Human Development

Psychology

How we change over our life spans physically, mentally and emotionally.

Concerned with how and why different aspects of human functioning develop and change across the life span.Physical development, such as changes in height

and weight and the acquisition of motor skillsCognitive development, such as changes in thought

processes, memory, and language abilitiesPersonality and Social Development, such as

changes in self concept and interpersonal relationships.

Developmental Psychology

Two central questions in Developmental Psychology are:(1) How do biological factors(‘nature’)

interact with environmental experiences (‘nurture’) to determine the course of development?

(2) Is development best understood as a continuous process of change or as a series of qualitatively distinct stages?

Developmental Psychology

From Womb to TombPeriods of Development

Prenatal PeriodInfancyEarly ChildhoodMiddle and Late ChildhoodAdolescenceEarly AdulthoodMiddle AdulthoodLate Adulthood

Prenatal DevelopmentIs concerned with the process in which a

human embryo or fetus gestates during pregnancy, from fertilization until birth.

How is Prenatal Development related to Developmental Psychology?Things or actions that had happened in the course

of Prenatal Development, whether advantageous or disadvantageous, has certain effects or consequences to the whole Development process of a child.

From Womb to Tomb

From Womb to Tomb

InfancyThe developmental period from birth to 18 or

24 months.A time of extreme dependency on adults.Many psychological activities are just

beginning.

From Womb to Tomb

Visual Cliff ExperimentThe visual cliff apparatus was created by

psychologists Eleanor J. Gibson and R.D. Walk at Cornell university to investigate depth perception in human and animal species.

From Womb to Tomb

Early ChildhoodThe developmental period extending from the

end of infancy to about 5 to 6 years.Often called the “preschool years”Children learn to become more self-sufficient,

develop school readiness skills and play with peers.

From Womb to Tomb

Middle and Late ChildhoodThe developmental period extending from about 6 to 11

years of age.Approximately corresponds to the elementary school

years.Fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic

are mastered.Child is formally exposed to larger world and its culture.

From Womb to Tomb

AdolescenceThe developmental period of transition from

childhood to early adulthood – entered at 10 to 12 years, ending at 18 to 22 years.

Begins with rapid physical changes.Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent.Thought is now more logical, abstract, and idealistic.

From Womb to Tomb

From Womb to Tomb

Early adulthoodThe developmental period beginning in the late teens or

early twenties and lasting through the thirties.A time of establishing personal and economic independence.Also a time of career development.Early adults select a mate, start a family , and rear children.

From Womb to Tomb

Middle AdulthoodThe developmental period beginning round 40 years of

age and extending to about 60.A time of expanding personal and social involvement

and responsibility.Also a time of assisting the next generation in becoming

competent.Middle adults reach and maintain satisfaction in a

career.

From Womb to Tomb

Late AdulthoodA period beginning in the sixties or seventies and

lasting until death.A time of adjustment to decreasing strength and

health.Also a time of life review, retirement, and new social

roles.

From Womb to Tomb

Death......

From Womb to Tomb

From Womb to Tomb

In a Developmental Psychologist’s Perspective:“The concept of stages implies that behaviours

at a given stage are organized around a dominant theme or a coherent set of characteristics, behaviours at one stage are quantitatively different from behaviours at earlier or later stages, and all children go through the same stages in the same order .”

Stages of Development

Motor Development

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Level of Moral Judgement Theory

VisionNewborns have poor visual acuity, their

ability to change focus is limited, and they are very nearsighted.

During the first week of life, your baby will have limited vision. She can focus best on objects that are 7 to 12 inches away from her eyes. Within weeks, the range of her sight will expand. Yet although she can now see objects that are farther away, she will probably show interest-through facial expressions or coos and gurgles-only in those objects that remain fairly close.

Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn

Vision Because newborns best perceive sharply contrasting

patterns of light and darkness, the pastel pinks and blues traditionally used to decorate a baby's nursery have little benefit for your baby-at least in her first weeks.

Most babies also have a limited ability to track the movement of objects with their head and eyes or with their eyes alone. Babies can track movement only for a short distance and only if the objects move slowly.

Games such as peek-a-boo make little sense at this age. If you aren't in the direct line of your baby's sight, you are-for all intents and purposes-gone. Even if you just hide your face behind your hands, your baby no longer knows you're there.

Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn

Vision

Sensory Capabilities

HearingMost babies have a sensitive sense of hearing, and

they pay careful attention to the noises in their world. Your baby can distinguish among a wide variety of different sounds. Like most newborns, he will probably show a particular fondness for human voices in preference to other sounds. Talking softly to your baby will stimulate his sense of hearing in a way he will enjoy.

Babies can track sounds, just as they can track motion. Within several weeks of birth, your baby may even begin to look toward the source of your voice or another favourite sound-a remarkably early coordination of the senses of sight and hearing.

Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn

Taste and Smell Your baby's senses of taste and smell will also be active in the

first days and weeks of life. Of course, babies are not gourmets. Your child probably won't experiment with a wide variety of tastes for quite some time. Indeed, breast milk and/or formula should make up your child's entire diet for several months.

Tests have shown, however, that even newborns who are offered a wider variety of tastes demonstrate distinct preferences. Bitter or sour tastes provoke faces or crying from newborns. Not surprisingly, babies tend to have a sweet tooth-a good thing, because both breast milk and formula taste very sweet.

Little is known about a newborn's sense of smell. Yet because the senses of smell and taste are so closely related, babies can probably distinguish among a variety of aromas. Just what babies prefer to smell is difficult to test.

Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn

TouchYour newborn's skin, especially his lips and hands, is

very sensitive to touch. Long before he can voluntarily reach for objects, your baby nonetheless uses his sense of touch to establish contact with the outside world. By lying on different surfaces and coming into contact with different objects, he discovers the difference between hard and soft, hot and cold, and smooth and rough.

By observing your child's responses, you can discover the textures and temperatures he prefers. Even without testing, however, you can safely assume that he likes being held close, cuddled, and kept warm.

Sensory Capabilities of a Newborn

Learning and Memory

Mental Capabilities of a Newborn

Reflexes are involuntary movements or actions. Some movements are spontaneous, occurring as part of the baby's usual activity. Others are responses to certain actions. Reflexes help identify normal brain and nerve activity. Some reflexes occur only in specific periods of development. The following are some of the normal reflexes seen in newborn babies:

A Baby’s Reflexes

Root Reflex

Root reflexThis reflex begins when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn his/her head and open his/her mouth to follow and "root" in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to begin feeding.

Root reflex Trigger: A gentle stroke on the newborn’s

cheekResponse: Baby turns toward the touch, with

mouth openDuration: Until baby is three to four months old

(sometimes, babies continue doing this in their sleep past four months old)

Reason: Helps baby find food

A Baby’s Reflexes

Suck reflexRooting helps the baby become ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck. This reflex does not begin until about the 32nd week of pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature sucking ability because of this. Babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes with rooting and sucking and may suck on fingers or hands.

A Baby’s Reflexes

Suck reflex Trigger: Something, such as a nipple (breast or

bottle) or parent’s finger, touching roof of baby’s mouth

Response: Baby sucks on nippleDuration: Three to four monthsReason: Helps baby eat

A Baby’s Reflexes

Moro reflexThe Moro reflex is often called a startle reflex because it usually occurs when a baby is startled by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back his/her head, extends out the arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. A baby's own cry can startle him/her and begin this reflex. This reflex lasts about five to six months.

A Baby’s Reflexes

Moro reflex (also called startle reflex) Trigger: Loud noise (even baby’s own cry!),

sudden movement, or sensation of fallingResponse: Baby cries and extends legs, arms,

and fingers, arches back, then retracts arms and legs

Duration: Until baby is four to six months oldReason: Baby’s first attempts to protect himself

from harmIf baby startles himself awake: Try swaddling

him to make him feel more secure

A Baby’s Reflexes

Tonic neck reflexWhen a baby's head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This is often called the "fencing" position. The tonic neck reflex lasts about six to seven months.

A Baby’s Reflexes

Tonic neck reflex Trigger: Lying on his back with head

turned to one sideResponse: The arm on that side extends,

while the opposite arm bends at the elbow (a “fencing” position)

Duration: About six months (sometimes not present until two months of age)

Reason: May prepare baby developmentally for voluntary reaching later 

A Baby’s Reflexes

Grasp reflexStroking the palm of a baby's hand causes the baby to close his/her fingers in a grasp. The grasp reflex lasts only a couple of months and is stronger in premature babies.

A Baby’s Reflexes

Grasp (or palmar grasp) reflex Trigger: Pressing a finger or other object, such

as a rattle, into baby’s palmResponse: Baby makes a fist and tries to grab

fingerDuration: Three to four monthsReason: May prepare baby developmentally for

voluntary grasping laterFun fact: Baby’s grip can be strong enough to

support his entire body weight

A Baby’s Reflexes

Babinski reflexWhen the sole of the foot is firmly stroked, the big toe bends back toward the top of the foot and the other toes fan out. This is a normal reflex up to about 2 years of age.

A Baby’s Reflexes

Babinski’s reflex Trigger: A gentle stroke on the sole of the foot

(from heel to toe)Response: Foot turns in and toes flare upDuration: Six to 24 monthsReason: Perhaps an attempt to protect against

falling

A Baby’s Reflexes

Step reflexThis reflex is also called the walking or dance reflex because a baby appears to take steps or dance when held upright with his/her feet touching a solid surface.

A Baby’s Reflexes

Walking (or stepping) reflexTrigger: Holding baby upright with his feet on

a flat surfaceResponse: Baby lifts one foot, then the other, as

if walkingDuration: About two monthsReason: May prepare baby developmentally for

walking several months from now 

A Baby’s Reflexes