Theories of Human Development

Integrative Perspectives

THE ORGANISMIC PERSPECTIVE – PART III

Dale Goldhaer

1. Developmental Psychobiological Perspective2. Jean Piaget’s Constructivist Theory3. Neo-Piagetian Perspectives4. The Psychodynamic models of Freud and

Eikson

Four Perspectives

pp. 2

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVE

Arnold Gesell, Myrtle McGraw, Esther Thelen, Gerald Edelman

1. Planes of Action: An organism exists simultaneously at a number of planes of action – from the level of the gene, to the level of the cell, to that of organs and then organ systems, and finally to the level of individual.

2. Characteristics of development: All levels or planes of activity adhere to the same set of defining characteristics – i.e. change at any level is irreversible, developing systems are active, organisms develop. Successive reorganizations is called stages.

Basic Assumptions of a Developmental Psychobiological

Perspective

Gottlieb’s Bidirectional Model

1. Human development as an “order of nature” – a sequence of changes or maturations regulated by a genetically defined timetable

2. The key element is biological structure – in particular, the structure of the nervous system

3. The role of the environment is to support and nurture. When the child is ready for new experience, the environment had to be ready to provide them (readiness)

4. Developmental Principles: Principle of developmental direction: motor development moves

along three gradients: cephalo to caudal, proximal-to-distal, ulnar-to-radial

Principle of reciprocal interweaving: course of development resembles a spring or helix

Principle of functional asymmetry: in some case asymmetry rather than symmetry is the preferred, more adaptive, developmental outcome

Principle of individuating maturation Principle of self regulatory fluctuation

Gesell’s Maturation Theory of Human Development

1. Three factors must be considered when viewing long-term stability of early intervention efforts: Degree of fixity: critical periods in development Degree to which physical changes in the

developing child facilitate or hinder the subsequent expression of initial behavior

Changes in children’s attitudes2. Findings: (a) it is possible to alter typical behavior

patterns, (b) the long-term permanence of such changes reflects the interplay of a number of developmental systems

3. Development is bidirectional process in which structure and function mutually influence each other

McGraw’s Growth Theory of Human Development

Development is multi-determined• there is not 1 element in the system that controls developmental change • behavior is the result of many elements interacting through time– stepping reflex depends on interaction of muscle strength, leg weight, etc.

Development is softly assembled• the elements of a behavioral system can interact in many different ways depending on the task, context, etc.– stepping reflex appears and disappears depending on whether the infant is in water, is wearing leg weights, etc.

Development is non-linear• the elements of a behavioral system often interact in non-linear ways• small change in one element leads to big changes in behavior– add a small amount of weight to infants’ legs, stepping disappears (bigchange in behavior)

Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory

According to Edelman’s theory, the primary repertoire responds when the message to which it is susceptible is received. Such receipt causes the neuron group to emit its own signal, which is recognized in turn by a second level of neural groups called the "secondary brain repertoire." Consciousness arises when impulses and patterns generated by the secondary repertoire are cycled around and fed back in as fresh input for other units in the secondary repertoire. While the primary system only responds to direct sensory data from the outside, the secondary system can also respond to internally-generated data as if it were externally-generated. This self-monitoring effect gives rise to human consciousness because it allows a review of internal states. In other words, the brain can watch itself work.

Edelman’s Dynamic Systems Theory

PIAGET’s CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

Arnold Gesell, Myrtle McGraw, Esther Thelen, Gerald Edelman

1. There is a cumulative dimension to subject / object interactions

2. It is difficult to clearly distinguish actions on objects in the real world from actions on objects in consciousness

3. We come to know something only by acting on it

4. Knowledge is never a perfect carbon copy of reality (an approximation which increasingly comes to resemble objective reality as individuals become more competent)

Piaget’s Development Perspective

Three factors:

1.Maturation (sets a significant upper limit on development)

2.Experience with the social world

3.Experience with the physical world

Causal Factors in Piaget’s Theory

1. The Functional Side Adaptation: two complementary processes: assimilation

(interpreting new experiences in the context of previous knowledge, i.e. create schema) and accommodation (to resolve cognitive conflict, make a change – i.e. change schema because it doesn’t fit)

Organization: Efforts to adapt are interconnected in a systematic fashion

2. The Structural Side Schemes (generalized action patterns) Cognitive operations (action in a mental representation) Groupings (combinativity, associativity, identity, and

reversibility)

The Two Sides of Piaget’s Constructivist Theory

Stage 1: Birth to 6 weeks – ReflexesStage 2: 6 weeks to 4-5 months – Primary circular reactionStage 3: 4-5 months to 9 months – Secondary circular reactionStage 4: 9 months to 12 months – Object PermanenceStage 5: 12 months to 18 months: tertiary circular reactionStage 6: 18 months to 24 months: Beginnings of symbolic thought

NEO-PIAGETIAN PERSPECTIVES

Kurt Fischer, Gisela Labouvie-Vief, William Damon

1. Fischer’s sequences are markers of the development of skills.

2. Four Tiers: Reflex, Sensori-motor, representational, and abstract

3. Each tier is in turn defined in terms of four levels Single Point: Demonstrate

the skill to control specific actions

Mappings: the ability to integrate and differentiate specific actions

Systems: skills are coordinated into systems

Fischer’s Skill Theory

1. Offers an extension of Piaget’s theory into the adult years2. Young adults reports are characterized as reflecting a “goal

oriented individual whose evaluations are guided by achievement-oriented and conventional goals, values, and roles.

3. Development across the adult years reflects an individual’s ability to reunite the dualities of mind and self. This takes place over a 5 step sequence: Concrete-presystemic level (behavioral action and psychological states) Interpersonal-protosystemic level (relationships and networks) Institutional-intrasystemic level (coordination of action and states) Contextual-intersystemic level (personal desire and institutional constraints) Dynamic inter-subjective (change & transformation)

Labouvie-Vief’s Theory of Adult Development

1. William Damon’s early research was focused on children’s understanding of moral issues such as friendship, equity, and authority. This was followed by work looking at children’s concept of self-understanding, and more recently, his work has focused on moral development during the adult years. He focuses on the interplay between thought and action.

2. Damon’s findings with respect to children’s understanding of positive justice and obedience shows there is a developmental progression in these 2 moral issues

3. Damon’s two dimensions of self-understanding are the self-as-subject and the self-as-object

Damon’s Moral Goals Model

The Psychodynamic Models of Freud & Erikson

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud’s – Id, Ego, and Superego

1. Superego – arises out of the ego to deal with the child’s acceptance of the expectations of others as a regulator of his/her behavior. Recall easily available.

2. Ego – emerged from the ID as a way to cope with conflicts arising from the power struggles. Recall difficult.

3. ID – purpose is to gain pleasures, reduce tension. Recall impossible.

Erik Erikson’s Epigenetic Model of Development

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

More similarity to Piaget than Freud. However, Erikson’s observations take place at many levels.