Human Development

1

Development is the sequence of age related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death . It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive and social behaviors.

Major issues

◦ A. Nature versus nurture — are we more affected by heredity or environment?

◦ B. Continuity versus discontinuity — is developmental change gradual, or do we progress through distinct stages ?

2

Developmental Research Methods

A. Cross-sectional research involves

studying a variety of ages at a given point in

time.

B. Longitudinal research follows the same

group of subjects for many years.

C. In cohort-sequential research, several

age groups are studied periodically.

D. Historical research revolves around the

particular historical circumstances of an era.

3

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

4

The prenatal period extends from

conception to birth, usually nine months.

It is divided into 3 phases (these are NOT

the same as trimesters)

◦ The germinal stage (first 2 weeks)

◦ The embryonic stage (2 weeks to 2 months)

◦ The fetal stage (2 months to birth)

5

The germinal stage

The zygote is formed by the union of sperm

and egg.

The zygote moves through the fallopian tubes

to uterus.

7th day, the mass of cells implants itself in the

uterine wall

◦ As many as 1 in 5 pregnancies end at this point if

implantation is not successful.

Placenta starts to form

6

Embryonic Stage

Vital organs and bodily systems begin to form

◦ Heart, spine, and brain emerge

◦ 1 inch long but arms, hands, feet , fingers, toes, eyes and ears are discernable.

This is a time of great vulnerability

◦ All of the basic systems are forming and interference or damage at this time will have wide ranging and permanent effects

◦ Most miscarriages occur at this time.

7

Fetal Stage

The baby becomes capable of movement

Organs grow and begin to function ◦ Sex organs start to develop in the 3rd month

Final three months ◦ Brain cells multiply

◦ Respiratory and digestive systems mature

◦ Layer of fat deposited under the skin for insulation

Between 22 and 26 weeks the fetus becomes viable or able to live outside the womb.

8

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT.

9

Maternal nutrition

Severe malnutrition at this time increases

the risk of birth complications and

neurological defects.

These effects can last for years or the

entire lifetime.

◦ This has been linked to schizophrenia, heart

disease, diabetes

10

Maternal Drug Use

Most drugs consumed by the mother pass

through the placenta

◦ Heroin: babies are born addicted, increased

risk of early death, birth defects

◦ Cocaine: birth complications and

cognitive/learning problems in childhood

◦ Marijuana: cognitive issues, attention and

impulse control issues and problem solving

difficulties

11

• Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- a collection of

physical and psychological problems including

irritability, hyperactivity and delayed mental and

motor development, depression, suicide, drug

problems and criminal behaviour

• Tobacco: SIDS, slower cognitive development,

attention deficit, hyperactivity and behaviour

issues.

• Many presciption drugs also can affect the fetus.

12

Maternal Illness

The fetus has a very weak immune system

so therefore is basically defenseless

against infections

All of this damage depends, in part, on

when the mother is exposed to the

danger,

◦ Generally speaking an embryo will be much

more damaged than a fetus.

13

14

http://www.tusculum.edu/faculty/home/tharlow/DEV%20Residential/Working%20folder%20clutter%20removal/images/06

02.jpg

INFANCY

15

Infancy:

◦ 1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy

but is faster than during any other postnatal

period.

◦ 2. Maturation and learning combine to

determine skill development and replace

reflexes.

16

Motor/co-ordination development

Humans develop in two ways ◦ 1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development Babies gain control over the upper part of their bodies

before the lower part

◦ 2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development Babies gain control over their torso before their

extremities

◦ Motor development is based on the infants’ experimentation and learning and remembering of the consequences of their behaviour However each baby has their own genetic rate of

maturation determined in part by their genetic make up.

17

18

http://www.westone.wa.gov.au/k-

12lrcd/learning_areas/child_fam_com/cfc1d/content/001_change_continuity/page_02.htm

Temperament:

“Easy” vs “Difficult” Babies Temperament refers to the characteristic

mood, activity level and emotional reactivity

Babies exhibit their own characteristic temperament by between 2 and 3 months.

◦ This is a very good predictor of their personality at age 10.

Temperament can be described in several ways

19

Temperament is heavily influenced by

heredity and tends to be stable over time

◦ HOWEVER it is not unchangeable.

Parental reactions and other social

experiences can gradually shape children’s

personality.

Temperament IS NOT destiny.

20

Temperament: Thomas and Chess

1977 • Easy: happy, regular sleeping and eating

patterns, adaptable to change and not easily upset. 40%

Slow to warm up: less cheery, predictable and adaptable. Don’t like new experiences. 15%

Difficult; glum, erratic sleepers and eaters, resistant to change, irritable 10%

35% of babies are combinations of all three

21

Social and emotional development

Attachment

◦ The close, emotional bonds of affection that

develop between infants and caregivers.

◦ By 6-8 months most babies will show a

preference for the primary caregiver and

protest when separated

Separation Anxiety

◦ Emotional distress seen in many infants when

they are separated from those people they

have formed an attachment with.

22

Social and emotional development

1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research

with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort.

2. Attachment style

◦ a. Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact and interaction with the caregiver after separation.

◦ b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation.

3. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at about 18 months. ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I

23

INFANCY: Cognitive development

1. Infants show a preference for face-Iike

patterns.

2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that

infants perceive depth by the time they

are able to crawl. ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1VPaBcT1KdY&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776

◦ These also demonstrate the influence of

other people’s reactions on behaviour. ◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6cqNhHrMJA&list=PLE8ACCF549E785776

24

CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

25

I. Childhood

A. Physical Development

◦ 1. More extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain.

◦ 2. Growth rate continues to decline.

B. Social development

◦ 1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity.

◦ 2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin td become more important.

C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in the areas of

◦ 1. Learning

◦ 2. Language

◦ 3. Thinking skills

26

Feral Children 1

Feral Children 2

Feral Children 3

Feral Children 4

Feral Children 5

Genie

Child of Rage

27

II. Adolescence

A. Physical/sexual development-puberty

B. Social development ◦ 1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.

◦ 2. Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more intimate.

C. Cognitive development ◦ 1. Capability for logical, hypothetical and introspective

thinking develops.

◦ 2. Growing awareness of one's own mental processes develops-metacognition.

D. Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy and eating disorders.

28

ADULT AND LATER YEARS

29

I. Adulthood

A. Physical changes ◦ 1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1 percent a year)

decline.

◦ 2. Women undergo menopause with its hormonal and reproductive changes.

B. Social changes center around such issues as: ◦ 1. Mate selection

◦ 2. Parenting

◦ 3. Career selection

C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines and others not. ◦ 1. Reaction time appears to decline.

◦ 2. Some adults show a decline in memory.

30

II. Later years

A. Physical changes

◦ 1. There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities.

◦ 2. Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may develop.

B. Social issues include:

◦ 1. Retirement

◦ 2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack of mobility and declining health

C. Cognitive declines are likely to continue.

31

PIAGET, KOHLBERG AND ERIKSON

Important Developmental Psychologists

32

I. Piaget's theory of cognitive

development

Essential Processes

◦ a. Cognitive structures/schema are the

means by which humans acquire and apply

knowledge about their world.

◦ b. Assimilation is the use of available

cognitive structures to gain new information.

◦ c. Accommodation is the process of

modifying cognitive structures in the face of

newly realized complexities in the

environment.

33

A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18

months

2. Developmental achievements

◦ a. Circular reactions are repetitive motions

babies engage in as they gradually learn to

explore their environment nonreflexively.

◦ b. Object permanence is the understanding

that objects continue to exist even when

hidden from view.

34

B.Preoperational stage, 18

months to 6 years

1. Characteristics

◦ a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced.

◦ b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.

◦ c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action.

2. Developmental achievements

◦ a. Symbolic representation and language

◦ b. Readiness for operational thought

35

C. Concrete-operational stage, 6

years to early adolescence

1. Characteristics

◦ a. Use of simple logic

◦ b. Use of simple mental manipulations

◦ c. Decline in egocentrism

2. Developmental achievements

◦ a. Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease because of a change in form.

◦ b. Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations and other actions can be undone.

◦ d. Decentration : ability to focus on more than one aspect of a problem at once

36

D. Formal-operations stage,

adolescence and adulthood

1. Characteristics

◦ a. Hypothetical/ What if thinking? and deductive

reasoning How or Why did this happen ?

◦ b. Propositional logic: If this …then that…

◦ c. Abstract thought: Symbolism, discussing Big Ideas

2. Developmental achievement indicates a

readiness for adult intellectual tasks.

3. Piaget believed that not all adolescents or

adults achieve formal operational reasoning

ability.

37

Kohlberg Theory of

Moral Development

Heinz’s Dilemma

38

Heinz’s Dilemma

Heinz's wife was near death, and her only hope was a drug that had been discovered by a pharmacist who was selling it for an exorbitant price.

The drug cost $20,000 to make, and the pharmacist was selling it for $200,000.

Heinz could only raise $50,000 and insurance wouldn't make up the difference.

He offered what he had to the pharmacist, and when his offer was rejected, Heinz said he would pay the rest later.

Still the pharmacist refused. In desperation, Heinz considered stealing the drug.

Would it be wrong for him to do that?

39

Kohlberg:

Moral development: The ability to tell

right from wrong and behave accordingly.

Kohlberg believed that there were levels

and 6 stages in the development of moral

behaviour.

Kohlberg studied Piaget and tried to apply

his ideas to morality.

40

A. Preconventional level : toddler

and preschool

◦ Stage 1:Right and wrong are determined by

what is punished,

so a child does the right thing to avoid something

bad.

◦ Stage 2, Right and wrong are determined by

what is rewarded

So a child does the right thing in order to get a

something good

41

B. Conventional level: school age

◦ Stage 3, Right and wrong are determined by

the approval or disapproval of the people

close to us

We want our loved ones to see us as good

◦ Stage 4, Right and wrong are determined by

society's rules and laws which should be

obeyed at all times

We do what’s right because it’s the law even if it

could hurt our close friends and family

42

C. Postconventional level : begins

in teens but may never be

attained

◦ Stage 5, There are general rule about what is

right and wrong but sometimes exceptions

need to be made

◦ Stage 6, Each individual must have their own

moral code.

Right and wrong are characterized by universal

ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice

for all people, not just the ones close to us.

43

Issues

◦ It is not unusual for a person to be operating

on more than one level depending on the

situation.

◦ These stages tend to represent “Western

cultural values of individual human rights” and

are not always the same across the globe.

◦ Some believe that Kohlberg did not do

enough research on the differences between

men and women

44

It appears that males are more interested

in the morality of justice: Is this fair? and

women are more interested in the

morality of care: How will this affect other

people?

45

46

47

http://www.cbc.ca/player/Shows/Shows/Doc+Zo

ne/2008-09/ID/1233752062/ LIARS

http://www.goodcharacter.com/dilemma/archive

.html

48

Erik Erikson: The Life-Span

Approach

Vocabulary

CRISIS: the developmental challenge that

must be met at each stage

Basic Strength: the personality

characteristics and beliefs that derive

from successful resolution of crisis in

each stage

50

Psychosocial Stages of Personality

Development

8 successive stages over the lifespan The result of each crisis must be met

adaptively or maladaptively. If the child responds ◦ adaptively: s/he will acquire strengths

needed for next developmental stage ◦maladaptively: s/he is less likely to be

able to adapt to later problems

II. The stages

◦ A. Trust versus mistrust — infants

◦ B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt — toddlers

◦ C. Initiative versus guilt — young children

◦ D. Industry versus inferiority — older children

◦ E. Identity versus role confusion — adolescents

◦ F. Intimacy versus isolation — young adults

◦ G. Generativity versus stagnation — adults

52

Stage1CRISIS: Basic Trust vs.

Mistrust Birth to age 1

Totally dependent on others

Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust

Caregiver does not meet needs: child develops mistrust

Basic strength: Hope

◦ Belief our desires will be satisfied

◦ Feeling of confidence

Stage 2 CRISIS: Autonomy vs. Shame and

Doubt

Ages 1-3

Child able to exercise some degree of choice

Child’s independence is thwarted: child develops feelings of self-doubt, shame in dealing with others

Basic Strength: Will

◦ Determination to exercise freedom of choice in face of society’s demands

Stage 3 CRISIS: : Initiative vs. Guilt

Ages 3-5

Child expresses desire to take initiative in

activities

Parents punish child for initiative: child

develops feelings of guilt that will affect

self-directed activity throughout life

Basic strength: Purpose

◦ Courage to envision and pursue goals

Stage 4 CRISIS: Industriousness vs.

Inferiority

Ages 6-11

Child develops cognitive abilities to enable in task completion (school work, play)

Parents/teachers do not support child’s efforts: child develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacy

Basci strength: Competence

◦ Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and completing tasks

Stages 1-4

◦ Largely determined by others (parents,

teachers)

Stages 5-8

◦ Individual has more control over environment

◦ Individual responsibility for crisis resolution in

each stage

Stage 5 CRISIS: Identity vs. Role

Confusion

Ages 12-18

Form ego identity: self-image

Strong sense of identity: face adulthood with certainty and confidence

Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity

Basic strength: Fidelity

◦ Emerges from cohesive ego identity

◦ Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in relationships with others

Stage 6 CRISIS: : Intimacy vs.

Isolation Ages 18-35 (approximately)

Undertake productive work and establish

intimate relationships

Inability to establish intimacy leads to

social isolation

Basic strength: Love

◦ Mutual devotion in a shared identity

◦ Fusing of oneself with another person

Stage 7 CRISIS: : Generativity vs.

Stagnation

Ages 35-55 (approximately)

Generativity: Active involvement in

teaching/guiding the next generation

Stagnation involves not seeking outlets for

generativity

Basic strength: Care

◦ Broad concern for others

◦ Need to teach others

Stage 8 CRISIS: : Ego Integrity vs.

Despair

Ages 55+

Evaluation of entire life

Integrity: Look back with satisfaction

Despair: Review with anger, frustration

Basic strength: Wisdom

◦ Detached concern with the whole of life

III. Critique of Erikson

A. There is no agreed-upon set of

measures for the various stages.

B. The stages imply a rigidity of

development that may not exist.

C. The theory may not reflect differences

in personality development between men

and women.

62