed through a size solution (sizing/slashing) before being wound onto a warp beam in a process known as beaming. The size solution forms a coating that protects the yarn against snagging or abrasion during weaving. Slashing, or applying size to the warp yarn, uses pad/dry techniques in a large range called a slasher. The slasher is made up of the following: a yarn creel with very precise tension controls; a yarn guidance system; and a sizing delivery system, which usually involves tank storage and piping to the size vessels. The yarn sheet is dipped one or more times in size solution and dried on hot cans or in an oven. A devise called a “lease” is then used to separate yarns from a solid sheet back into individual ends for weaving.

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Starch is used primarily on natural fibers and in a blend with synthetic sizes for coating natural and synthetic yarns. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), which is increasing in use since it can be recycled, unlike starch. PVA is used with polyester/cotton yarns and pure cotton yarns either in a pure form or in blends with natural and other synthetic sizes. Other synthetic sizes contain acrylic and acrylic copolymer components. Semi-synthetic sizes, such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and modified starches, are also used. Oils, waxes and other additives are often used in conjunction with sizing agents to increase the softness and pliability of the yarns. About 10 to 15 percent of the weight of goods is added as size to cotton warp yarns, compared to about 3 to 5 percent for filament synthetics.

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Warp Sizing Machine

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Warping

Sectional wrapper

Creel

Comber board

Drum

Weaver’s beam

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Direct Warping: a large and predeterminednumber of ends pulled from acreel are wound onto a largebeam placed on a warper toproduce section beams forslashing or weaver’s beam.Then a predetermined numberof them are assembled on aslasher to generate a loombeam which will be mountedon Loom.

Tensioning device

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Fabric Production

Woven FabricsWoven fabrics are produced by interlacing two sets ofthreads, known as Warp and Weft, at right angles toeach other. During the weaving, the warp yarns arelifted automatically, so that the weft can be inserted.The warp threads run parallel to the selvedge downthe length of the fabric and each warp thread is knownas an ‘End’. The weft threads, which are referred to as‘Pick / Fill’ run across the cloth from selvedge toselvedge.The interlacing pattern of the warp & weft is known asthe weave.

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In order to identify the weave construction of a fabric, it will be necessary to view the cloth on the right side with a magnifying glass. Since the weave is sometimes difficult to describe, it is useful to illustrate what you see on squared paper. Let us suppose the spaces between the vertical parallel lines in ‘Fig 1’ correspond to the warp threads and the space between horizontal parallel lines represent the weft (pick) thread. Then each square in the diagram (obtained by combining the vertical & horizontal lines) cab be described to indicate the intersection of an ‘end’ and a ‘pick’.

“Fig 1”

Pick

End

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To show that an ‘end’ is on the surface of the fabric a square is filled in. When the pick is visible the square is left white. Now compare the weave diagram with the adjacent fabric in ‘Fig 2’.

Plain WeavePattern Notation

‘Fig 2’

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Plain weave structure

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Weaver’s Beam

Back rest Lease Rods

Heald Shaft (Harness)

Reed

Cloth

Front Rest

Guide Roller

Cloth Roll

Warp sheet

Passag

Passage of Warp & Cloth Through a Plain Power Loom

The process of producing a fabric by interlacing warp and weft threads is known as weaving. The machine used for weaving is known as weaving machine or loom. A warp sheet from a weaver’s beam passes around a back rest and is led around lease rods to Heald shafts, which are responsible for separating the warp sheet into two layers to form a shed. The purpose of the back rest and the lease rods is to separate the warp yarns uniformly and precisely, and reduce entanglement and tension in the yarns during the opening of the warp shed.

Take up Roller

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Air Jet Loom

Water Jet Loom

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Classification of Weaving Machines

Non- power loomsThese looms have only the basic mechanisms, viz. primary, secondary and some auxillary mechanisms. The following are examples of non-automatic power looms. Tappet loomsDobby loomsJacquard looms    

Jacquard Loom

Cam Shafts

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Shuttle looms or conventional looms

Under Pick Shuttle Loom Over Pick Shuttle Loom

Shuttle

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Shuttle-less looms or unconventional looms

In the non-automatic and automatic looms, shuttles are used for inserting the weft yarns. In these shuttle-looms, preparation of weft yarn and the weft insertion mechanism itself limit the loom production and fabric quality; they are also prone to mechanical problems in propelling the shuttle. Hence loom manufacturers have developed looms with various innovative and alternative means of weft insertion.These modern looms are known as “shuttleless looms” and some examples of the looms are :

Air-jet loom Water-jet loom Projectile loom Rapier loom

   

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Projectile Water Jet

Rapier Head

Air Jet

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Fabric yardage calculation Example: Peru panel fabric 13 +/-1 Oz/LY

WARPFiguring the yardage of yarns needed for warpWarp length (Inch): = 36 Add loom waste 2% (Inch)= 0.72 Add 10 % fabric shrinkage (Inch) = 3.61 (End) warp length: 40.32”Length for each End X Fabric width X EPI =

36 40.32 X 68 X 147 = 11195 Yards

36Total warp = 11195 yards (Produce 1 yard fabric)Yarn Count: 150/1 denier (150 gr/9000 Meters)

11195 X 150 = 1679250 = 170.61grams/linear yard (6.01 oz)9000x0.9144 9842.5

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FillFiguring the yardage of yarns needed for fill:Fill length (Inch): = 68Add loom waste 2% (Inch)= 1.36Add 10 % fabric shrinkage (Inch) = 6.8One Fill length: 76.16 InchesPicks/inch = 45Pick/in X Fill length = 45 X 76.16 = 3427inch3427 X 36”= 3427 yards 36

Yarn count (Woolen) = 1 Run = 1600 yards/lbFill count = 5.6 Run5.6 x 1600 = 8960 yards/lb4340 x 16 oz (1 lb) = 7.75 oz 8960Total fabric weight: 6.01 + 7.75 = 13.76 OZ/LY

 

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Loom yardage calculation

Machine speed: 450 picks/minPick density: 45/inFabric production rate:

450X 60X15 X 85 = 212.5 LY45X36 X100

(at 85% loom efficiency, in two 7 ½ hours shift)

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Thanks