icbms book of abstracts - chiang mai universityrcsd.soc.cmu.ac.th/web/burma/file_upload/icbms book...

BOOK OF ABSTRACTS

International Conference on Burma/Myanmar Studies

Burma/Myanmar in Transition: Connectivity, Changes and Challenges

24–26 July 2015

Chiang Mai University

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON BURMA/MYANMAR STUDIES BURMA/MYANMAR IN TRANSITION: CONNECTIVITY, CHANGES AND CHALLENGES

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PREFACE

The International Conference on Burma/Myanmar Studies, held during July 24–26, 2015, is an initiative of Chiang Mai University and the University of Mandalay to bring together scholars from Myanmar, Thailand, and beyond to learn from and exchange knowledge with each other about Burma/ Myanmar’s history, economy, culture, agricultural and environmental transformation, language, literature, and much more. The aim of this international conference is to work towards a better understanding of Myanmar’s transition toward peace and democratization, economic reforms, and ethnic politics, and its increased connection with a global society, as well as how Myanmar maintains its diverse cultures and traditions. It is hoped that the conference will stimulate further research and exchanges on issues related to Burma/Myanmar studies.

This Book of Abstracts well demonstrates the diverse interests of scholars and students of Burma/Myanmar’s society and their concerns about the transformation, as well as its social and environmental consequences. The corresponding papers have been uploaded onto the RCSD website. Those who are interested in the full text of these papers are invited to visit our website at http://rcsd.soc.cmu.ac.th/web/Burma/home.php.

Many people and organizations have put tremendous effort towards making this conference possible. We would like to thank all of the participants who have contributed their papers and will deliver presentations at the conference. Special thanks go to Vice President Rome Jiranukrom, Professor Lalita Harnwong, Dr. Patrick McCormick, Dr. Ashley South, Professor Matthew Walton, Dr. Thein Swe, and Chao Harn Yawnghwe for their advice and active organization of panels. We would also like to thank Garrett Kostin and Chris Mathews for compiling and editing all of the abstracts in this book.


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The conference would not be possible without the generous support of the following organizations: Heinrich Böll Foundation, ICCO (Southeast Asia), Euro-‐Burma Office, Center for Research and Academic Services – Faculty of Social Sciences, and Bank of Thailand – Northern Branch. We would like to express our deep gratitude for their appreciation of the merit of the conference and their kind assistance.

On behalf of the Conveners of ICBMS 2015,

Chayan Vaddhanaphuti, Ph.D.

Director, Center for ASEAN Studies and Regional Center for Social Sciences and Sustainable Development, Faculty of Social Sciences,

Chiang Mai University


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Conference Committee

President of Chiang Mai University Chairperson

Rector of University Co-‐chairperson

Vice-‐President for International Relations and Alumni Affairs

Vice chairperson

Pro Rector of University of Mandalay for Academic Affairs

Co-‐vice chairperson

Pro Rector of University of Mandalay for Administrative Affairs

Co-‐vice chairperson

Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences Committee

Dean of Political Science and Public Administration

Committee

Dean of Faculty of Architecture Committee

Dean of Faculty of Fine Arts Committee

Dean of Faculty of Humanities Committee

Dean of Faculty of Education Committee

Dean of Faculty of Economics Committee

Dean of International College Committee

Thapin Patcharanurak Committee and Secretary

Director of the International Relations Division

Committee and Assistant Secretary

Academic Committee

Chayan Vaddhanaphuti Chairperson

Philippe M.F. Peycam Co-‐chairperson

Patrick McCormick Committee

Matthew Walton Committee

Ashley South Committee

Jane Ferguson Committee


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Kevin Woods

Committee

Lalita Harnwong Committee

Pichayaluck Pichayakul Committee

Sant Suwatcharapinun Committee

Nongyao Nawarat Committee

Nisit Pantamit Committee

Usamard Siampukdee Committee

Amporn Jirattikorn Committee

Nuthamon Kongcharoen Committee

Director of Center for Research and Academic Services, Faculty of Social Sciences

Committee

Chusak Wittayapak Committee

Head of Department of Social Science and Development

Ajchara Wattanapinyo, Head of Department of Geography

Committee

Jamaree Chiengthong, Head of Department of Sociology and Anthropology

Committee

Thwin Pa Pa, Head of Law Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Yee Yee Win, Head of History Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Myat Mon Oo, Head of Philosophy Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Mi Mi Gyi, Head of International Relations and Political Science Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Thandar Soe, Head of English Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Khin Myint Myint, Head of Oriental Studies Department, University of Mandalay

Committee


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Khin San Hlaing, Head of Psychology Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Hlaing Wai Wai Hla, Head of Myanmar Literature Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Aung Mon, Head of Archaeology Department, University of Mandalay

Committee

Nay Win, Head of Geography Department, University of Mandalay

Committee and Assistant Secretary

Associate Professor Ubonrat Pantumin Committee and Secretary

Kanchana Kulpisithicharoen Committee and Assistant Secretary

Samak Kosem Committee and Assistant Secretary

Operations Committee

Ampika Rattanapitak Chairperson

Samak Kosem Committee

Kanchana Kulpisithicharoen Committee

Panitan Phambanyan Committee

Pantinee Nestsupakuk Committee

Chanida Puranapun Committee and Secretary

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON BURMA/MYANMAR STUDIES

BURMA/MYANMAR IN TRANSITION: CONNECTIVITY, CHANGES AND CHALLENGES

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CONTENTS Preface ....................................................................................................................... 3

Committees ................................................................................................................ 5

Plenary: Transitional Myanmar and Reforms .......................................................... 16

Plenary: Building Myanmar’s Knowledge Sector: Challenges and Opportunities ... 17

Roundtable: Media and Its Role in Democratic Transition ...................................... 18

Roundtable: Recognise Our Education, Realise Our Dreams: Education, Myanmar,

and Marginality ........................................................................................................ 20

Roundtable: Migrants, Disease, and Ecology: Policy Engagements for Transnational

Sustainability ............................................................................................................ 22

Roundtable: Land Confiscation in Burma: Challenges and Prospects A Discussion on

the Impact of Post‐Ceasefire Development in Burma's Ethnic Lands ..................... 23

Roundtable: Peace Process in Myanmar: An Update and The Way Forward .......... 24

Panel: Human Rights and Social Suffering among the Minorities ........................... 26

Panel: Religions from the Margin: Religious Movements across Thailand‐China‐

Myanmar Borders .................................................................................................... 27

Panel: Ethnic Politics and Citizenship ....................................................................... 28

Panel: Health and Community Engagement along the Thai‐Burmese Borderland . 30

Panel: A Work in Progress — Mae Sot SEZ: Migrant Workers, the Thai State, and

Globalization ............................................................................................................ 31

Panel: (Il‐)licit economies in Shan State: Opium Cultivation and Agrarian

Transformations in Shan State, Myanmar ............................................................... 32

Panel: Structures of Rural Dispossession and Resistances: Agrarian Political

Economies, Land Grabs and Debt in Rural Myanmar .............................................. 34

Panel: Struggling in Dispossession and Displacement: Ethnic Peoples’ Networking,

Identification, and Livelihood Strategies ................................................................. 36

Panel: Geographical Perspectives on Myanmar’s Transition: Towards Sustainable

Socio‐Economic Development ................................................................................. 38

Panel: Tanintharyi Region in Transition: Transnational Dynamics and Local

Responses ................................................................................................................ 40

Panel: Thai‐Burma Cross‐Border Education Linkages: Pathways to Developing an

Effective, Accredited Education for Migrant Children and Youth from Burma ....... 42

Panel: Media, Culture, and Everyday Life in a Regionalising Myanmar .................. 44

Panel: Foreign Aid and Local Response in a Post‐Conflict State .............................. 45



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Adam P. MacDonald ................................................................................................ 46

Adam Simpson ......................................................................................................... 48

Ah Suhn Ghoemeh ................................................................................................... 49

Akkanut Wantanasombut ........................................................................................ 50

Alexander Horstmann .............................................................................................. 51

Ampika Rattanapitak ................................................................................................ 52

Amporn Jirattikorn ................................................................................................... 53

Amrita Dey ............................................................................................................... 54

Anselm Feldmann .................................................................................................... 55

Ardeth Maung Thawnghmung ................................................................................. 56

Areewan Sombunwatthanakun & Luntharima Longcharoen .................................. 57

Ashley Scott Kelly & Dorothy Tang .......................................................................... 58

Aung Myint ............................................................................................................... 59

Aung Myo Min .......................................................................................................... 60

Aung Zaw .................................................................................................................. 61

Aung Zaw Moe ......................................................................................................... 62

Bénédicte Brac de la Perrière .................................................................................. 63

Bill Davies & Tara Russell ......................................................................................... 64

Brooke Schedneck .................................................................................................... 66

Camilla Jane Standhart & Sara Ellegaard Nielsen .................................................... 66

Chan Myawe Aung Sun ............................................................................................ 68

Charlie Thame .......................................................................................................... 69

Charlotte Fraser ....................................................................................................... 71

Chirada Na Suwan .................................................................................................... 73

Chung‐Tong Wu ....................................................................................................... 74

Cung Lian Hu ............................................................................................................ 75

Debolina Sen ............................................................................................................ 76

Decha Tangseefa & Naruemol Tuenpakdee ............................................................ 77

Decha Tangseefa ...................................................................................................... 78

Dorothy Tang & Ashley Scott Kelly .......................................................................... 79

Douglas Sanders ....................................................................................................... 81

Dulyapak Preecharush ............................................................................................. 82

Emily Donald ............................................................................................................ 84

Erin M. Kamler ......................................................................................................... 85

Flora Bawi Nei Mawi ................................................................................................ 86

François Robinne ...................................................................................................... 87



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Garrett Kostin ........................................................................................................... 88

Gerard McCarthy ..................................................................................................... 89

Gustaaf Houtman ..................................................................................................... 90

Hay Mann Zaw ......................................................................................................... 91

Helene Maria Kyed ................................................................................................... 92

Hla Hla Kyi ................................................................................................................ 93

Htet Htet Hlaing ....................................................................................................... 94

Jacques P. Leider ...................................................................................................... 95

Jane M. Ferguson ..................................................................................................... 96

Jiang Fan ................................................................................................................... 97

John Buchanan ......................................................................................................... 98

Justine Chambers ..................................................................................................... 99

Kevin Woods .......................................................................................................... 100

Khen Suan Khai ...................................................................................................... 101

Khin Khin Moe & Nyo Nyo ..................................................................................... 102

Khin Ohmar ............................................................................................................ 103

Khin Soe Kyi ............................................................................................................ 104

Khin Thidar ............................................................................................................. 105

Khun Moe Htun ...................................................................................................... 106

Kirsten Ewers Andersen ......................................................................................... 107

Klemens Karlsson ................................................................................................... 109

Ko Ko Thett ............................................................................................................. 110

Kosump Saichan & Atchareeya Saisin .................................................................... 111

Krishna Monthathip ............................................................................................... 112

Kunnawut Boonreak .............................................................................................. 113

Kwanchewan Buadaeng ......................................................................................... 114

Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut .............................................................................................. 115

Kyin Lam Mang ....................................................................................................... 116

L Gum Ja Htung ...................................................................................................... 117

La Ring .................................................................................................................... 118

Lalita Hanwong ...................................................................................................... 119

Ling Zhang .............................................................................................................. 120

Luntharimar Longcharoen ...................................................................................... 122

Lutgard Lams .......................................................................................................... 123

Lwin Lwin Wai ........................................................................................................ 124

Lynn Thiesmeyer .................................................................................................... 125



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Manoch Chummuangpak ....................................................................................... 126

Marie Lall................................................................................................................ 127

Marion Sabrié Laboratory Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Paris ................... 128

Marja‐Leena Heikkilä‐Horn .................................................................................... 129

Martin Michalon .................................................................................................... 130

Martin Smith .......................................................................................................... 132

Mathias Jenny ........................................................................................................ 133

Matthew Walton .................................................................................................... 135

Maung Maung Aye ................................................................................................. 136

Mi Mi Cho & Wasan Panyagaew ............................................................................ 138

Min Htin Ko Ko Gyi ................................................................................................. 139

Min Theik Chan Aung ............................................................................................. 140

Min Ye Paing Hein, ................................................................................................. 141

Mineo Takada ........................................................................................................ 142

Moe Moe Oo .......................................................................................................... 143

Mollie Pepper ......................................................................................................... 144

Mon Mon Myat ...................................................................................................... 145

Mya Mya Khin ........................................................................................................ 146

Myint Myat Thu ..................................................................................................... 147

Myint Myint Kyu ..................................................................................................... 148

Myint Zan ............................................................................................................... 149

Naing Aung Lynn .................................................................................................... 151

Nang Htay Aung ..................................................................................................... 152

Naruemon Thabchumpon & Carl Middleton ......................................................... 153

Nattchawal Pocapanishwong ................................................................................. 155

Naw Mar Lar ........................................................................................................... 156

Nay Htoo ................................................................................................................ 157

Nickey Diamond (Ye Myint Win) ............................................................................ 159

Nikos Dacanay ........................................................................................................ 160

Noriyuki Osada ....................................................................................................... 161

Nwe Nwe Lwin ....................................................................................................... 162

Nyi Nyi Kyaw .......................................................................................................... 163

Nyunt Nyunt Win ................................................................................................... 164

Ohnmar Khaing, ..................................................................................................... 165

Pakawadee Thongchompunuch ............................................................................. 167

Pamaree Surakiat ................................................................................................... 168



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Pansy Tun Thein ..................................................................................................... 169

Patchareepan Ravangban ...................................................................................... 171

Patrick Strefford ..................................................................................................... 172

Phyu Phyu Thi ......................................................................................................... 173

Pinitbhand Paribatra .............................................................................................. 174

Pongkwan Sawasdipakdi ........................................................................................ 175

Pyone Mjinzu Lwin ................................................................................................. 176

Qingsi Li .................................................................................................................. 177

Rajiv George Aricat & Rich Ling .............................................................................. 178

Richard Roewer & Amalie Weinrich ....................................................................... 179

Ricky Yue ................................................................................................................ 180

Ronan Lee............................................................................................................... 181

Saibhorn Biboribankul ............................................................................................ 183

Salai Myo Chit ........................................................................................................ 183

Salai Vanni Bawi ..................................................................................................... 185

Samak Kosem ......................................................................................................... 186

San Nan Shwe & Maung Hlaing ............................................................................. 187

Sandar Cho Oo ....................................................................................................... 188

Sandar Win ............................................................................................................. 189

Sang Hnin Lian ........................................................................................................ 190

Saw Frankie Abreu & Naw Moo Kho Paw .............................................................. 191

Saw Yu May ............................................................................................................ 192

Scott Jennings Melbourne ...................................................................................... 193

Shin Thin Tun.......................................................................................................... 194

Shirley Worland ...................................................................................................... 195

Shwe Zin Ko ............................................................................................................ 196

Shwe Zin Maw ........................................................................................................ 197

Sittiporn Netniyom ................................................................................................. 198

Soe Lynn Htwe ....................................................................................................... 199

Soe Soe Htway & Aye Sandar Phyo ...................................................................... 200

Somkid Saengchan ................................................................................................. 202

Sutthida Keereepaibhol ......................................................................................... 203

Sutthida Keereepaibhol ......................................................................................... 204

Tadayoshi Murakami .............................................................................................. 205

Takahiro Kojima ..................................................................................................... 206

Than Htay Oo ......................................................................................................... 207



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Than Pale ................................................................................................................ 209

Thanapas Dejpawuttikul ........................................................................................ 210

Thanda Soe & Amy Roberts ................................................................................... 211

Thant Zin & Myo Thu ............................................................................................. 212

Thapin Phatcharanuruk .......................................................................................... 213

Thar Win ................................................................................................................. 214

Thein Lwin .............................................................................................................. 215

Thelma Tun‐Thein .................................................................................................. 216

Thet Oo & Maung Hlaing ....................................................................................... 217

Thi Thi Thein ........................................................................................................... 219

Thida ...................................................................................................................... 220

Thidar Htwe Win .................................................................................................... 221

Thin Thin Aye ......................................................................................................... 222

Thin Thin Khaing ..................................................................................................... 223

Thomas F. Rhoden ................................................................................................. 224

Tin Maung Htwe ..................................................................................................... 225

Tithirat Pripotjanart ............................................................................................... 227

Tyler Davis .............................................................................................................. 228

Ubonrat Pantumin ................................................................................................. 229

Vinai Boonlue ......................................................................................................... 231

Wathanyoo Faktong ............................................................................................... 232

Wilasinie Sophaphol & Jaggapan Chadchumsang ................................................. 233

Win Naing Tun ........................................................................................................ 234

Win Win Soe ........................................................................................................... 235

Yadanar Aung ......................................................................................................... 236

Yee Yee Win ........................................................................................................... 237

Yi Li ......................................................................................................................... 238

Yuki Miyake ............................................................................................................ 239

Yuri Sadoi & Than Than Aung ................................................................................. 240

Yuttaporn Naksuk .................................................................................................. 242



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Abstracts: Pre‐conference Seminar: Contructing Knowledge on Transitional Myanmar

Aye Aye Oo ............................................................................................................. 244

Cathy Tun ............................................................................................................... 245

Hnin Moe Hlaing .................................................................................................... 246

Khin May Aung ....................................................................................................... 247

Khin Moe Moe Kyu ................................................................................................. 248

Khin Saw Nwe ........................................................................................................ 249

Lei Shwe Sin Myint ................................................................................................. 250

Lwin Lwin Mon ....................................................................................................... 251

Maw Maw Aye ....................................................................................................... 252

Mon Mon Aung ...................................................................................................... 253

Mu Mu Aye ............................................................................................................. 254

Myint Myint Than .................................................................................................. 255

Myo Nyunt Aung .................................................................................................... 256

Nyo Nyo & Soe Sanda San ...................................................................................... 257

Pale Aung ............................................................................................................... 258

Po Po Thaung Win .................................................................................................. 259

San San Wai ............................................................................................................ 260

Soe Thainkha & Zin Maung Maung ........................................................................ 261

Su Su Naing ............................................................................................................ 262

Thin Thin Aye ......................................................................................................... 263

Thin Thin Kyi ........................................................................................................... 264

Thu Nandar ............................................................................................................ 265

Tun Shwe ................................................................................................................ 266


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PLENARY

Transitional Myanmar and Reforms

Panel Convenor

Thein Swe, Economist/Affiliate Researcher, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Panel Description

Myanmar is the second largest country in ASEAN and the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia. It is situated in the strategic location at the intersection of the two dynamic economies of China and India with significant untapped fertile agricultural land and a rich endowment of natural resources, minerals, natural gas, and hydro potential, which makes it strategically the trading hub and supplier of natural resources for the entire region.

This plenary session will have five presentations from well-‐recognized experts on the challenges and opportunities in the field of economics, poverty alleviation programs, agriculture and rural economy, education law and democratic reforms in education, and on the country’s vibrant independent civil society. Myanmar is at the crucial period of a triple transition: (a) from an authoritarian military regime to democratic governance; (b) from a centrally administered economy to a market-‐oriented economy; and (c) from over 60 years of conflicts and civil wars to national reconciliation and peace both on its borders and within the country.

Panelists:

1. Aung Tun Thet, Economic Advisor to the President, Myanmar 2. Min Ye Paing Hein, World Bank Myanmar Office 3. Ohnmar Khaing, Food Security Working Group (FSWG) 4. Thein Lwin, National Network for Education Reform (NNER) 5. Khin Ohmar, Burma Partnership


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PLENARY

Building Myanmar’s Knowledge Sector: Challenges and Opportunities

Panel Convenor

Patrick McCormick, École française d’Extrême-‐Orient (EFEO), Yangon

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Panel Description

Myanmar has recently begun to open to outside development and research organizations. Conducting any kind of research faces a number of challenges: it can be difficult to find researchers in country with research, language, writing, and organizational skills. Educational opportunities and standards have been in decline over the past several decades. Access to people and research sites often requires bureaucratic challenges. Questions of permission and authority are often contested between upper and lower levels of administration. In most sectors, baseline data does not exist, making comparison of change, development, or the impacts of programming difficult to gauge over time.

Nevertheless, a number of local research organizations have persevered and, often working under the auspices of foreign funding organizations, have begun to build up a body of evidence-‐based research in such sectors as governance, education, livelihoods, health, and economics. A question that remains is, once research has been conducted, to what extent does it inform policy decisions, whether within the local government or international sector?

Each of the participants in this roundtable will reflect on such topics as:

• successes in the research that they and their institutions have conducted • challenges and blockages to doing research and building-‐up a knowledge

base


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• lessons learned • thoughts on ‘research uptake,’ and what role their research has played in

informing policy and programming • recommendations and advice on what is needed to move forward

Panelists:

1. Myat Thet Thitsar, Enlightened Myanmar Research 2. Myat Thu, Yangon School of Political Science 3. Zaw Oo, Myanmar Knowledge Society 4. Patrick McCormick, EFEO, Yangon 5. Matthew Arnold, Asia Foundation, Yangon


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ROUNDTABLE

Media and Its Role in Democratic Transition

Panel Convenor

Amporn Jirattikorn, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Panel Description

Since 1962, media of all forms in Myanmar, including print, broadcast, film, and online media, has undergone strict censorship and regulation. After democratic reforms were introduced in 2011, the Myanmar government began to gradually ease restrictions on media. The abolishment of censorship in 2012 was followed by the entries into Myanmar’s media scene of numerous daily and weekly newspapers, some of which are published online. Exile-‐based and ethnic media organizations have also started gaining a foothold inside the country by participating legally in Myanmar’s media sphere.

Despite such positive changes, however, challenges are faced by both parties — the government and media organizations. While the Myanmar government has been criticized for taking a step backward in efforts at media reform by becoming increasingly watchful over the media, the media organizations themselves face criticism in terms of their inexperience, reporting of sensational news, and attempting to stimulate ethno-‐religious nationalist sentiment. The papers in this panel discuss the issues of media and its role in democratic transition in Myanmar from different platforms, including print, social media, ethnic media, and films.

Panelists:

1. Aung Zaw, Editor-‐in-‐Chief of The Irrawaddy 2. Mon Mon Myat, Independent Writer/Journalist, Executive Director of Human Dignity Film Institute (HDFI) 3. Soe Lynn Htwe, Democratic Voice of Burma 4. Min Htin Ko Ko Gyi, Filmmaker, Human Dignity Film Institute (HDFI)


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ROUNDTABLE

Recognise Our Education, Realise Our Dreams: Education, Myanmar, and Marginality

Panel Convenor

Decha Tangseefa, Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Panel Description

With the string of “temporary shelter areas” along the Thai-‐Burmese borderland soon to be closed down and shelter residents therein repatriated to Burma/Myanmar, many questions hang in the air for all concerned parties. One of them is about the future of the many young people both in those shelter areas and outside who have lived in Thailand for many years. Within this context, the aims of this roundtable session are twofold: first, to provide an update on key situations regarding youth and education along the borderland, as well as within Burma/ Myanmar; and second, to remind academics working on Burmese/Myanmar studies how vital it is to conduct research on youth and education. This session will begin with a screening of the film, Recognise Our Education, Realise Our Dreams: Education, Myanmar, and Marginality. The roundtable will feature Timothy Syrota (the film’s director), Andrea Costa (Save the Children), Dr. Thein Lwin (NNER-‐National Network for Education Reform), and Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut (BEAM Education Foundation).

Panelists:

1. Timothy Syrota, Filmmaker 2. Thein Lwin, NNER National Network for Education Reform 3. Andrea Costa, Save the Children 4. Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut, BEAM Education Foundation


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ROUNDTABLE

Migrants, Disease, and Ecology: Policy Engagements for Transnational Sustainability

Panel Convenor


-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Panel Description

The Thai-‐Burmese borderland has been a spectacular ‘contact zone’ for peoples, culture, capital, and disease throughout its history. With degrading ecological richness as its backdrop, all these transnational forces have entwined like brush strokes coloring this space in-‐between. At present, it has become one of the most exciting borderlands in Asia, albeit one raising many concerns. Until Burma/ Myanmar’s historic election on November 7, 2010, thoughts regarding the borderland had predominantly been scripted with ethnic strife, war, and/or dictatorship. However, forced migration to Thailand due to war and dictatorship is, for the most part, not the norm of the day. Aspiration for economic prosperity greatly relying on cheap migrant workers — documented or otherwise — has been the dominant social beat of the borderland’s lifeworlds. With the advents of the Mae Sot Special Economic Cone, as well as the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), the borderland’s social fabric is tremendously transforming at a rate and extent never previously imagined.

Juxtaposing these transnational forces with the nation-‐state’s raison d'être amidst the AEC’s aspiration, this roundtable hopes to shed light on what could be termed a paradox of security along the borderland by asking two questions. First, how will the lives of migrants, diseases, and ecology be amongst the brush works of Thailand, Burma/Myanmar, and ASEAN? Second, what are key policy interventions that must be carried on so that transnational sustainability is possible? The roundtable will feature three trailblazers whose works and lives have been for the


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common good of either the Thai-‐Burmese borderland or parts of Southeast Asia for nearly three decades. Dr. Cynthia Maung, Director of Mae Tao Clinic and the prominent leader of the borderland’s civil society, will focus her talk on the lives of migrants along the border since the clinic was established in 1989. Dr. François Nosten, the Shoklo Malaria Research Unit’s director, will primarily talk about varieties of disease from his unit’s and its allies’ many research projects, as well as medical interventions since 1986. Based on his work as a member of the green movement in this region since 1986, Mr. Witoon Permpongsachareon, Director of the Mekong Energy and Ecology Network, will touch upon the ecological fragility of the Thai-‐Burmese borderland.

Panelists:

Cynthia Maung, Director of Mae Tao Clinic François Nosten, Shoklo Malaria Research Unit Witoon Permpongsachareon, Mekong Energy and Ecology Network


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ROUNDTABLE

Land Confiscation in Burma: Challenges and Prospects A Discussion on the Impact of Post-‐Ceasefire Development

in Burma's Ethnic Lands

Panel Convenor

Karen Human Rights Group -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Panel Description

Land grabbing has emerged as one of the most challenging issues to face Burma since the beginning of the so-‐called democratic transition. For decades, the military directly confiscated villagers’ farmland for military bases, road construction, or economic ventures, often followed by forced labor, sexual violence, and other human rights violations. Under the current reform strategy, land grabs by both domestic and foreign companies for agribusiness, energy production, resource extraction, and development projects have dramatically increased. These unscrupulous land deals, often involving bribery and falsified documents, are especially concentrated in ethnic areas, where preliminary bilateral ceasefires have attracted investors to resource-‐rich lands.

This panel features ethnic civil society activists who will discuss land confiscation and human rights trends in Burma. They will utilize case studies to present the impact of land confiscation on community livelihoods, the environment, and the peace process, and also explore possible solutions to Burma’s land crisis, such as policymaking and local organizing.

Panelists:

Moderator: Nadia Hardmann, Karen Human Rights Group

1. Paul Sein Twa, Karen Environment Social Action Network 2. Way Lay, Advocacy Coordinator of Karen Human Rights Group 3. Khun Oo, Pa Oh Youth Organisation 4. Jessica N-‐Hkum, Kachin Women’s Association of Thailand


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ROUNDTABLE

Peace Process in Myanmar: An Update and The Way Forward

Panel Convenor

Harn Yawnghwe, Euro-‐Burma Office

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Roundtable I – An Update on the Peace Process

The peace process in Myanmar involves multiple stakeholders, including 21 ethnic armed organizations, with varying agendas. The process is difficult for outsiders to understand, let alone assess the impact or prospects for sustainable peace. Reading about the process in the media often gives a rather confused and negative perspective. What are the key issues at stake? Is the peace process simply a government attempt to gain legitimacy? Why are some ethnic armed organizations so positive about the process while others remain skeptical? Are there hidden agendas involved? What is actually happening, and what concessions have the ethnic armed organizations gained?

Panelists:

Moderator: Khuensai Jaiyen, Pyidaungsu Institute

1. Representative from EAO Senior Delegation 2. Min Zaw Oo, Myanmar Peace Center 3. National League for Democracy representative 4. Hla Saw, Nationalities Brotherhood Federation 5. Kaw Seng, Airavati Institute


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Roundtable II – The Way Forward

Will the highly-‐touted Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement be signed? How will it affect the upcoming elections? Will there be a political dialogue? Roundtable II will attempt to provide an overall view of the process, what the key stakeholders are contemplating, and what can be expected prior to the 2015 elections. Panelists:

Moderator: Chayan Vaddhanaphuti, RCSD, Chiang Mai University

1. Johannes Siebert, Common Space Initiative -‐ Lebanon 2. Ashley South, Chiang Mai University 3. Lian Sakhong, NCCT member 4. Aung Naing Oo, Myanmar Peace Center 5. Harn Yawnghwe, Euro-‐Burma Office


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PANEL

Human Rights and Social Suffering among the Minorities

Panel Coordinator

Alexander Horstmann, University of Copenhagen

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Panel Description

Civil war and human unrest have produced displacement, collapse of the social fabric of society, and lasting trauma. The opening of Myanmar is characterized by new struggles for poor people confronted with emerging capitalist forces and state development. New ethno-‐nationalism and anti-‐Muslim propaganda has also been part of the transition. This panel seeks to engage current dynamics in human rights abuses and the changing state. The participants will discuss the roots of the problems, the social suffering minorities have endured, and current developments for the defense of human rights by grassroots civil society organizations.

Panelists:

1. Alexander Horstmann, University of Copenhagen 2. Nikey Diamond, Mahidol University 3. Vinai Boonlue, Chiang Mai University 4. Carl Grundy-‐Warr, National University of Singapore 5. Samak Kosem, Chiang Mai University 6. Nyi Nyi Kyaw, University of New South Wales


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PANEL

Religions from the Margin: Religious Movements across Thailand-‐China-‐Myanmar Borders

Panel Coordinator

Amporn Jirattikorn, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

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Panel Description: While recent scholarship on religion in Myanmar tends to focus on religion’s role in politics and its involvement in the current ethno-‐religious conflicts, this panel attempts to bring together different religious movements across the borderlands of Myanmar. Rather than being peripheral, religious practices and influences in the border regions are central to our understanding of ethnic minorities’ identities. The four papers in this panel seek to interrogate how people living around the borders identify themselves religiously, and how they have been able to foster ethnic identity and politics across borders.

Panelists:

1. Amporn Jirattikorn, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University 2. Tadayoshi Murakami, School of Language and Culture, Osaka University, Japan 3. Takahiro Kojima, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Japan 4. Kwanchewan Buadaeng, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University


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PANEL

Ethnic Politics and Citizenship

Panel Coordinator

Ashley South, Chiang Mai University, Centre for Ethnic Studies and Development

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Panel Description:

Since the new government assumed power in April 2011, Myanmar (Burma) has been going through a period of profound — albeit deeply contested — transition. This conference occurs in the period prior to elections, expected to be held in November 2015. If these polls are regarded as (relatively) ‘free and fair’, the 2015 elections will be a watershed for the country's political history. In the context of the forthcoming elections, recent debates in Myanmar have focused on the nature of citizenship. Who is a 'legitimate' citizen of the Union, and can vote? How can ethnic nationality/minority communities’ identities and interests best be represented — through national-‐level political organisations, or through specifically ethnic parties? How are issues of concern to ethnic nationality communities best addressed — through parliamentary politics, or through extra-‐parliamentary processes (e.g., in the context of the peace process)?

Over the past three years, one of the military-‐backed government's most substantial achievements has been to initiate a peace process, leading to a series of agreements with a range of ethnic armed groups — and perhaps also to a multilateral Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (which at the time of the conference is still in draft form). Participants in the peace process intend the next step to include multi-‐stakeholder political dialogues, at the sub-‐national and Union levels, towards re-‐negotiating state-‐society relations in Myanmar, and ultimately changing the constitution (which is also the aim of key actors in the electoral process, including the National League for Democracy). The peace process, and any future national political dialogue, raises questions about the relationship between citizens (particularly — but not only — ethnic nationality communities) and a state


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which has historically been dominated by a Burman elite. Ethnic nationality elites have articulated credible agendas for greater self-‐determination, equity in resource management and wealth-‐sharing, and autonomy within a federal union of Myanmar. (How) is it possible for individuals and communities to identify with one (or more?) distinct ethnic identities, and/or as a citizen of a multi-‐ethnic union? To what extent can the peace process, as currently configured or in a future iteration, address such issues?

This panel will reflect on notions of ethnic identity and citizenship in the context of contested social and political transition in Myanmar. Individual papers will report on the findings of a survey into the meaning/s of citizenship in contemporary Myanmar, and in particular the roles of religion; the situation of, and future status and options for, 'ordinary' (non-‐elite) members of ethnic armed groups; competing narratives of identity and citizenship in the context of Buddhist-‐Muslim and Rakhine-‐Rohingya tensions; and scenarios and themes looking forward in the context of various proposed frameworks for political dialogue.

Panelists:

1. Martin Smith, independent political analyst 2. Matthew Walton, St. Antony's College, University of Oxford 3. Marie Lall, Reader in Education and South Asian Studies, University of London 4. Helene Kyed, Danish Institute of International Studies 5. Ardeth Thawnghmung, University of Massachusetts, Lowell


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PANEL

Health and Community Engagement along the Thai-‐Burmese Borderland

Panel Coordinator


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Panel Description:

This panel will discuss the intertwining relations of three notions along the Thai-‐Burmese borderland: community, engagement, and health. Based on two research projects aimed at supporting health interventions both along the borderland and beyond (i.e., Burma/Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Bangladesh), papers presented in this panel will: first, explore the confounding togetherness of “community”; and second, articulate complicated health interventions in the name of “engagement.” In this process, this panel will also evince why it is critical that scientists and social scientists work together when the long-‐term health and well-‐being of marginalized peoples are at stake. While recent emergence of Artemisinin-‐resistant P. falciparum strains is of highest concern in quite a few areas of Southeast and South Asia, ethical and effective interventions with a variety of marginalized peoples are impossible without solid understanding of such intertwining relations of community, engagement, and health.

Panelists:

1. Decha Tangseefa, Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University 2. Krishna Monthathip, Department of Critical International Politics, Aberystwyth University


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PANEL

A Work in Progress — Mae Sot SEZ: Migrant Workers, the Thai State, and Globalization

Panel Coordinator


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Panel Description:

This panel will address the intertwining relations of four dimensions: special economic zone (SEZ), migrant workers, the Thai state, and globalization. Through the case of the Mae Sot SEZ, this work-‐in-‐progress panel is based on a research project that asks two questions: first, how is the Thai nation-‐state positioning itself in a changing landscape of globalization and regionalism?; and second, how do migrant workers perceive their relationship with this changing landscape?

Panelists:

1. Decha Tangseefa, Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University 2. Charlie Thame, Global Studies at Thammasat University 3. Pinitbhand Paribatra, Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University


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PANEL

(Il-‐)licit economies in Shan State: Opium Cultivation and Agrarian Transformations in Shan State, Myanmar

Panel Coordinators

John Buchanan, University of Washington, Seattle

Kevin Woods, University of California, Berkeley; Research Fellow, ISS/CMU

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Panel Description

This panel takes a fresh look at the dynamic forces that have accounted for the fluctuation in opium production in the Shan State, both historically and currently. Beginning in the 1950s, the agricultural sector of Shan State underwent a dramatic reorientation in which opium became the most important cash crop, wed to the rise of the plethora of non-‐state armed groups operating in the Shan State. Over the last decade, however, Shan State has experienced a gradual rise in opium production. This increase comes at a revealing time when the new government has made poverty alleviation and agricultural industrialisation its top priorities, and land grabs, debt, and dispossession have reached crisis levels.

The multifaceted factors that account for the shifts in opium production are not well understood in part because independent researchers have lacked access to the opium-‐producing areas of Shan State for the last five decades. This panel therefore explores the interplay between the illicit/semi-‐licit opium economy with that of household licit economic activities, such as rubber and maize cash cropping, non-‐timber forest product collection, and on-‐/off-‐farm labour. Coping mechanisms to disenfranchisement and dispossession therefore offer a more robust understanding of these dynamic intersections between cropping strategies, both licit and the illegal. These dynamics are especially important to understand as Myanmar undergoes crucial transformations during the current neoliberal reform period in Myanmar that is applying new pressures to rural farm households.


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Papers will push beyond explanations focused on economic factors of poverty and greed to explain the rise of opium, and instead incorporate a more comprehensive critical political economy approach to understand why individual farmers make the decision to include opium cultivation in their repertoire of crops.

A more broad multi-‐disciplinary approach will enable consideration of such factors as agribusiness land grabs, differential dispossessory effects from industrial cash cropping by smallholders, agro-‐ecological factors such as a depleting resource base to absorb economic shocks, changes in the dynamic of ethnic armed conflict, and political will to enforce opium bans, among others. The panel favours empirical field work in Shan State examining various facets of changing agrarian conditions to better explain current opium economy trends beyond the more simplistic apolitical and technical narrative of poor backwards farmers or greedy armed groups.

Panelists:

1. Khun Moe Htun, Chiang Mai University 2. John Buchanan, University of Washington, Seattle 3. Kevin Woods, University of California, Berkeley; Research Fellow, ISS/CMU


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PANEL

Structures of Rural Dispossession and Resistances: Agrarian Political Economies, Land Grabs and Debt

in Rural Myanmar

Panel Coordinator:

Kevin Woods, Research Fellow, ISS -‐ The Hague and RCSD, Chiang Mai University University of California, Berkeley

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Panel Description:

The heart of Myanmar has always been the rural countryside of smallholders engaged in household agricultural production and reliant upon collective forests, water, and other resources for economic and socio-‐cultural activities. Despite the pulse of the country, decades of military control and mismanagement over rural farm and forest-‐based livelihoods, crony capitalism, and now neoliberal reform have continued to squeeze rural populations from their land and resource bases. Military confiscations of rural household and village land, and now by non-‐state armed groups and businessmen, backed by new land and investment related laws, have created the conditions for a “land grab” pandemic across rural Myanmar. These forced land confiscations legitimated by the discourse of industrialisation, national economic growth, and poverty alleviation occur within an on-‐going context of urban bias against rural populations along the lines of race/ethnicity, religion, and class. Moreover, many rural ethnic communities are just beginning to recover from civil war, while others are being thrown back into it as part of long-‐standing ethnic-‐political conflict anchored in contestations over resource rights, territories, and self-‐determination over forms of development and governance.

These complex layers of contestation over resource rights together have structured forms of agrarian access and dispossession — and resistances — but which go beyond the oversimplified narrative of “land grabs.” Myanmar’s particular agrarian political economies rooted in armed conflicts, drugs, and urban


35

prejudices are now undergoing a second agrarian transformation from neoliberal restructuring backed by a “rule of law” constructed to reallocate land and resources to the private sector to spark industrialisation and modernisation of the national economy. While some smallholders are evicted from their land to make way for private large-‐scale land concessions, others are being increasingly inserted into global food and feed supply chains. New regional/global agricultural commodity markets are presenting greater economic opportunities to better-‐off rural farm households, but are subsequently increasing poor household vulnerabilities to a cash crop economy without safety nets or a fair and equitable playing field. Widespread dispossession from rural farm debt — in effect going beyond “land grabs” — therefore requires further attention and research, especially from the perspective of changing land and resource rights and access, and the role of illicit economies as resistance to dispossession.

This panel brings together field research(ers) drawing from a variety of geographies, (sub-‐)disciplines, and theories/methods to critically examine varied forms of rural dispossession and resistances in Myanmar, and what this means for the future of the country’s rural farm population, livelihoods, and (armed) conflicts.

Panelists:

1. L Gum Ja Htung, Chiang Mai University 2. La Ring, Chiang Mai University 3. Kevin Woods, University of California -‐ Berkeley 4. Soe Soe Htway, Asian Institute of Technology


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PANEL

Struggling in Dispossession and Displacement: Ethnic Peoples’ Networking, Identification,

and Livelihood Strategies

Panel Coordinators

Kwanchewan Buadaeng, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

Nongyao Nawarat, Faculty of Education, Chiang Mai University

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Panel Description:

In the past 30 years, the Myanmar state has introduced new policies and programs in economics, politics, and other social enterprises. The country has accelerated industrialization and commercialization with immense foreign investment, as we can see, for example, with the establishment of industrial zones in many regions and the intensive extraction of natural resources and power for sale to other countries. At the same time, political initiatives to end ethnic conflict have been launched, but concrete solutions to problems experienced by refugees living in camps for nearly 30 years have not yet been realized. Moreover, fighting with ethnic groups’ armies has not completely stopped. This changing context in Myanmar has had impacts on the lives of marginalized people, including ethnic minorities living in rural and hilly areas, as represented by the presenters of this panel.

The papers deal with migrants, refugees, and IDPs from diverse ethnic backgrounds — namely Rohingya, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Rakhine peoples. Migrants include those in Thailand, as in the case of Burman and Rohingya migrants in Ranong and Mae Sot; Chin migrants in Western countries; and Rakhine urban migrants in the suburbs of Yangon. Karen refugees are those residing in a refugee camp along Thai-‐Myanmar border, and Kachin displaced people in an IDP


37

camp close to the China border. The lives of these displaced peoples are often miserable, as many of them are neither registered nor legalized. Thus, their rights are frequently violated with impunity. They have to work hard and lead meager lives as their wages are lower than the established minimum without any welfare. Consequently, access to health, education, and other public services is limited. Worse, the prejudice toward ethnic minorities and migrants leads to discrimination, harassment, and violence.

However, despite all the difficulties encountered, displaced people from Myanmar have struggled to make their lives better materially and spiritually. They create, expand, and utilize their networks, develop local and trans-‐local strategies to maintain their livelihoods, create religious and knowledge spheres, and re-‐identify themselves to increase their credit and to empower themselves. Interestingly, migrant networks and organizations do not just help individuals to uplift their income and status. They also work for the welfare and development of the entire migrant community, both in foreign countries and back in their homeland of Myanmar.

Panelists:

1. Aung Myo Min, RCSD, Chiang Mai University 2. Cung Lian Hu, RCSD, Chiang Mai University 3. Nattchawal Pocapanishwong, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Ubon Ratchathani University 4. Kunnawut Boonreak, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University


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PANEL

Geographical Perspectives on Myanmar’s Transition: Towards Sustainable Socio-‐Economic Development

Panel Coordinator

Maung Maung Aye, Myanmar Environment Institute, Yangon

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Panel Description:

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar emerges from decades of isolation with much hope and support from the global and regional communities. Myanmar has high potential for rapid growth and development given its rich natural resources, abundant labor force, and strategic location between the region’s two economic giants — the People’s Republic of China and India. Many lessons can be drawn from the development experiences of Myanmar’s neighbors, and can help guide its economic transition to achieve strong and inclusive growth while avoiding social instability and ensuring environmental sustainability. Greater regional cooperation can unlock the growth potential arising from increased trade and cross-‐border investment. Myanmar can strengthen its ties with ASEAN and utilize its unique geographic position as a bridge between South Asia and Southeast Asia, which will offer a range of new opportunities. Working in cooperation with other countries will provide a solid platform for Myanmar’s renaissance. Myanmar is set to chart a course that takes into account its strengths and weaknesses, while leveraging the available opportunities and avoiding the potential risks. Myanmar can also position itself strategically in the rapidly changing global and regional environment to benefit from its advantages. This panel session is intended to assess Myanmar’s economic and social prospects as it embarks on a new era of reform and renewal. Hopefully, the panel will broaden and deepen the understanding of Myanmar and provide a foundation for effective development assistance.


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Panelists:

1. Maung Maung Aye, Myanmar Environment Institute (MEI), Yangon 2. Win Naing Tun, Myanmar Environment Institute (MEI) 3. Saw Yu May, Department of Geography, University of Yangon 4. Thin Thin Khaing, Department of Geography, University of Yangon


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PANEL

Tanintharyi Region in Transition: Transnational Dynamics and Local Responses

Panel Coordinator

Naruemon Thabchumpon, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

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Panel Description:

Myanmar’s stumbling political transformation towards democracy since 2010 and a liberalizing economy has held profound implications for Tanintharyi Region in Southern Myanmar, which borders Thailand to the east and the Andaman Sea to the west. Many people of the region have experienced a history of violent conflict between the Karen National Union (KNU) and the Myanmar military (Tatmadaw) that was subject to a Ceasefire Agreement in 2012, and that has fundamentally shaped the subsequent political, social and economic transformation.

A number of rapid and profound changes are now underway. The preliminary stages of a “roadlink” project to connect Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, to Dawei town, under construction since 2012, has significantly changed transportation access, and facilitated a growing cross-‐border trade with Thailand. The “roadlink” – presently only in access road form – ends at the Dawei Special Economic Zone (SEZ), which has been planned since 2008 by the Thai construction company Ital-‐Thai Development Corporation under Myanmar’s previous military government, but was redesigned as a government-‐to-‐government project between Myanmar and Thailand in 2013. The Dawei SEZ and roadlink have been highly contested in terms of their impact on local communities due to uncompensated loss of land and other impacts of resettlement, livelihood, and culture, as well as overall weak public participation. The project was originally envisioned by its proponents to be the largest petrochemical industrial estate in Southeast Asia, but is currently under construction in a heavily scaled-‐back form, at least for the time


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being. Meanwhile, accelerating investments in agribusiness (including rubber and corn) and large mines (coal and tin) by domestic elites and investors, largely from Thailand, are transforming local economies across the Tanintharyi Region, yet also have often held serious and negative implications for local people’s access to, and control of, natural resources.

These various domestic and transnational investments have evoked responses by local community groups and various civil societies seeking to defend their right to livelihood, access to natural resources, and ultimately voice in any development process that affects them. In response to the transnational nature both of the investment and wider economic vision that it reflects, these groups have also built trans-‐border collaborations with Thai civil society.

In the context of Myanmar’s ongoing peace negotiations and the anticipation of an election in late 2015, together with the evolving relationship between Myanmar and Thailand (and Thailand’s own domestic politics), the papers in this panel argue that a process of conflict transformation has occurred where violent conflict has been replaced with escalating conflict over access to and control over economic resources in Tanintharyi Region — in particular land, minerals, and other natural resources. The panel will reflect on the meaning of ‘development’ in Tanintharyi Region, how it should unfold, and whose opinion counts. In doing so, the panel will highlight the responses of local community and civil society in Tanintharyi Region and their trans-‐border collaborations.

Panelists: 1. Naruemon Thabchumpon, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

2. Carl Middleton, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

3. Fransiskus Adrian Tarmedi, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

4. Surada Chundasutathanakul, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

5. Thant Zin, Dawei Development Association (DDA)

6. Myo Thu, Dawei Development Association (DDA)

7. Saw Frankie Abreu, Tenasserim River and Indigenous People Networks (TRIP NET)

8. Naw Moo Kho Paw, Tenasserim River and Indigenous People Network (TRIP NET)

9. Areewan Areewan Sombunwatthanakun, Spirit in Education Movement (SEM)

10. Luntharima Longcharoen, Towards Ecological Recovery Regional Alliance (TERRA)


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PANEL

Thai-‐Burma Cross-‐Border Education Linkages: Pathways to Developing an Effective, Accredited Education

for Migrant Children and Youth from Burma

Panel Coordinator

Shirley Worland, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University

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Panel Description

This panel will deliver a whole picture of migrant education in Thailand, including strategies for education reform at primary and secondary levels for migrant children and youth from Burma currently studying in Thailand. These strategies focus on recognition of current learning in Thailand and prospects for continued learning if they are to return to Burma.

A picture will be presented in four parts, a continuum of a whole. Shirley Worland will begin by introducing the latest developments in migrant education in Thailand, covering Thai education policy, rights documents, and strategies for sustainability of the migrant education system in Thailand.

Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut will then present the current strategic plan of the Migrant Education Integration Initiative, a grassroots organization with support from UNESCO Thailand – giving the view from both sides of the border.

Our third panel member will then give an overview of the current education reform developments in Burma. He will highlight the current situation, which has led to student protests in Yangon and Mandalay, and outline strategies for education reform from the Burma side for returning migrants from Thailand.

The panel presentation will conclude with Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut presenting the way forward, with a focus on the aims, purpose, and remit of the new Bridging Education Access for Migrants (BEAM) office just opened in Yangon.


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In this way, a total view of migrant education as it stands now and how it is envisaged to be in the future on both sides of the border will be presented.

Panelists:

1. Shirley Worland, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University 2. Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut, BEAM Education Foundation 3. Soe Tun, National Network of Education Reform (NNER) 4. Nang Htay Aung


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PANEL

Media, Culture, and Everyday Life in a Regionalising Myanmar

Panel Coordinator

Wasan Panyagaew, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Chiang Mai University

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Panel Description:

Since the beginning of this century, Myanmar has become increasingly integrated into the outside world. The country has not only been ‘re-‐formed’ politically and economically, but also re-‐invented culturally. These processes have led to changes in people’s ways of life, in particular the daily lives of ordinary peoples in Myanmar that have become more mediated via mass media and information technology to its neighbors and a global community. Based on fieldwork conducted in several places in central Myanmar, namely Taungoo, Yangon, and Pyay, the papers in this panel will explore contemporary cultures, religious activities, and media consumption that have become embedded in the lives of the people in a regionalizing Myanmar.

Panelists:

1. Chan Myawe Aung Sun, RCSD, Chiang Mai University 2. Gerard McCarthy, The Australian National University 3. Mimi Cho, RCSD alumni, Chiang Mai University 4. Wasan Panyagaew, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University


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PANEL

Foreign Aid and Local Response in a Post-‐Conflict State

Panel Coordinator

Yuki Miyake, School of Social Innovation, Mae Fah Luang University

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Panel Description:

After many decades of internal conflict, Myanmar formed a new administration in March 2011. The country has been moving toward democratization, national reconciliation, and economic liberalization ever since. In response to such progress, international development organizations, whether private or public, have sought ways to support the country and implement development projects in many fields. It is true that social, economic, and political developments are important for post-‐conflict states to prevent a return to violent conflict situations. However, Myanmar’s unique context as a post-‐conflict state, as well as political uncertainty even today, make issues of aid transparency, aid effectiveness, and distribution of benefits by aid projects difficult and challenging.

In this panel, we address four case studies of development projects and their challenges in the post-‐conflict state of Burma/Myanmar. The first paper investigates the post-‐2010 peace process initiated by the Japanese Official Development Assistance (ODA). Without a lasting peace with ethnic minority groups, any future administration will have difficulty ensuring nationwide buy-‐in for its reform agenda and provision of political stability. Therefore, investigating the role of Japan, as a mediator to bolster the basic level of practical knowledge and sound and prudent judgment, is the primary objective of this paper.

The second paper examines the Dawei Special Economic Zone project in Southern Myanmar, initiated by Thailand in 2008. If the project is realized, it would be one of the largest petrochemical industrial estates in Southeast Asia. With a survey of 20 villages, including 1,583 households in total, the paper introduces voices of the local people, with a major conclusion that land is a critical livelihood asset for the locals.


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While the second project is coordinated by a new aid donor, Thailand, the third paper focuses on a similar infrastructure development project in the Thilawa area, provided by traditional aid donor Japan since 2013. As is the case with the Dawei, it also aroused anxieties and criticism from the local residents due to involuntary relocation and the loss of livelihood. Thus, above and beyond the investigation of the project’s impact on local livelihoods, the paper explores the reaction and response of the locals toward the project.

Lastly, different from the above-‐mentioned three cases that focus on state-‐led development projects that are often controversial, the last project addresses the successful case led by international NGOs. It is a five-‐year civic education initiative in partnership with local communities targeting youth throughout Myanmar. The aim has been to strengthen youth capacity and facilitate sustained engagement with the country’s reform process by developing local resources and structuralizing networks pushing for a national youth policy.

Burma’s transition and challenges toward democracy have just begun, and the country will certainly receive additional foreign aid in the future. Therefore, we hope to use this panel as an opportunity to think about the effectiveness of foreign aid, as well as the possible development projects in Burma/Myanmar for years to come.

Panelists:

1. Khen Suan Khai, Mae Fah Luang University 2. Luntharimar Longcharoen, Independent researcher 3. Yuki Miyake, Mae Fah Luang University 4. Chirada Na Suwan, Mae Fah Luang University


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Expected but Permanent?: The Tatmadaw’s Continued Political Involvement in Myanmar

Adam P. MacDonald Independent Academic

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Tatmadaw remains the most powerful political entity in Myanmar, motivated to preserve four core interests regardless of other changes to the state and society: maintenance of complete institutional autonomy and independence; exclusive control over security portfolios; veto powers over constitutional change; and inhibiting prosecution for actions conducted during the Junta era. These interests are embedded within and supported by a praetorian ethos pillared upon a national security narrative justifying the military’s ongoing political involvement while the democratic process continues to mature, including past the upcoming parliamentary elections scheduled for November 2015. New institutions and practices, however, have now opened the political realm in unprecedented ways. Within this increasingly shifting political landscape, the unity and coherence of the regime — the military and their retired brethren in charge of the executive and parliament — to maintain power has become uncertain due to the large-‐scale manipulations of the electoral and democratic processes which would be required to ensure their rule. Military intervention cannot be ruled out, but the Tatmadaw is reluctant to overtly and aggressively reintroduce itself politically, unless it feels its core interests will be irrevocably and immediately compromised by a new government. With their roles and responsibilities protected, the military may feel they can control, or at least marginalize, a parliament and/or government hostile to its interests. The 2015 elections will not, therefore, mark the end of the military’s preponderant political influence, but will continue to erode their control over the pathways of political power and may bring about the first truly civilian-‐military government in the country’s long transition away from military rule — a significant milestone, as those outside the old, yet still influential, military regime gain access to begrudgingly-‐ceded power.


48

Natural Resource Use and Environmental Governance in Myanmar

Adam Simpson Centre for Peace and Security, University of South Australia

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The struggle between environmental protection and the exploitation of natural resources in Myanmar has historically been overwhelmingly skewed towards the latter. In many ways, the avaricious depletion of Myanmar’s natural resources has only been limited by the capacity of the military state and its associated companies. In some ethnic minority areas, conflict zones have reduced the opportunities for resource extraction, while in others, ethnic groups have exploited resources to fund their insurgencies. While ceasefires are providing new opportunities for exploitation, a new national environmental protection regime is also emerging to promote values associated with environmental protection and more sustainable economic development. In addition, international resource governance regimes, such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), are providing international oversight of domestic resource governance processes to ensure civil society participation. The success or failure of these developments will help determine the equity and sustainability of future natural resource development in Myanmar. This paper assesses the progress, likely success, and implications of these emerging regimes.

Keywords: natural resources, environmental governance, governance, Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)


49

Language Vitality among the Akha in Myanmar

Ah Suhn Ghoemeh Linguistics Department, Payap University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The spread of telecommunications networks and the growth in cross-‐border trade and travel bring minority language communities in Myanmar into ever-‐greater contact with external influences, presenting those communities with new choices and new challenges for their language, culture, and group identities. In this context, it is important for a community to be able to assess the vitality of their language at the present moment, as well as the likely direction of movement in coming years.

This paper describes a sociolinguistic study of language vitality of the Akha communities in Eastern Shan State, Myanmar. Fieldwork involved data collection in 18 Akha villages from April to July 2014. Age, gender and religious affiliation were factors used in the research design. The Extended Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) (Lewis & Simons 2015:104-‐117) was used to characterise language vitality, and the FAMED conditions (Lewis & Simons 2015:159-‐189) were used to assess the extent to which the current level of vitality is sustainable.

Overall, Akha language vitality was assessed at EGIDS level 5: “The language is used orally by all generations and is effectively used in written form in parts of the community” (Lewis & Simons 2010:110). The study found considerable dissimilarities between different villages, with religious affiliation a major predictor of literacy proficiency and usage. The role of the non-‐formal literacy program operating in Christian villages in sustaining the current level of vitality will be discussed.


50

The Ant Army: A Significant Mechanism of Thailand-‐Myanmar

Illegal Trade, 1988–2012

Akkanut Wantanasombut Southeast Asian Studies Program, Chulalongkorn University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

‘Ant Army’ is a general term that the Thai authorities use to refer to an individual or a group of people involved in smuggling activities, such as people who have been employed to carry goods across the border and along river and hill paths, back-‐and-‐forth without going through the customs declaration process so as to avoid tariffs and taxes. They move in the same manner as ants that always carry food back to their habitats.

In 1988, the military regime that had ruled Myanmar since 1962 stepped down following nationwide protest, known as the ‘8888 Uprising.’ However, another group of soldiers, the so-‐called State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) stepped in. It was also in 1988 that Thailand, under Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan, implemented a new policy “from a battlefield into a market place” to promote regional trade between Thailand and its neighboring countries. Thailand-‐Myanmar border trade had reached a crucial turning point.

This paper studies the causes and processes of the illegal trade along Thai-‐Myanmar border. Several theories have been used to explain these phenomena. World-‐system analysis is used to elaborate the economic relationship between Thailand and Myanmar; smuggling theory is used to explain how the smuggling was conducted; and finally, rational choice theory is used to explain how economic cooperation among ethnic groups and Burmese authorities continues amid their political conflicts.

Fieldwork primarily took place in Mae Sot and various places along the Thailand-‐Myanmar border, as well as in several of Myanmar’s major cities, such as Yangon, Mandalay, Mawlamyine, and Hpa-‐An, to observe the smuggled goods’ destinations and their routes from Mae Sot to Mawlamyine.

Keywords: ant army, smuggling, border trade, Thailand-‐Myanmar trade, black market


51

Human Rights and Social Suffering of the Karen –

A Vernacular Perspective

Alexander Horstmann University of Copenhagen

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract This article argues that contestation is involved in the provision of minority rights to Karen refugees in Thai-‐Burmese border spaces. Players who operate in the political economy of rights include community based organizations, the KNU, international humanitarian organizations, faith-‐based humanitarian organizations, local human rights groups, and Christian missionary networks. In the unfolding conflict in Karen State, Southeastern Burma (Myanmar), there are different constructions and revitalizations of Karen culture that are associated with powerful actors and entitlements. Karen culture has been strongly associated with Karen nationalism. It has been invented, essentialized, minoritized, and packaged to appeal to a Western élite and to Western donors. The unified construction of Karen culture overshadows the differences within the Karen people. It is then presented to Western donor organizations and the media in order to mobilize support for the KNU. This paper utilizes Merry’s argument which deals with social movements and community based organizations translating and vernacularizing international legal frameworks. With that, the paper makes a first attempt to interface local human rights groups, international humanitarian NGOs, faith-‐based NGOs, and local evangelists with internally displaced Karen villagers in Southeast Burma and in Northwestern Thailand. This paper argues that Karen villagers affected by the violence are able to connect to the humanitarian sector as a third or non-‐state space so as to negotiate their needs. Thus, the transnational human rights discourse and humanitarian sector has been vernacularized by displaced Karen people in Thailand and Burma. Such vernacularization is used to resist abuses in human rights and to create social security and welfare in the context of oppressive statehood. In closing, this paper proposes that research on this important topic has just commenced, and hence more research needs to be done.

Keywords: Karen refugees, Karen culture, Karen human rights groups, faith-‐based humanitarianism, mediation, representation, minority rights, Thai-‐Burmese border spaces


52

The Concept of “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ”: The Consideration of the Other’s Feelings by Myanmar people

Ampika Rattanapitak

Burmese Division, Eastern Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This study is a preliminary investigation of the concept of “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ” used by Myanmar people. “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ” is the expression conveying consideration of the other’s feelings used in Myanmar society. In other Southeast Asian cultures, the concept is realized in different linguistic expressions in different languages. The expression “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ” is the combination of the words “ʔa” ‘power’, “nà” ‘hurt’, and the sentence final particle “-‐dɛ”. The literal meaning is ‘the power of the speaker is hurt’. The results show that there are three types of situations in which Myanmar people consider the other’s feelings: 1) the situations where the benefit is for the speaker; 2) the situation disturbing the other; and 3) the situation where the benefit is for the other. The social distance of the participants and rank of the imposition are important in the situation of “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ”. Based on the politeness theory of Brown and Levinson (1987), considering the other’s feelings, “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ”, is a record with redressive action by negative politeness strategies. It is the concern for the hearers’ negative face, which is the want of freedom from the acts or imposition. However, Myanmar people also state that in the situation where a speaker repeats “ʔa-‐nà-‐dɛ” too many times to show strong willingness for a benefit, the degree of consideration of the other is decreased.

Keywords: consideration of the other’s feeling, linguistic politeness, Myanmar language


53

Thai Buddhist Monk Khruba Boonchum, Burmese Ethnic Following, and the Shift in a Millenarian Movement

at the Thailand-‐Burma Border

Amporn Jirattikorn Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The study of millenarian movements in Thailand and Myanmar from the seventeenth through the twentieth centuries tends to be confined to a single well-‐defined ethnic community, ignoring the issues of cross-‐border religious movements. The twenty-‐first century Thailand-‐Myanmar border saw the emergence of a new holy man for whom the millenarian concept is no longer applicable in the current changing religious environment, and whose different groups of followers have impacted upon the practice of worshipping a holy man. Khruba Bunchum, a contemporary Thai monk with a significant Burmese ethnic minority following, rose to fame after being forced to leave Myanmar and has spent an entire three years of meditation in an isolated cave. Upon leaving the cave, he has gained a number of new followers among wealthy and middle class Thais. This article analyzes the diverse community of faith and the mobile media technology that transformed the practice of worshipping holy men, arguing for a new approach in studying cross-‐border religious movements that draws upon religious, political, and media sources to create a system of meaning.


54

Examining the China-‐U.S. Factor in India and Myanmar Relations

Amrita Dey

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Institute of Asian Studies in Kolkata, India -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myanmar’s democratic transition, begun in 2012, has given enough reasons for India to make as much progress as possible with its nearest Southeast Asian neighbor, first on the trade and investment front; second, to integrate its northeastern part with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and beyond; and third to dilute Chinese influence while expanding its strategic depth in the region. Indeed, India cannot expect to dilute Chinese influence in Myanmar in the near or even medium terms, but it can have an impact on that relationship in certain ways. First, it can build on popular local resentment towards Chinese economic activities which run counter to China’s strategic interest in depicting itself as a benign rising power. Second, it can impact Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal that Delhi considers as its primary waters. Third, it can impact the genuine democratization process in Myanmar, as speculations run high that the quasi-‐civilian government has a strong military bent that rules-‐by-‐proxy while keeping the spoils of power.

From Naypyidaw’s perspective, deeper ties with India can alleviate some concerns about destabilizing developments on its side of the border while also demonstrating that even if Myanmar’s relationship with China does not fundamentally shift, India and other countries such as the United States and Japan offer Naypyidaw greater leverage against Beijing by emphasizing that Myanmar has other options.

The present paper is an attempt to examine the popular (mis)perceptions in India-‐Myanmar relations in the light of New Delhi’s Act East Policy and the lessons it holds in Myanmar’s tryst with democracy and efforts at consolidating peace with its ethnic, minority, and other communities internally, while balancing US-‐China relations in the region without hampering its bilateral relation with Myanmar and efforts at promoting regionalism through ASEAN and other sub-‐regional arrangements externally.

Keywords: bilateralism, regionalism, India


55

When Stories Wander: Ideas on the Co-‐Production of Social Movements’ Narratives in Transnational Space

Anselm Feldmann

International Development Department, University of Birmingham -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Burma/Myanmar has encountered tremendous change in recent years. Since the elections of 2010, sanctions have been lifted and foreign direct investment has risen significantly. These developments, however, have not always been welcome. Local people in Dawei, for example, have expressed their dissatisfaction over land seizures, lack of compensation, and limited participation in the decision-‐making processes over the development of a large Special Economic Zone (SEZ). The local grassroots movements can rely in their struggles on a network that is not restricted to Myanmar, but reaches out to exile groups, INGOs, and academia in Thailand and beyond. To successfully communicate their stories, these groups rely on transculturally competent individuals representing their stories within and across various (transnational) spaces. The conceptions of space I apply in this context rely heavily on Harvey and Lefebvre. But while these scholars focus more on the production of space(s), I intend to undertake an examination of the utilization of space(s). Hence, the main questions of this ongoing research project are:

• How do transnational spaces affect the re-‐production of Dawei’s grassroots’ narratives?

• Which decisions are made concerning the re-‐presentation of narratives regarding the spatio-‐temporal contexts in which they are re-‐presented?, and

• What difficulties do transculturally competent individuals face when representing or reproducing these narratives?

The paper itself will not elaborate on any findings, as it is too early in the research process, but on the theoretical framework and its implication for fieldwork, hopefully offering an exciting new perspective on the re-‐production of narratives in transnational spaces like the borderlands of Myanmar and Thailand.

Keywords: social movement, transculturally competent, space, narrative


56

The Politics of Indigeneity and Two Tales of Citizenship in Myanmar

Ardeth Maung Thawnghmung

University of Massachusetts, Lowell -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper focuses on the two competing narratives established by Rakhine nationalists on the one hand and Rohingya intellectuals on the other hand to demonstrate how both sides have relied on the concept of ‘indigeneity’ to legitimize their claims to full citizenship. Academic literature on indigenous peoples in Asia has mainly focused on the evolving situations, official treatment, and the status of ‘ethnic minority’ and ‘hill tribe’ populations. Very little attention has been focused on the descendants of immigrant populations in Southeast Asia from China and South Asia, who are not conventionally treated as ‘indigenous people,” or are perceived to be ‘brought’ en masse by colonial governments following the colonization of Southeast Asian countries. Some of these residents in the pre-‐colonial period, however, lived and travelled across porous borders which are now divided into individual countries. Intermarriage, religious conversion, porous borders, military conquest, changing alliances, and the formation of new states with demarcated boundaries in post-‐colonial period have altered some groups’ identity and customs, transformed the dynamic of communal relationships, and blurred the lines between what constitute “immigrant” or “native” populations. This paper analyzes two publications on the origin and status of Rohingya populations in northern Rakhine and demonstrates how such attempts have dealt with the symptoms rather than the deep-‐seated roots of the communal problem.

Keywords: citizenship, indigeneity, immigration, Rakhine, Rohingya


57

Responding to Transnational Investment: The Role and Responsibilities of Trans-‐border

Social Movements

Areewan Sombunwatthanakun Spirit in Education Movement (SEM), Thailand

Luntharima Longcharoen

Towards Ecological Recovery Regional Alliance (TERRA), Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

As a result of the impacts from the Dawei Special Economic Zone (DSEZ) and deep seaport in Dawei, Southern Myanmar, in which Thailand is a main investor, Thai civil society has been engaging in a collaborative cross-‐border campaign with Dawei civil society. Several exposure trips have been organized for people from Dawei to learn about environmental problems that have happened in Thailand related to infrastructure development projects. Thai civil society groups have also visited local communities in Dawei to share their experiences of mega-‐project impacts. As a result, collaboration was established among various organizations, and mobilization of Dawei communities by local civil society has begun to raise awareness among local people. Consequently, a planned coal-‐fired power plant project was canceled by the president in 2012 due to the strong campaigning of Dawei civil society. Since then, the network has strengthened between Myanmar and Thailand, as well as Japan, and international organizations.

Keywords: transnational investment, trans-‐border social movements, activism, civil society


58

Opening Tenasserim: Governance Models for Frontier Infrastructure

Ashley Scott Kelly

Faculty of Architecture, University of Hong Kong

Dorothy Tang Faculty of Architecture, University of Hong Kong

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper examines corollaries and strategies for complex land planning and governance along the Dawei-‐Kanchanaburi road corridor between Thailand and Myanmar. The relatively short 138-‐kilometer Burmese alignment crosses diverse geographies, ethnic minorities, aggressive agroindustry, and fragile biodiversity. Media and reports, both those policy-‐driven and CSO-‐produced, too often collapse the spatial complexity of land uses and conflicts of this dual-‐administrative area. Current attempts by international conservation NGOs to reign-‐in developmental pressures (such as rubber plantations and land banking) take the form of customary village mapping, village conservation, and green economies. To illustrate potential ways forward, parallels are drawn here between the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) and the Initiative for Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South America (IIRSA), using the Dawei road link and conservation economies from Peru's northern and central transcontinental highways. Each offers models of decentralized governance in a maturing state of rural economic restructuring not seen in other parts of Myanmar. A relatively strong base of three international conservation NGOs and cross-‐border CSO networks is trying to prepare for the wide range of indirect effects of road-‐building in this frontier region. Traditional EIAs and SEAs however are weak without phased plans specific to the region's unique conflicts, including recent histories of human rights abuses, land security, and ongoing repatriation efforts. Strategies will be discussed that use the highway and its operators to strengthen environmental and community governance in places where the state has little influence. It is argued that the effectiveness of resource valuation and green economies can be greatly improved by critical scope and category-‐setting through an iterative process of conflict narration, agent definition, spatial modeling, and visualization to galvanize support.

Keywords: cross-‐border infrastructure, green governance, agricultural land reform, Greater Mekong Sub-‐region (GMS), IIRSA


59

The Gaps to fill in Myanmar Traditional Medicine: On the Road to ASEAN Harmonization 2015

Aung Myint

Department of Traditional Medicine, Ministry of Health, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The ASEAN harmonization in traditional medicine (“TM”) is planned to be accomplished by the end of 2015. Although it has a well-‐established traditional health care system and widespread use of traditional medicine, Myanmar is not yet ready for ASEAN harmonization. There are many aspects that Myanmar needs to keep abreast with other member countries. Regarding the legislative processes, Intellectual Properties Right (IPR) Law is not yet promulgated. No by-‐laws have been issued to strengthen the Traditional Medical Council Law and the Traditional Drug Law, with the result that there are many weak actions in enforcing the ethical conduct of traditional practitioners and quality control of traditional medicines. Only three out of ten large-‐scale TM drug manufacturing factories have GMP certificate and are accredited with ISO organizations. The remaining hundreds of medium and small-‐scale factories are ill equipped and will face a lot of difficulties to meet the ASEAN GMP standards. Most of the drugs produced by these medium and small-‐scaled factories are not complying with ASEAN labeling and packaging procedures. This will make them unable to export their products to other member countries when ASEAN Free Trade is in effect in the near future. If Myanmar wants to compete with other good quality TM drugs of other member countries, to get the equal share of TM drug markets, this is the time to start preparing to meet the ASEAN standards. Other good practices related to drug manufacturing, such as GAP, GCP, GSP, etc., are unknown to most of Myanmar cultivators of medicinal herbs. This is another big gap to be filled. Research on medicinal herbs and TM drugs is also lagging behind in Myanmar. It is crucial for development of Myanmar Traditional Medicine and quality assurance of Myanmar TM Drugs for ASEAN and global consumers.


60

Rakhine Migrant Factory Workers' Social Network, Knowledge, and Learning Process in Hlaing Tharyar Industrial

Zone, Yangon, Myanmar

Aung Myo Min RCSD, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract Because of little development in agriculture and the aquaculture sectors, fewer job opportunities, extreme conflicts, negative environmental impacts, and poverty, Rakhine State is a good place to migrate away from. Rakhine migrants are not like other ethnic groups in Myanmar as they rarely migrate to neighbouring countries, while there is massive migration to neighbouring countries from other Myanmar provinces. Most of the migration from Rakhine is internal migration to urban areas like Yangon, the commercial capital of Myanmar.

Internal migrant workers who dare not take risks prefer to work at a factory job and get a regular income. On the other hand, the meagre salary, many working hours, few holidays and very limited social welfare give migrant factory workers a miserable life. To make matters worse, Rakhine people have a different language and culture from people in host destinations. That is why, life of Rakhine migrant factory workers are more vulnerable than other migrants in Yangon. However, Rakhine migrant factory workers do not give up easily, being a strong-‐minded people and with strong ethnic nationalism. When their life is insecure and individual capacity is limited to handle the situation, they cooperate and respond to it. They construct dynamic social networks among themselves to promote cooperation. Cooperation or social network itself is not enough to face obstacles so they have to learn something more for their survival.

This paper particularly focuses on Rakhine migrant factory workers' social network and learning process in Hlaing Tharyar Industrial Zone in order to explore how people overcome their challenges and promote their lives. Data presented in this paper comes from my own experience as a factory worker, participant observer, and fieldwork researcher.


61

Reform, Censorship, and The Role of Media in the 2015 Election

Aung Zaw Editor-‐in-‐Chief, The Irrawaddy

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Myanmar government has stressed the importance of media reform as part of the country’s political and economic reforms. Media reform in Myanmar has thus come far in four years after the democratization process was initiated in 2010. Censorship abolishment in 2012 and permission given for daily newspapers in 2013 has led to more freedom for print media. As a result, more than 400 monthlies and weeklies have been released. My talk discusses some back-‐stepping by both the government and the media with regards to media reform, particularly over the issue of media censorship. I will also discuss how the media plays an important role in covering conflicts, as well as explore what role the media could play in the country’s upcoming elections in 2015.


62

Understanding the Health Seeking Behavior of Community People with Lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar (Stroke) in Myanmar

Aung Zaw Moe

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow, RCSD, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar (stroke) is a common public health issue in Myanmar. The majority of studies conducted on strokes focus on biomedical aspects and are mainly viewed from the perspective of biomedical practitioners. The dominance of quantitative biomedical research does not extend to knowledge on concepts and understanding on lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar from traditional or folk sectors. The objective of this study is to understand the health-‐seeking behavior of community people with lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar in Myanmar.

This qualitative study was conducted in six rural villages of Bago Region, Myanmar, from December 2014 to September 2015. Seven case studies are presented. Data was collected using methods of medical anthropology: in-‐depth interviews with people with lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar and service providers, and field observations of provider-‐client relationships. The meaning, definition, and classification of disease, health-‐seeking patterns at different stages of illness, and belief and evaluation upon treatment are very diverse and there are different world views among different cases.

This study provides real-‐life experiences of people with lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar and their beliefs, patterns of health-‐seeking behavior, decisions, and explanations of their illness and evaluation of the treatment of different healthcare providers both in folk and biomedical sectors.

Keywords: lay-‐ngan-‐yaw-‐gar, stroke, health-‐seeking behavior


63

Dhamma Predication and Political Transition

Bénédicte Brac de la Perrière CNRS-‐IRASEC, France

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

In this paper I intend to analyze the current developments of predication practices in Burma in regard to the social and political transformations linked to the transition. I will first succinctly present the institutions involved in the numerous preaching performances taking place nowadays in Yangon and the types of events involved. I will then propose a tentative sociological analysis of the changes that have occurred recently in the practice of predication in Burma in regard to the overall situation of political transition.


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Ceasefires and Health: Challenges and Opportunities for Health Equity in Eastern Burma/Myanmar

Bill Davis Backpack Health Worker Team

Tara Russell

Backpack Health Worker Team

Saw Win Kyaw Backpack Health Worker Team

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

From 2011 to 2015, eight separate ceasefires were signed between the Myanmar government and armed groups across eastern Myanmar. Although sporadic fighting continues, this region of the country is receiving both humanitarian and development interventions.

In other contexts, the transition from conflict to post-‐conflict has been accompanied by a transition in donor funds from humanitarian and development programs. This funding transition can impact people’s health: analyses of these situations suggest that the nature of aid instruments, donor behavior and politics, and the government’s capacity and legitimacy are all determinants of health in transition periods.

The transition in eastern Myanmar is made more complex by the existence of two parallel health systems — one run by the Ministry of Health and one run by a network of ethnic health authorities and community-‐based providers. Although both sides have indicated their willingness to coordinate and collaborate on health interventions in a process called "convergence," the changing donor environment and gaps in funding could create additional barriers to equitable and universal health service delivery in Myanmar.


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This paper describes how the transition from humanitarian aid to development can impact health service delivery in Eastern Myanmar. The paper outlines how the transition creates challenges and opportunities for delivering healthcare, and it makes recommendations on how donors and implementing agencies can best navigate these challenges.

Keywords: conflict, aid, determinants of health


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Tourism and Monastic Education in Mandalay

Brooke Schedneck Institute of Southeast Asian Affairs, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper focuses on sites of encounter and exchange between student monks, tourists, and volunteers in Mandalay. On Mandalay Hill an informal “monk chat” takes place every evening as young monks practice English with the tourists who come to enjoy the view. This is a Buddhist cultural exchange location but not a standardized part of a travel agency itinerary, in contrast to the Amarapura monastery, Mahagandaryon, where tourists visit every day on a day trip to watch the monks eat their second meal of the day. In this tourist activity, there is no exchange and no learning about Buddhism or English. In contrast to these activities created by the presence of tourists, there are two monastic education sites in Mandalay that host volunteers who teach English for an extended period. Only a handful of individual monasteries with abbots interested in teaching have responded to the need for education for the less advantaged among Burmese society. I will investigate two such sites. The first is the Phaung Daw Oo Monastery monastic education school in Mandalay city. This school has hosted volunteers for over 15 years to teach English and college preparation courses for both monks and lay students who attend this school for free. The second site is the International Buddhist Education Center in the Sagaing Hills. Since 2007 they have hosted about 40 volunteers who stay for a two-‐month period to teach the novice monks who gain an education here for free. These two sites will be compared through their funding, approaches to Buddhism and education, and learning opportunities for the foreign volunteers. Based on preliminary research and comparison to similar volunteer English teaching programs in Chiang Mai, Thailand, this paper will explore the nature of this interreligious and intercultural dialogue within a Theravada monastic education setting.


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Agents of Change: An Anthropological Analysis of Myanmar Youth Engaging in Activism

Camilla Jane Standhart

Department of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen

Sara Ellegaard Nielsen Department of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The people of Myanmar are currently experiencing a time of change. New possibilities for engaging in different kinds of social and political work have occurred since the military junta has initiated a move away from dictatorship towards more democratic-‐like reforms. How is this change experienced at the grassroots level, and what form of political involvement among youth is possible in today’s society? In the spring of 2014, we conducted four months of anthropological fieldwork among young people in Myanmar who are involved in projects in which they try to contribute to a positive change in their local communities. The young people want to contribute to a democratic Myanmar, and in order to gain more knowledge on the subject they have attended activist trainings in Yangon organized by an international non-‐governmental organization. By looking into their daily practices, we have explored the possibilities and limitations for their actions. We have examined their motivations for involvement and their imaginings of the future in order to understand how they want to change the society they live in. We argue that they are activists in the making. As youth, they hold the position of bridging old traditions with new knowledge: they negotiate and adjust their activist identity and type of practice in relation to their surroundings. The interplay between state and civil society is what challenges the work of these youth. Due to the history of Myanmar, only a certain form of activism is possible. The youth have to use methods of navigation and negotiation in order to deal both with safety issues, as well as to gain trust in their local communities and thus convince people to stand up for their rights.


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Communal Festivals Organized on Self-‐help Basis as a Means of Fostering Social Cohesion

Chan Myawe Aung Sun

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow, RCSD, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The paper describes a neighborhood whose majority inhabitants are the poor with different ethnic, religious, and occupational backgrounds. Although poor, the community does not fall short of self-‐initiative through social events that can bring about social cohesion. The paper draws on fieldwork conducted in a neighborhood outside downtown Yangon in 2012–13. The researcher conducted interviews with long-‐term residents about their everyday lives and practices, and observed communal celebrations and social interactions among the residents.

Despite being poor in financial and social terms, they are driven by religious doctrines to take initiative in organizing communal festivals every year in their neighborhood, such as the Neian-‐zay festival held at the last night of the Buddhist’s Lighting Festival. Rituals include the immersing of bean sprouts where Hindu devotees carry the pots in which long bean sprouts are grown to the creek and empty them into the water as offerings, and sward ladder climbing, which is held as a Hindu religious ritual. Apart from the spiritual and social wellbeing that the people in this community expect to achieve, there also appear to be spillover benefits for the neighborhood from these communal festivals. The festivals not only reflect the values, interests and aspirations of the residents but also yield some social benefits which are less visible but important for the long-‐term interests of the neighborhood. These benefits include: a sense of pride fostered as a critical factor for the improvement of the community and strengthening of positive relationship among the community’s members. The communal festivals lead to the development of social cohesion which is considered to be critical part of healthy community. Within the community, the diversity of different social and ethnic backgrounds and circumstances is appreciated and valued. A common vision is shared and a sense of belonging gradually develops in the neighborhood. Indeed, this paper will describe the communal festivals organized through self-‐help initiatives of the poor as social integration where the residents are able to negotiate with and adjust to one another in the life of the community.


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Thailand’s Incomplete Transition to Modernity?: The Case of Myanmar Migrant Workers

Charlie Thame Global Studies at Thammasat University, Bangkok

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Thailand adopted a new system of spatial administration in 1894 following the great transformations of the nineteenth century that saw the consolidation and modernization of the Thai state. This replaced the emphasis on control of manpower and resource mobilization under the old patronage system where people were the registered subjects of either lords or kings. Under the new system, people became citizens of Siam, subject to the Thai government under Thai law, free to work and pay taxes to the central government instead of paying tax in kind and being conscripted to their own lord (Pongsawat, 2007:111). The Thai national subject was thereby brought into being: commoners and slaves were freed from the local landlords to become subjects of the centralized government, eligible for all political, social, and economic rights guaranteed by the constitution, including labor and social welfare regulations.

During the twentieth century this entitlement has been distributed to those in possession of a Thai National Identity Card. Those excluded from such entitlement include illegal immigrants or illegal aliens.

While states customarily exercise the right to restrict the mobility of non-‐nationals across and within their borders, this paper looks at the political-‐economic logic behind the treatment of migrant workers from Myanmar under the temporary work permit scheme. Given common practices, such as employers' retention of official documentation, the ensuing restrictions on their mobility, vulnerability to extortion from state officials and exploitation from employers, and the restricted access to labor and social welfare regulations to which Thai citizens are entitled, the paper raises the question of whether, in the case of marginalized populations, this amounts to a de facto perpetuation of the old patronage system


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of bonded labor and exploitation. If so, it explores the prospect of Thailand fully superseding this condition or whether such neo-‐feudal practices are inexorably entwined with Thailand's political economy.

Keywords: Myanmar migrant workers, work permit system, Thai political economy


71

Access to Education for Marginalised Groups in Thailand?

Charlotte Fraser International Development Studies Programme, Chulalongkorn University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The hotly-‐contested issue of migrant education in the Southeast Asian region is becoming more and more significant as the opening of the ASEAN community draws nearer. With increased mobility throughout the region, the need for education integration becomes increasingly important so that migrant children are able to fulfil their right to education in any country. For migrant students studying at the primary level in Thailand, the options for education are either Thai schools or non-‐formal, migrant schools. Though by law migrant students are permitted to study in Thai schools, many find it inaccessible for reasons such as fear of discrimination, lack of documentation for enrolment, financial restrictions, and a curriculum that is deemed irrelevant. Non-‐formal institutions, however, lack a standardised curriculum and cannot offer recognised accreditation, which threatens the possibility of future integration for students hoping to complete their compulsory education in the formal system to attain certification. Students unable to continue studying beyond primary level are vulnerable to being sent to do difficult and dangerous work to earn money for the family. As a result of only attaining basic education, students will be forced to continue in the same unskilled jobs as their parents, limiting their chances of improving their economic situations in the future. Integration is essential for providing migrant students with higher education opportunities and opportunities for skilled work in the future. Without such opportunities, the struggle to escape poverty in the migrant community will continue.

This paper considers three different primary education models available for Burmese students in Takua Pa district, southern Thailand, specifically looking at the extent to each model prepares its students for integration into the Thai formal system for completion of compulsory education. The first of these models is a Thai formal primary school, managed by the Thai government with the Thai curriculum. Secondly, a Burmese-‐run migrant learning centre, which mainly follows the


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Burmese formal curriculum with classes taught by mainly Burmese teachers. Finally, a foreign-‐run community development centre, also following the Burmese curriculum. The paper examines the fulfilment of the right to education in each model using a modified version of the widely-‐used “4As” Framework, which has been altered to fit the Burmese migrant context. Each component of the framework is analysed for each education model and the analysis is used to examine the extent to which each model prepares students for integration into the formal for completion of compulsory education.

Keywords: education, integration, migrant children, Takua Pa, accreditation, Burmese, Thailand, right to education


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Towards National Youth Policy: Strengthening Myanmar’s New

Generation

Chirada Na Suwan Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

A triple-‐transition-‐stage Myanmar has the potential to create opportunity and shared prosperity for its youth population, which accounted for more than 26% of the country’s total population in 2013. Existing competency gaps need to be narrowed and a supportive institutional environment put in place in this post-‐conflict state in order for young people to fully engage and reap the benefits of these favorable demographics and economic prospects. The paper tracks the success and lessons learned from INGOs managing a five-‐year civic education initiative during 2010–2014 in partnership with local communities targeting youth throughout Myanmar. The programs recognized that new opportunities of increased political freedom and investment, as well as stronger connections with the international community, have created significant challenges for the young population. Issues such as quality education, economic and youth employability, environmental policy, discrimination and racism, governance and chauvinist ideologies characterized the main themes of this civic education programs. The partnerships envisioned that empowering young people to discuss these problems with a range of different stakeholders would contribute towards a stable and successful transition to a more democratic Myanmar. Educational pedagogy hence includes critical thinking skill development, public debates, and critique of policy across thematic focus. Program strategies combined systems thinking, capacity building and local ownership approaches. Three years into the programs, a dense network of local debaters, trainers, and educators was formed. Challenges persist in strengthening their capacity and facilitating sustained engagement with the country’s reform process, as local resources are exhausted and fierce competition for foreign assistance continues. It raises a concern over the group’s progress on structuralizing networks pushing for a national youth policy as well as their advocacy on development priorities for youth.

Keywords: Myanmar youth, civic education, critical thinking, INGOs


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Globalizing Myanmar: The Urban Dimension

Chung-‐Tong Wu University of Technology, Sydney

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Soon after the start of political reforms in Myanmar, multilateral and bilateral organizations, as well as private sector groups, have rushed to re-‐engage with Myanmar. Foreign investors in particular have focused in and around the urban centers because these are accessible, provide market appeal and comparatively adequate infrastructure. Many bi-‐lateral and multi-‐lateral organizations have also chosen to direct their attention chiefly to the urban sector. Unsurprisingly, Yangon and Mandalay, the largest and the second largest cities respectively, are the foci of much investor attention in the manufacturing, property, tourism, and infrastructure sectors. Knight Frank, an international real estate consultancy, identified Yangon as one of the “cities of the future” in their 2015 Wealth Report, illustrating the high expectations and hype. For a country with a low urbanization rate and a skewed settlement system, what will be the impacts of globalization? Experience elsewhere points to rapid in-‐migration to the urban centers as the economy develops. The potentials for a highly concentrated urban pattern looms. The existing national spatial development plan seems woefully unprepared.

Investors’ optimism aside, there is no lack of evidence of inadequate and poor urban infrastructure, housing shortages, and lack of urban and regional strategies for the impending urban transformation. Land tenure and compensation for land are increasingly contentious. Urban development looks set to become a much more contested terrain than hitherto in Myanmar. Using available information, including plans that have been announced, this paper canvasses the key urban issues and examines the likely outcomes and potential problems as international capital intensifies its engagement with Myanmar. This paper argues for developing strategies to avoid a polarized development pattern evident in a number of neighboring countries.


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Remitting Changes: Social Networks and Remittances as Social Capital for Rural Community Development,

Chin State, Myanmar

Cung Lian Hu RCSD, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Sixty years of military rule in Myanmar has caused millions of its people to migrate to neighboring countries and overseas. Myanmar has experienced a “brain drain” (Adams, 1969) and the deprivation of talented and skillful laborers. At the same time, these migrants have sent significant amounts of remittances back to their families and communities. During the dire economy situation of Myanmar, remittances have played a crucial role, not only in sustaining the livelihoods of the migrant families, but in contributing to the development of various social and religious aspects of many receiving communities in Myanmar. However, in Chin State where the government invests little or nothing at all for the socio-‐economic development of the state, remittances have become sources of livelihood, contributing to the development of religious institutions, community life, and change agents for new forms of social and cultural practices.

Among the Chin, remittances have been mobilized through different channels and networks with the overseas migrants, and this has impacted various aspects of society.

This paper examines the role of social networks, including kinship networks, religious networks, and community networks, in the mobilization of remittances for community development in rural villages in Chin State, Myanmar. The paper also investigates how remittances have been managed to benefit to all members of the community, religious institution and community life. Additionally, new forms of change in cultural practices and social relations are also critically examined. This research paper argues that remittances have the potential in this emerging democratic transition for socio-‐economic change through emerging transnational connectivity between the migrants and the receiving community for rural majority, especially for the Chin and their communities.

Keywords: remittances, social capital, community development, social change


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Migrant Communities in Exile, or a Case of Social Inclusion: A Complete Analysis of the Burmese Migrant Community

in West Bengal

Debolina Sen Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, India

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

India has had a long historical relationship with Myanmar since antiquity. Cultural exchange includes Buddhism and the Burmese script, which was based on the Indian Grantha script. Religion was also instrumental in creating links between Indian and Burmese society. This legacy still continues today. There has been a migration of Myanmar women to West Bengal through marriage with Indian men during their stay in Myanmar for merchandise purposes. Periodic religious migrants from Myanmar following Theravada Buddhism also visit Bengal from time to time. Certain Myanmar nationals have been traced coming to Bengal to avail health check-‐ups. There are a number of Myanmar settlers here in different parts of West Bengal. They inhabit clusters separate from the native Bengalis, and these clusters are referred to as “Burma Colonies.” Institutions of Burmese origin have also been established in the heart of the capital city of West Bengal, Kolkata. This paper aims to find out whether or not this migrant community has been included socially within the mainstream Bengali community. The paper addresses the following research questions:

1. To what extent has this diasporic group been able to retain their own culture?

2. Is religion the main driving force for them to come and settle in West Bengal?

3. What are the fallacies of the healthcare system in their place of origin that act as push factors for these migrants to come to West Bengal?

Keywords: migrant, diaspora, Burma colonies, social inclusion and exclusion


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Place, People, and Power:

Community Engagement for Malaria MDA

Decha Tangseefa Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University

Naruemol Tuenpakdee Independent Researcher

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The recent emergence of Artemisinin-‐resistant P. falciparum strains is of highest concern, especially within the global community of malaria experts. Current efforts to contain Artemisinin resistance have yet to show success. In the absence of more promising plans, it has been suggested to eliminate falciparum malaria from foci of Artemisinin resistance using a multipronged approach, including mass drug administrations (MDA) called the Target Malaria Elimination (TME, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25831482).

This article is based on the experience during the first two years of a three-‐year project along the Thai-‐Burmese borderland, which started in March 2013. Led by the Shoklo Malaria Research Unit (SMRU), the TME project has been operating in four villages inside Burma/Myanmar. Experiences from the community engagement activities in those study villages suggest an approach of how to engage ethically and effectively with communities. Health workers who conduct community engagement must be aware of peoples’ socio-‐cultural codes and practices, power relations, histories and interactions with outside organisations, and last, but not least, the overall political circumstance enveloping an area. In other words, health workers must be aware of the intertwining relations of three key basic notions: Place, People, and Power. Exploring these notions and their relations will enable health workers to: first, better understand target villages’ conditions which affect villagers’ participation in MDA; second, help avoid a top-‐down approach in areas where the majority of the population are marginalized, economically unstable, and/or politically fragile.

Keywords: malaria, community engagement, Mass Drug Administration (MDA)


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Illegality and Alterity: Preliminary Notes on SEZ, Civil Society, and the Thai-‐Burmese Borderland

Decha Tangseefa Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This article aims to sketch preliminary notes on the nexus of illegality and alterity amidst the changing landscape of the Thai-‐Burmese borderland. Based on a set of ethnographic research, it lays out two seemingly disparate discussions that mutually inform each other: theoretical and practical. Theoretically, it articulates the intertwining relations of people, culture, and capital, framed as the border’s cultural politics. Practically, it addresses a set of complex concerns from members of civil society and some business sectors regarding the advent of the Mae Sot Special Economic Zone. Keywords: illegality, alterity, SEZ, civil society, Thai-‐Burmese borderland


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Dawei SEZ: The Emerging Economic Landscapes of Myanmar

Dorothy S. Tang Division of Landscape Architecture, The University of Hong Kong

Ashley Scott Kelly

Division of Landscape Architecture, The University of Hong Kong -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The proliferation of Special Economic Zones (SEZ) around the world since the 1950s has created a global logistical network for manufacturing and industrial output at an unprecedented scale. The legal exceptions and tax incentives of the SEZs are a great draw for foreign investors, and have proven to be an effective political tool for economic growth. Shenzhen, established in 1980, is heralded as the most successful model, having catalyzed manufacturing and industrial development not only in the SEZ itself, but also throughout the surrounding region, spurring some of the most rapid and large scale urban transformations of its time. Similarly, Thailand established the “Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand” in the 1970s to capitalize on foreign investment and industrial production populating the agrarian landscape of Thailand with industry and infrastructure.

In 2008, the Myanmar and Thai governments signed an MOU to jointly develop Dawei SEZ, and enacted the Dawei SEZ Law in 2011. While not the first SEZ proposed in Myanmar —Thiwala near Yangon since the 1990s, and Kyaupyu SEZ since 2008 — Dawei SEZ is by far the largest in scale and scope of infrastructure investments. The 250km2 SEZ (at full build-‐out) will house a range of industries, petroleum processing zones, and a deep seaport — all supported by remote freshwater reservoirs, a road link through Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam, and large electric power plants throughout the Tanintharyi Region.


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This paper compares the planning and design policies of large-‐scale state-‐led industrial development projects of Shenzhen and Thailand, with an emphasis on the proposed Dawei SEZ. Through comparative mapping and archival research, we seek to understand the relationships between the pre-‐development landscape and planning strategies, the reach of supporting infrastructures to channel necessary resources, and the effect of urban form on rural settlement patterns. The spatial comparison between the three industrial developments provides insights into the future of Dawei SEZ, and the larger impacts on the landscape, its resources, and peoples of the region.


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Myanmar These Gay Days: Old Laws, Gender-‐Crossing Spirit Mediums, Campy Movies, and Now LGBT Activism

Douglas Sanders

Faculty of Law, University of British Columbia -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The rainbow flag is flown, now and then, these days in Myanmar. Two or three new activist NGOs have human rights agendas and some links to regional and international LGBT rights organizations and funders. The country inherited the Indian Penal Code, with its prohibition of ‘carnal intercourse against the order of nature.’ That section is not enforced, as such, but charges of loitering after dark have been laid, and police brutality reported against cross-‐dressing streetwalkers. Nevertheless, two large gay discos function openly in Yangon. The issue of the survival of the colonial-‐era law has been raised with the new National Human Rights Commission. Major issues are visibility and family acceptance. The visible image of sexual or gender variance in Myanmar is of male-‐bodied spirit mediums, nat-‐kadaw, who are familiar figures throughout the country. There is a strong ‘gay’ or ‘transgender’ element in the large spirit festivals held at various locations during the summer, most notably the large Taungbyon festival held each August. As in Thailand, gay/trans characters appear in films, often as ridiculous comedy figures. The country has been too preoccupied with a host of issues to have yet taken up any debate of sexual orientation and gender identity issues, but a process has started.

Keywords: LGBT, gay, nat-‐kadaw, spirit mediums, Indian Penal Code


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Containing Ethnic Conflicts in Myanmar: An Exploration on Federalism Models

Dulyapak Preecharush Faculty of Liberal Arts, Thammasat University,

and Department of Politics and Public Administration, The University of Hong Kong -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Federalism refers to the unification of different political and ethnic territories, under mixed government systems characterized by appropriate power sharing between central government and constituent governments. It can be seen as an approach in heterogeneous societies to establish the new federal authority, as well as to preserve the basic identities of the local ethnic people.

In Myanmar, it has been debated whether federalism is the best solution to reduce ethnic conflicts. This significant discussion turns back to the transitional period when Myanmar's modern statehood emerged from the late British colonial administration, with the formation of the Panglong Agreement and the 1947 Draft Constitution that laid down the basic federal principles of governance integration. However, since gaining independence, genuine federalism has not been implemented firmly in Myanmar's political architecture. As a result, many indigenous people and ethnic power groups have been divided over how to achieve the balance between state integrity and local autonomy. When this condition has not been received, there have been protracted political struggles for secession and autonomy throughout the country's political contour. Today, basic questions about federalism are being raised in Myanmar politics, especially what kind of federalism can successfully contain ethnic conflicts, and how to design a federal model wherein diverse ethnic groups feel free and satisfied with their governance settings, while at the same time give their political loyalty to the central government. As such, this paper will attempt to analyze the development of federalism in Myanmar by exploring various federal models that would be applicable to Myanmar's specific context.


83

Examples include the model of 'multination federalism', which grants federal or quasi-‐federal forms of territorial autonomy to historic sub-‐state ethnic homelands, the 'illiberal federalism', in which federal arrangement coexists with or even supports the semi-‐authoritarian structure, and the 'asymmetric federalism' that the equality principle between majority-‐minority tribes must be partially limited in order to deal with secessionism and political fragmentation.

Keywords: ethnic conflicts, ethnicity, federalism, governance, Myanmar


84

Thailand’s Burmese Diaspora: Challenges and Implications of Pronounced Multiculturalism in Samut Sakhon Province

Emily Donald

The University of Queensland -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Samut Sakhon province is a gritty sprawl of factories and villages located an hour from Bangkok that receives little attention from academics — or anyone for that matter. But I argue that it should. Samut Sakhon boasts the largest proportion of Burmese migrants in all of Thailand. Its geographical location in the Gulf region, and the lucrative nature of Thailand’s fishing and seafood processing industry, has made the area a bustling economic centre. This industrial boom, together with a nationwide labour shortage beginning in the 1980s, has seen a steady flow of Burmese migration for over 25 years. Such sustained migration into Samut Sakhon has created a large, vibrant diaspora made up primarily of ethnic Burmese, Mon, and Karen (Kayan) communities. This paper seeks to introduce the reader to Samut Sakhon’s multi-‐ethnic vibrancy, and examine the remarkable way in which migrant populations have made space for the transplantation of their own traditions, languages, and cultural tastes. It is also necessary to touch on the problems this expansive diaspora poses for peaceful integration with local Thai populations. This examination aims to open up further discussion on Thailand’s Burmese diaspora, its interactions with civil society, and relationship to the Thai state as a whole.

Keywords: migration, labour rights, multiculturalism, Burmese diaspora, assimilation


85

Women of the Kachin Conflict: Trafficking and Militarized

Femininity on the Burma-‐China Border

Erin M. Kamler University of Southern California

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper presents key findings from field research on the trafficking of women from Kachin State, Burma, into China as “forced brides.” Engaging data gathered in interviews with 25 trafficking survivors, female soldiers, women’s activists, and administrators from the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO), I describe the factors that influence trafficking and the mechanism by which it occurs. I discuss the ways gender discrimination, stigmatization, crippling conditions on the ground due to the ongoing military conflict, demand from China, the prevalence of customary law, and the lack of diplomatic ties between Burma, Kachin State, and China contribute to the problem of trafficking. I situate this issue in the framework of “militarized femininity” — that is, societal expectations of women under the conditions of armed conflict — and argue that by looking at women’s experiences of trafficking, we may understand the workings of the Kachin conflict more broadly. Keywords: trafficking, Burma, China, gender, Kachin conflict


86

Bride Price Negotiation among Chin Women in Myanmar

Flora Bawi Nei Mawi RCSD, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This article examines the role of Chin women in negotiation of the popular bride price practice in Paletwa in the southern part of Chin State in Myanmar. The historical background and current socio-‐political situation in Paletwa itself is in need of questioning, in terms of multiethnic cohabitation and a high level of militarization by the State. I start by analyzing the shifting meaning of the Chins’ bride price practice over the changing historical conditions in a century, with the focus on the State’s ethnic appropriation through its unwritten Burmanization policy. Although it is still practiced, the notion of bride price practice has changed from serving as a means of social and economic exchange and class upgrading to a symbol of ethnic identity and family integrity. In the process of modernization and Christianization, I try to demonstrate that the role of Chin women is contested and negotiated with employing the concept family change. At the same time, though Christianization has its own agenda to compromise the bride price culture, I try to reveal its important role in fulfilling the gap left by the State’s inadequate family welfare services. It is in this context, by employing a feminist approach; I then try to articulate the unique decisions and diverse form of negotiating this bride price practice by the Chin women, by taking account of their voices and experiences from my fieldwork. This article thus attempts to interpret various socio-‐economic backgrounds of Chin women’s individual tactics and rationale to contest and negotiate their bride price economically and culturally as active agencies — not as victims of culture and the State’s ethnic political appropriation.

Keywords: bride price, Chin women, political identity, family, gender power


87

The Bottomless Pit of the Burmese Cult for Minorities

François Robinne Institute of Research on Contemporary Southeast Asia (IRASEC)

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Abstract

What is changing today regarding Burma and its minorities is not so much the forces at play — even though a civilian government has replaced a military one — nor is it the reification of different community identities (despite the risks of engendering further conflict), or the fact that while ceasefires have put a precarious stop to the conflicts, this has been due more to combatants’ fatigue than the peace agreements that remain largely lacking. Instead, what has been changing in a country still trying to reconstruct itself, and where sectarian tensions are both forcing the dictatorship’s hand and undermining the current changes, is the choice of the communities targeted.

To understand how this mechanism works, we must return to examining the tripartite structure of Burmese society and how it leads to a model of dictatorial governance, for which one of the principal characteristics is, in the words of Mary Callahan (2003), its ability to become “a making of enemies.” The analysis will put side-‐by-‐side the few vernacular words to designate the “others” and the bottomless pit which always draws more and more minorities.

Keywords: nation state vs. ethnic state; vernacular categories of other; target minorities; civil society


88

The Shan in Thailand: Contentious Approaches to Management of Refugees

Garrett Kostin

School of Social Work, University of Washington, Seattle/ Burma Study Center, Chiang Mai

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Millions of individuals and families have fled Burma/Myanmar since the nation’s military seized control in 1962. Upon assuming power, the military significantly increased militarization campaigns throughout the country in order to maintain its rule and overcome challenges posed by insurgent groups. Beginning in 1996, eastern Shan State was specifically targeted for persecution by the military regime due to its relatively strong resistance forces and abundance of natural resources. Several hundred thousand ethnic Shan have been forced to leave their homeland in the intervening years. The majority of refugees and migrants from Shan State have relocated to adjacent northern Thailand in order to escape well-‐documented human rights abuses, including ethnic persecution, forced relocation, and violence.

While the majority of ethnic populations from Burma with documented concerns for their well-‐being, including the Karen, Mon, Rohingya, and Karenni, are eligible for recognition and protection as official refugees through the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), ethnic Shan are not. Unlike other refugees living in Thailand, the Shan are not able to reside legally in refugee camps or be considered for resettlement to third countries.

The process by which the UNHCR has determined which refugees from Burma are eligible for UNHCR recognition and aid, and the system through which successive Thai governments have dictated that ethnic Shan living on the Thai-‐Burma border are economic migrants rather than true refugees, is a contentious social issue with momentous consequences for those affected by these policies. This paper explores opposing approaches to resolving the ‘Shan issue,’ including the arguments used by key stakeholders to either justify the Thai and UNHCR policies or encourage the recognition of refugee status and protections for the Shan. Finally, the author proposes policy changes to bring about social justice for Shan refugees. Keywords: Shan, refugee status, Burma/Myanmar, UNHCR, resettlement


89

Global Events, Local Narratives: The Refraction of Global Violent Extremism into Everyday Life in Provincial Myanmar

Gerard McCarthy

Coral Bell School of Asia Pacific Affairs, Australian National University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper explores the role of media, and especially social media, in refracting global Islamic movements and extremism into local inter-‐religious relations in Myanmar. Based on fieldwork conducted in Taungoo in central Myanmar, it explores the historical context to contemporary discussions about Islam and Muslims amidst the nascent transition from authoritarian rule. Ongoing violent extremism by ‘Daesh’ (Islamic State) in the Middle East has created a perception and suspicion amongst many that similar attitudes are held, and threats are presented, by Myanmar's own Muslim minority. This reflects dynamics of earlier global-‐local refractions, including in 2001, which saw Taungoo become the site of major inter-‐religious violence after the destruction of a giant Buddha statue by the Taliban in Bamiyan, Afghanistan.

In this paper I explore the social processes underpinning inter-‐religious relations in Myanmar, including the role that pre-‐existing beliefs in the decline of Buddhism, as well as the sharing of rumours, play in the formation of anti-‐Muslim attitudes and beliefs. I then go on to reflect on the intensification of refraction processes since the recent rise of highly visual social medias such as Facebook, and the influence of viral rumours shared through a variety of media upon Parliamentary legislative processes in Myanmar's transition. I conclude by exploring the challenges posed by the mediation and refraction of global events into local life for religious minorities in contexts where violence committed by co-‐religionists elsewhere has the potential to reframe the pre-‐existing dynamics of everyday life.


90

Meditation as ‘Good Work’: Schumacher (1911-‐1977) and Buddhist Economics

Gustaaf Houtman

Royal Anthropological Institute, London -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper will consider how Schumacher developed his ideas surrounding Buddhist economics during a visit to Burma, and where he placed meditation as a vital ingredient in his notion of ‘good work.’ It will also look at the tension Schumacher saw between economics as serving a spiritual need in contrast to Keynes’ idea that economics was necessarily associated with the vice of greed before aiming for spiritual fulfilment.


91

Urbanism and Cultural Heritage: How to Maintain History and Forge into Modernity in a Fast-‐Growing Yangon

Hay Mann Zaw

International Program, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University

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Abstract

This paper presents the findings of a secondary data case study analysis concerning urbanism and historical heritage preservation in Yangon, Myanmar. When we look at urbanism, we do well to view from the perspectives of urban development along with urban planning. The buildings are not merely the physical infrastructures for the citizens of Yangon, but also the cultural landscape and the history of the place. They have been changing throughout time along with social and cultural values of the local people. To be able to understand fully about the urban development of a certain area, attentive investigation on urban planning is mandatory. Thus, constructive urban planning is vital for positive development. This research is based on the theories of urbanism, cultural diversity, and tangible and intangible cultural heritage, with the principal focus on tangible historic architectural buildings conservation. The case study is in the city of Yangon, Myanmar, and critical analysis is centered on the Yangon Heritage Trust, the local NGO working on preserving the heritage of the city. The analysis themes are made upon the benefit and wellbeing of the city dwellers.

Keywords: urbanism, cultural heritage, history


92

What are the Future Options for the Ethnic Armed Actors

in the Myanmar Transition? The Importance of Representation and Citizenship

Helene Maria Kyed

Danish Institute of International Studies -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Peace negotiations in Myanmar have made progress, but the process remains contested and fighting continues in some areas. One key controversy concerns the future status of the many NSAGs that claim to represent different ethnic nationalities. The NSAG leaders demand a settlement that allows them to retain arms and political positions within a federalist system. The government now agrees to a federal system, but it is unclear whether the powerful Burmese Army supports this, and the term federalism has many meanings. Left out of the peace negotiations has been an open discussion of what will happen in the future to the many middle-‐ and lower-‐ranked armed actors. This could be detrimental to sustainable peace and to the building of trust in the peace settlement.

This paper is a preliminary attempt to discuss the future options for the NSAGs members: What ‘exit’ options do they have after decades of conflict? How do they envision their future — as armed actors, civil servants, politicians, businessmen, or something else? In addressing these questions we draw on interviews conducted in Mon and Karen States in January 2014. A core argument is that disarmament and economic incentives will not suffice to satisfy the vast majority of the NSAG members. Thus, there is a need to explore different forms of integration that are supported by a deeper discussion of political representation and citizenship. This is partly because many NSAGs have had decades of state-‐like control over territories and people, not simply been short-‐lived insurgents. Simultaneously, these groups’ claim to represent ethnic groups and to ensure their de jure as well as de facto citizenship is challenged by the emergence of new ethnic civil society groups and national political changes. This further underscores the need for the NSAGs to re-‐invent themselves, moving away from being predominantly armed actors.

Keywords: peace process, citizenship, federalism, disarmament, dialogue


93

The Jade Trade and Sociocultural Change: A Case Study in Hpakant Jade Mine Area, Kachin State, Myanmar

Hla Hla Kyi

University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The term ‘sociocultural system’ is the real-‐life expression of designs for living in particular environments. Sociocultural change comes about through processes and events that are either internal or external to a society. This study explores the effects of the jade trade on economic systems in the study area, describes the influences of the economic system on sociocultural aspects of a community, and elicits how the jade trade affects the natural environment in the study area. This study was done through the approach to culture of consumption, from an economic anthropological point of view. This paper was conducted by descriptive study design involving case study design. This study was done with qualitative methods. In this study, data were collected by using participant observation, key informant interviews, in-‐depth interviews, and focus group discussions.

Jade mining and marketing is the main source of economic survival not only for the locals but also the migrants. Before 2000, jade mining was carried out through the use of simple technology and simple tools, thus harming the natural environment to a small extent. After 2000, with the advent of jade companies, jade mining is carried out through the use of modern technology and modern machines, thus harming the natural environment considerably. However, the use of modern machines makes for production of various kinds of jade. Therefore, family’s incomes increased for jade business and associated with other economic activities. Then, businessmen dependent on jade mining and marketing bring in consumer goods for sale. When fortune-‐seekers from various regions arrive in jade mine area, their relations with locals develop, leading to more general knowledge on the latter’s part. They concentrate more on children’s education, and health care for the family. Moreover, the locals’ lifestyles begin to change, especially in the styles of food, clothing, and shelter, constituting the basic needs of human society. Under the government’s direction, the companies have come in and their working with modern technologies in jade mine causes much economic development. For this reason, sociocultural change, which has accompanied the economic development, is explored in this study.

Keywords: economic system, environmental change, sociocultural change


94

Architectural Features of Chin Tsong Palace in Yangon,

Myanmar

Htet Htet Hlaing West Yangon Technological University, Myanmar

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Abstract

Historic sites and traditional houses are the most important evidence of past lifestyles. The goal of conservation is to enliven cultural properties by evaluating their architectural, historical, environmental, visual, and aesthetic characteristics. In our country, we have designated 30 Heritage Buildings in the city of Yangon. Chin Tsong Palace is considered one of the Heritage Buildings in Yangon. It known as the Chin Tsong Palace and locals call it “Chin Chaung Nan Daw”. From 1917–1919, Lim Chin Tsong, a famous Chinese tycoon in Myanmar, built a residence for him and his family. These are massive buildings from the early days of the British colonial period. It is situated at the corner of Kaba Aye Pagoda Road and University Avenue Road. It features a blend of Eastern and Western architectural designs. Materials and craftwork for interior decorations were constructed by Chinese architects and carpenters, Italian designers, and British painters. It is a two-‐storeyed building with a five-‐storeyed building tower attached. This palace first went to a Japanese creditor (1941-‐1945). Next, it was used as the government broadcasting station, and later a guesthouse named Kanbawsa Yeiktha (1950s– 1960s) until it became a hostel for female university students. It is still referred to today as Chin Tsong Palace, and is currently occupied by the Ministry of Culture. It now stands as the School for Arts of Painting and Wood and Ivory Carving.

First, this paper highlights the study of the architectural features of this palace, and then analysis on the spatial organization and form composition. Second, the paper highlights important factors to consider for sustainability, including how to conserve and preserve the heritage building of Chin Tsong Palace. One of the most likely Heritage Conservation strategies to succeed may be to develop tourism by balancing economic and conservation objectives.

Keywords: cultural heritage, conservation, preservation, tourism, spatial organization, form composition


95

Buddhists and Muslims in Arakan/Rakhine State: History, Politics, and Society in the Context of a Frontier Culture —

Defining a Field of Research and Investigation

Jacques P. Leider -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The communal clashes of 2012 between Muslims and Buddhists in Rakhine State have revealed the huge gap of available and commonly accessible knowledge of a political, historical, linguistic, and anthropological sort on the frontier region of Arakan/Rakhine State and Southeast Bangladesh. The debate about the Rohingya issue in particular, and what might be called the Rakhine State Crisis in general, has been dominated over the last three years by reports on conditions of oppression, violation of human rights, deprivation of political rights, and humanitarian challenges. While the interest of the international community in these specific issues is understandable, it is regrettable that few efforts have been made to point to the absence of academically assessed information, supra-‐regional field research, and critical analysis regarding the broader anthropological, historical, religious, and linguistic aspects of the region’s frontier culture.

This paper will try to sketch the knowns and unknowns of Muslim presence in Arakan, and situate them with regard to the context of ethnically diverse Buddhist and Muslim majority cultures north and south of the frontier region. It will then make an attempt to delineate a field of possible investigations and research questions that might stimulate a broader interest in the complexity and the challenges of studying the frontier region of the Northeast Bay of Bengal. The ultimate aim of more research and more in-‐depth scholarship is to build a much-‐needed body of substantiated information to feed into current discussions on ethnic identity formation, political debates, and the coexistence of culturally diverse people.


96

Creative Tribute or Cheap Copy: Exploring Myanmar’s Popular Music Industry Through Copy Thachin

Jane Ferguson

The Australian National University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Copy thachin, or “copy song,” pervades the popular music scene in Myanmar. It is like a cover version of an existing hit, but with lyrics re-‐written in the Burmese language. These songs can have incredible genre-‐crossing capabilities, from blues to rap, heavy metal to salsa. Prior recordings have been appropriated from various national music markets around the world as well. While some music critics might deride copy thachin as being purely derivative, or even ‘theft,’ this massive – although surprisingly neglected – phenomenon offers useful insight to both the ideological and economic structure of the popular recording industry in Myanmar from the Socialist years to the present. We learn how copy thachin allowed aspiring Burmese rock musicians to aspire to play at an international standard, all the while maintaining a close relationship with their audiences through the Burmese poetic lyrics of their copy songs. In this paper, I will discuss the history and structure of the popular music industry in Burma/Myanmar, and then situate copy thachin as an important genre through which Burmese audiences not only created local meaning, but also maintained aesthetic connections with a cosmopolitan world beyond.


97

Neutralism or Anti-‐Communism?: U.S. Assistance to Myanmar in 1950s

Jiang Fan

Guangzhou Administration Institute, Guangzhou, China -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Established in 1948, the Union of Myanmar practiced neutralism in foreign affairs during the Cold War period. Facing rebellion from communists and ethnic minorities, the new Myanmar was in eager need of foreign assistance. The United States was indifferent to Myanmar’s request until the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. By emphasizing the threat from communist China, Myanmar successfully captured the U.S. government’s attention. The U.S. did not believe in Myanmar’s neutralism policy. In order to contain communist China, the U.S. was determined to make Myanmar part of the “free world” by providing assistance. However, it was never Myanmar’s intention to give up neutralism, follow the U.S., or stand against China. The U.S. underestimated Myanmar’s nationalist position, and Myanmar was dissatisfied with the U.S. disposition towards the Kuomintang crisis. As a result, U.S. assistance was terminated. Nowadays, with growing competition between China and U.S. in Myanmar, to review how Myanmar maneuvered between these two countries could prove enlightening.

Keywords: Myanmar, neutralism, communist China, U.S. assistance


98

Burma’s Boom Begins: Opium Cultivation in the Shan State

John Buchanan

University of Washington, Seattle -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Shan State of Burma is well-‐known for its role as one of the leading producers of opium. However, circumstances through which it became one of the 20th century's most productive opium producing areas are not well understood. Beginning in the 1950s, its opium sector underwent a transformation with far-‐reaching consequences for its population. Farmers transitioned from producing opium on a semi-‐subsistence basis, and instead adopted practices in which cultivation was increasingly commercialized. By consequence, the level of opium production in Shan State expanded from a pre-‐World War II level of 30 tons per annum to between 300 and 600 tons per annum by the 1970s. The rates of production continued to climb so that by the mid-‐1990s, Burma was producing an estimated 1,600 tons of opium per annum.

This paper addresses the question of what accounts for the initial increase in opium production in Shan State in the period from 1949 to 1970. Existing studies primarily focus on economic factors, such as so-‐called “greed” motives, poverty, and market forces, in their explanations. This paper argues that economic explanations are incomplete in answering this question. Instead, it argues for a more inclusive approach that takes into account the livelihood strategies of farmers and the impact of non-‐economic factors, such as exogenous shocks, on these strategies. In particular, this approach helps account for the timing and location of the onset of commercialized production within Shan State during this period. This paper utilizes a unique collection of archival data, previously ignored by, or not available to, other scholars.


99

Reconstituting the Everyday: Young Lives and Cosmopolitan Worlds in Eastern Myanmar

Justine Chambers The Australian National University

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Abstract

Youth provide important insights into social dynamics and issues at the heart of contemporary social, political, and cultural life. In Myanmar, the category of ‘youth’ has historically been situated as a powerful, symbolic, and potent force for change. The perspectives and experiences of young people in Myanmar, however, have attracted only modest attention from researchers to date, and a theoretical framework underpinning the transition in Myanmar and how it effects their lives and life-‐choices as young people remains comparatively undeveloped.

Building on the literature exploring the contemporary predicament of ‘coming of age’ and anthropological theories of cosmopolitanism (eg., Ferguson, 1999; Werbner, 2006, 2008), this paper will provide a snapshot into the bustling diversity and everyday contradictions of the lives of young people living in Hpa-‐an, the capital of Karen State. By drawing on preliminary observations from my fieldwork in Hpa-‐an and its surrounding districts I will describe some of the rapid economic and socio-‐political changes, opportunities, and challenges that have transformed the region over the last five years and how these are influencing young people and the social and cultural practices through which they shape their worlds. Following from Appadurai’s view that we live in an age characterised by a “plurality of imagined worlds” (1996: 5), my analysis centers on how Hpa-‐an’s youth affirm and deconstruct established norms by borrowing from global ideas, norms, and practices. In a life that is intrinsically connected with the outside world through education, religion, and music, as well as access to the Internet and new social media technologies, this paper focuses on how specific forms of culture are employed and reappropriated in ways that challenge proximal categorisations of identity and being in ways in which cultural and ethnic boundaries and horizons are never fixed, but are multi-‐centered, fluid, and relational.

Keywords: youth, Myanmar/Burma, Karen, cosmopolitanism, identity


100

Maize Corporate Contract Farming, Moneylenders, and the Making of Poverty: Market-‐led Debt, Dispossession,

and Differentiation in Rural Shan State, Myanmar

Kevin Woods Research Fellow, ISS/Chiang Mai University

University of California, Berkeley -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Sino-‐Thai company Choern Pakard (CP), one of Asia's largest and most prominent agro-‐food corporations, has led a high-‐yielding maize contract farming scheme with (ex-‐) poppy upland cultivators in Shan State, northern Myanmar, for over a decade to predominately supply China’s chicken-‐feed market. Smallholder CP maize production in Shan State marks an historically important agrarian transformation from low-‐input subsistence (licit and illicit) economies based on traditional seed varieties to cash cropping of high-‐input, company-‐owned seeds for a foreign export market. Differences in household capital, access to affordable rural finance, migrations and (il-‐)licit border economies tied to Cold War-‐era politics and other non-‐technical variables have shaped the differential socioeconomic outcomes of smallholder CP maize production. Ex-‐poppy, low-‐capital households that have lost their previous source of illicit capital and collateral now must borrow high-‐interest loans from local moneylenders to access required industrial farming inputs. CP’s high-‐input contract farming arrangements and lack of state-‐backed formal finance that forces low-‐capital households to rely on local moneylenders significantly shapes how risk, debt, and dispossession is differentially distributed. The particularity of places — differences in political history, migrations, agro-‐ecology, geography, and relationship to the opium economy — also influence the dynamics of village-‐ and household-‐level differentiation of wealth from CP maize cultivation in Shan State. CP maize smallholder production has resulted in moneylenders and the market, rather than “extra-‐economic means” in the case of agribusiness land grabs, to dispossess marginalised farmers and leave them with few alternative livelihood options other than returning back to poppy production and/or on-‐/off-‐farm migrant wage labour.


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Japan’s Official Development Assistance to Burma

in Post-‐2010 Peace Process

Khen Suan Khai Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

There has been a substantial change in Japan’s foreign policy position on support for democracy. In Burma, Japan has a vital interest in nurturing friendly relations to increase its political and economic clout in the country. After the liberalization process began in 2011, Japan started assisting Burma on the rule of law and economic reform through a series of seminars, and in November 2013 it initiated a legal capacity-‐building project. Japan’s ODA is broadly divided into bilateral aid, in which assistance is given directly to developing countries, and multilateral aid, which is provided through international organizations. JICA provides bilateral aid in the form of Technical Cooperation, Japanese ODA Loans and Grant Aid. NIPPON Foundation is specifically focusing on promoting a peace process through unhitching the factors impeding development in Burma, especially decades-‐lasting civil wars, in which supporting the ceasefire agreements between the Burma Union Government and ethnic armed groups.

Since Japan’s ODA Charter is committed to providing aid to developing countries in a manner that promotes democracy, hindering factors that impede development in Burma, particularly bad governance, which results in civil war and natural resources as a trap. Japan can help in this process by highlighting alternative solutions that can be revealed through in-‐depth fact-‐finding. The peace process in Burma is just as important as other areas of reform, such as constitutional amendments and political and economic liberalization. The role of Japan, as a mediator to bolster the basic level of practical knowledge and sound and prudent judgment based on a simple perception of the situation or facts that the people need to live in a reasonable and safe way, would be innermost objectives of this paper.

Keywords: Japan ODA, Burma, peace, development


102

Cultural Heritage Buildings in Mandalay City, Myanmar: A Geographic Approach to the Urban Landscape

Khin Khin Moe Geography Department, Sittway University, Myanmar

Nyo Nyo

Geography Department, Mandalay University, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Cultural heritage buildings give a sense of past and of cultural identity. Those buildings encompassed the historical evidence, artifacts and beliefs. As being a last capital of the Myanmar Konbaung Dynasty, there were various kinds of buildings which still remain in Mandalay. When the city was founded in 1857, King Mindon intended it to be a very spacious capital by laying down the systematic town planning. The urbanization has taken place since that time. Moreover, the study area has experienced diverse political systems different forms of governance. Therefore, the buildings were constructed according to the rulers. In this study, the buildings are categorized into four groups: religious buildings, institutional buildings, residential buildings, and industrial and commercial buildings. Although the buildings regarding religions and institutions are already recorded by the Government Offices and Archaeology Department, there is lack of records on the commercial or industrial and residential buildings. Nowadays, the urbanization system has been taking place very quickly in the city. The range of pressures facing urban heritage include: population gains propelling rapid, uncontrolled growth, and socio-‐economic transformations generating functional changes in the city. It has caused renovation or construction of new buildings in the places of previous ones, especially for residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. It will cause a loss of the ancient architectural style of the buildings and their significance. Therefore, the major aim of this research is to define, to record, and to locate the cultural heritage buildings.

Keywords: cultural, heritage, buildings, Mandalay, urbanization, conservation


103

Vibrant and Independent Civil Society: A Must for Genuine Democratic Reform in Burma

Khin Ohmar

Burma Partnership -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The space for civil society in Burma has been shrinking in the past two years, particularly in danger of being co-‐opted or controlled by the government, and at the same time, with the risks of being arrested, detained, and imprisoned, or even deported in case of activists who returned from exile. Human rights defenders, students, youth, and grassroots activists or rights-‐based civil society groups are the most vulnerable groups as they continue to resist unjust laws and practices imposed on them and their communities in the form of both formal and informal networks. It is crucial that the reform process in Burma is shaped to be genuinely people-‐participatory, inclusive, and comprehensive, with a crosscutting-‐sectorial approach, in order for it to progress and benefit the people. The meaningful and effective participation of people, particularly the participation of an independent and vibrant civil society, is a must as civil society plays a major role in monitoring the performance of the government and ensuring checks and balances, transparency, and accountability of the government. It is also the community-‐based civil societies who are close to the people and thus able to bring the voice of the people to the government and help bridge grievances and concerns of the people to the government.


104

The Meaning of Social Relationships among Myanmar Migrant Workers in Selected Areas of Malaysia

Khin Soe Kyi

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow, RCSD, Chiang Mai University, Thailand

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

An ethnographic study has been conducted to explore the meaning of social relationships among Myanmar migrant workers in Malaysia since the end of November 2014. The field sites for the research project were chosen at Selangor State and Kuala Lumpur of Malaysia. Based on pursuit of this interest, the formulated research questions are: how Myanmar migrants live in their lives in Malaysia, and how they interact within and seek support from social networks. Data were collected through participant observations and in-‐depth interviews with the 12 informants: Myanmar migrants, religious persons, and leaders of social organizations in Malaysia. Obtained data were organized and reduced into key aspects of the issues in question and then categorized into themes.

Nine cultural themes of “Difficulties of a migrant’s life at the start of arrival,” “Working life of migrants in Malaysia is hardship,” “Helping each other is the way of living among us,” “Social organizations could be able to meet the needs of migrants’ lives in Malaysia,” “Undocumented migrants’ lives are endangered,” “Brokers and agents cheat migrants,” “Former migrants help and hand over their experiences to the new-‐comer migrants,” “A migrant woman's romantic relationship is due to the needs for dependency,” and “We wouldn’t encourage others to come” emerged under the phenomena of interests.

Even if they came with working permits, migrants often experience trouble as soon as they arrive at the airport. Most of them are cheated by brokers, agents, and their employers. The lives of female migrants are not secure in Malaysia, and there was no support from their agents. It was explored that being a member of, or having contacts with, social organizations can help migrants meet the needs for their health, safety, and security, as well as warm affections, which is particularly true for those whose lives are undocumented and have been endangered in Malaysia. Keywords: Myanmar migrants, social relationship, social network, undocumented migrant workers, ethnographic study


105

An Analytical Study of Ancient Temples in Myingun, Magway Region, Myanmar

Khin Thidar

Department of History, University of Magway -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myingun is situated about 23 miles from Magway, Central Myanmar. Myingun was an important place in the reign of Myanmar Kings. According to some inscriptions found in the Myingun area, this region has been located here since the time of the Bagan Period. In successive eras, the people of Myingun constructed and donated many religious edifices where the Buddha images were kept. Numerous temples were built and many images were carved. Mural paintings were drawn on the wall, and stucco works were done to decorate them. There are about sixty temples and stupās in Myingun. The art and architecture of these religious edifices show that some temples were constructed in the 12th c. AD. It is found that there are 27 temples with Bagan style of art and architecture in Myingun. Oral history says that King Sawlu of Bagan built this city for staying temporarily when he defended the rebel Ngayamakan. The remnants of the city wall, moat, and temples can be seen still today. Most of the temples are hollow temples with Kwam:ton -‐ Sikhara -‐square tower. Le:chūcamyā – the place where four pagodas are situated, Le:myaknhā – the temple which has four directions, Rhan Ajjagona – the brick monastery where a monk named Ajjagona resided, Munpon:saññ Ññīama – the temple which was donated by two sisters who sold Myanmar snacks, and Kwam:tham: Ññīnon – the temple which was donated by two brothers who carried the betel baskets are significant amongst the temples of the 12th century. The style of these temples is based on the Northeastern India model, but it has its own characteristics of Bagan art and architecture. An attempt has been made here to evaluate the art and architecture of ancient temples, and the model and style of Buddha images, and to point out that Myingun is a land of cultural heritage in Myanmar. Keywords: ancient temples, art, architecture, Myingun


106

Living with Opium: Livelihood of Poppy Farmers in the Rural Uplands of Southern Shan State, Myanmar

Khun Moe Htun RCSD, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Accounting for 18-‐percent of global opium production, Myanmar remains the world’s second largest opium producing country after Afghanistan. Within the country, Shan State has been the major source of Burmese opium. The boom in Shan State opium cultivation started after independence, followed by ethnic struggles and the invasion of the Kuomintang, the anti-‐communist Chinese troops, in the 1950s. In 1974, the government of Myanmar officially outlawed opium cultivation, production, possession, trafficking, and sale with the 1974 Narcotics Act. However, opium production continues to take place in the rural uplands of Shan State in the present day. A decline in opium production between 1998 and 2006 can be attributed to drastic measures taken to suppress opium farming without consideration for the alternative livelihoods of the farmers themselves, which led to food insecurity and other negative consequences after 2006.

This paper examines the factors contributing to opium cultivation and the strategies used by people living in the remote highlands of Southern Shan State to cope with political risk and environmental vulnerability. Households rely on opium cultivation to generate income for meeting their basic necessities of food, clothing, and medicines. Nevertheless, the underlying causes of opium production can be traced to multiple sources, including the uncertainty of land ownership, the price advantage of opium, forced development projects, and the lack of market opportunity for legal crops. Moreover, the process of opium cultivation entails high risks and vulnerability due to its illegal nature and the local environmental conditions. An unsuccessful harvest can result in a significant loss, as poppy cultivation is both capital-‐intensive and labor-‐intensive. Although political risk can be managed by bribing local authorities, unpredictable weather is unavoidable. All in all, to fully comprehend why opium production continues in Shan State despite its illegal status, this paper argues that this phenomena and the complexity of opium cultivation must be understood from the perspective of local farmers.

Keywords: opium, livelihood, poverty, Myanmar


107

Analysis of Customary Communal Tenure of Upland Ethnic Groups, Myanmar

Kirsten Ewers Andersen

Social and Environmental Governance Land and Forest Tenure, Denmark -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In Myanmar, we find among the upland ethnic groups different types of customary communal tenure. These are linked to the particular characteristics of the ethnic groups, the landscape and its resources, population density, the kinship systems, and the actual history of the area. The advocacy research with the Land Core Group on customary communal tenure in Chin and Shan States, 2013–14, has identified the characteristics of customary communal tenure and developed procedures for a potential official communal land registration of the upland villages’ shifting cultivation land. The research builds on lessons learnt in communal titling of ancestral lands in Cambodia. The underlying premise is that fallow land is not vacant and eligible for economic land concessions, but an indispensable part of the village’s agricultural system, and that cadastral communal land registration is the legal means to protect the full agricultural system against concessions to third parties.

Customary communal land management of rotating fallow agriculture among ethnic nationalities can ensure existing social equity and sustainable land management at the landscape level. It secures preservation of cultural identity and in most places it establishes access rights of all resident villagers to a share of the land in the common property of the village. Communal tenure can in the future provide the institutional mechanisms for improved sustainable land use planning and climate change mitigation initiatives.

The study documented existing customary tenure rules in selected villages in Chin and Shan States and recommended operational procedures linked to the present draft of the National Land Use Policy to move towards the actual cadastral registration of customary village-‐based communal rights in all shifting cultivation land. The procedures include recommendations for legal incorporation of the


108

village as an association under Association Law based on own Statutes so the village becomes one right-‐holder in the eyes of the government to all the parcels, including fallow land, making up the common property. And it includes recommendations to record in writing all the Internal Rules that guide the community’s internal sharing of resources for safekeeping of these rules at the village level.


109

Songkran Performance Manifesting Identity

and Sense of Belonging in Eastern Shan State, Myanmar

Klemens Karlsson

Konstfack – University College of Arts, Crafts and Design, Stockholm, Sweden -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Songkran anniversary festival in Kengtung, in the eastern part of Shan State of Myanmar, is not only a celebration of the New Year with water splashing and partying. It is also a performance expressing the history of an exposed nation and manifesting independence, sovereignty, and wealth for the Tai Khun nation. The paper describes the festival from observations made during the years 2011 and 2013. Prominent in the four-‐day festival is a twenty-‐four-‐hour drumming event by the Tai Loi ethnic minority group, and the embodiment of a female spirit in a frog made of clay and mud by the riverbank.

Important for the festival are the Buddhist sacred landscape, local guardian spirits, and the long history of muang Kengtung. There is a long-‐standing relationship, originating in the 13th century, between Tai Khun, the majority ethnic group in Kengtung, and Tai Loi, i.e. Hill Tai. This Tai Loi ethnic group has an important part in the performance. They are playing the historical role of the defeated people coming down from the mountains, beating the drum and bringing it down to the river for the wealth and prosperity of Kengtung and the imagined Khun nation. The Songkran festival is therefore a manifestation of place, belonging, and ethnic identity. The drum, the frog, and the water splashing also highlight the connection of the Songkran festival with fertility rites.

The paper also discusses in what sense the people in pre-‐modern Southeast Asia had concepts of ethnic and national identity. This may illustrate how ethnic identity is constructed and how ethnic groups constantly redefine themselves. This appears to hold true regarding the relationship between identities as Tai Khun vis-‐à-‐vis Shan in contemporary Myanmar, and what the future will bring for the imagined Khun nation in comparison with a more recently constructed political manifestation of an imagined Shan nation.

Keywords: religious festivals, ethnic identity, Songkran, Tai Khun, Kengtung, Shan State, Myanmar


110

Neither Exit, Nor Loyalty: The Rohingya Proto-‐nation in Myanmar

Ko Ko Thett University of Leuven, Belgium

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Rohingya people who claim autochthony to the Rakhine littoral in western Myanmar are considered ‘Bengalis’ by the Myanmar officials. The term Rohingya itself gained a wider currency in the international media following the Rohingya-‐Rakhine communal clashes in the Rakhine state in western Myanmar in 2012. This is a study of the relatively recent process of the self-‐construction of the Rohingya ethno-‐religious identity in the media and social media by the Rohingya diaspora groups, against the backdrop of a similar self-‐construction by the transitional Myanmar nation. The current Myanmar constitutional framework does not provide the Rohingya with an “exit” as an autonomous polity, nor a chance for the Rohingya to be integrated into Myanmar as an ethnic group “loyal” to the state. I argue that the persistent denial of the existence of a proto-‐nation is counterproductive – it only enhances the binaries and heightens the group’s vulnerability and their urgent appeal for a nation. I conclude that, despite human cost, the two-‐way process of othering between the Myanmar nation-‐state and the Rohingya proto-‐nation is mutually beneficial as both the nation-‐state and the proto-‐nation are in the making, and each needs a foe to ascertain their uncertainties.

Keywords: proto-‐nation, Rohingya, Rakhine, othering, nation-‐building, Buddhist-‐Muslim clashes


111

Readiness of Myanmar Access to ASEAN Economic Community

Kosump Saichan Faculty of Political Sciences and Public Administration, Chiang Mai University

Atchareeya Saisin

Faculty of Political Sciences and Public Administration, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The coming ASEAN Economic Community that will be started officially at the end of 2015 is a new challenge to the Southeast Asia region. Myanmar, as the recent chairman of ASEAN, has an important task in showing their efficiency in leading the bloc and readiness in accessing the new economic community in all economic, social, and political aspects. This paper is the result of research about the readiness of Myanmar toward the new schemes of the region after the general election in 2010. The study found that the Myanmar government has strategies to encourage Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) through their new investment law and regulations. They also welcome Official Development Assistance (ODA) from other countries to develop infrastructure in the country. The study also found that infrastructures in Myanmar are important obstacles for foreign investment, particularly unstable electricity-‐generating capacity, undeveloped transportation infrastructure, and lack of telecommunications in many areas. Assistance from other countries, from governments, international organizations, and non-‐governmental organizations, have played significant roles in developing the infrastructures of Myanmar through ODA and other forms of assistance. However, in the issues about social and economics, the people in Myanmar also face the problems of rushed development in the country which has a lack of skilled laborers, inefficient education, and economic gaps between rich and poor that would cause social problems in the future. In addition, the country’s unstable politics also affect foreign investment.


112

The Notion of ‘Community’ along the Thai-‐Burmese Border Zones

Krishna Monthathip

Department of Critical International Politics, Aberystwyth University, Wales

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

‘Community’ is one of the most important concepts in social life. One major importance of the concept lies in its ability to entail assumptions of commonality and common belonging, which are needed for justifying social mobilisation and/or collective action. Despite its significance, however, the concept has been often assumed. The concept of community is at issue in the context of borderland, a space where differences encounter. Along the Thai-‐Burmese border zones, the community problématique becomes even intensified due to peoples’ ethno-‐cultural and linguistic diversity, histories of conflict, (il)legal statuses, and migratory mode of living.

This paper explores the notion of ‘community’ from the perspectives of marginalized peoples residing in the Thai-‐Burmese border zones. Based on a comparative ethnographic research project conducted in several Thai and Burmese border villages and Mae La ‘Refugee Camp’ on Tak province’s western border during two periods (2012–2013, 2015), the paper argues that: 1) geographical location and ethno-‐cultural identity alone do not necessarily lead to peoples’ shared sense of community; and 2) peoples’ differences in spatial conditions, material imperatives, and memories shape their senses of community in different ways. These insights raise politico-‐ethical implications for collective decision makers, social activists, and researchers in their claims about community in border zones.

Keywords: community, border zone, memory, trauma, subjectivity


113

Neither a Migrant nor a Refugee: Identity Construction and Economic Survival Strategies of the Rohingya Community

on the Thai-‐Burma Border

Kunnawut Boonreak Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In the last century, a large number of Rohingya have escaped persecution in Burma by entering Thailand. Denied by the Thai government to hold refugee status, fear of being forced to return, they have attempted to find any means to stay in Thailand. Today, many of them have come to Mae Sot, a Thai town on the border with Burma, hoping to find work and safety with the help of the established Muslim community in this town. This paper explores the network of Rohingya outside their motherland, whereas most of the previous studies are historical studies explaining the root of past conflicts. The information about the new generation of Rohingya is quite limited.

Therefore, this paper examines how the recently-‐arrived Rohingya survive in the underground economies of Mae Sot, and how their multiple forms of identity — i.e., being Rohingya, Muslim, refugee, or migrant — are employed in their survival strategies. In addition, my paper argues for the need to understand the Rohingya movements into Mae Sot as more than a single wave. There exist long-‐term resident Rohingya, some of whom have acquired Thai citizenship. These are well-‐to-‐do Rohingya, as opposed to the recent arrivals who survive on a daily wage basis. The finding shows that concealing being ‘Rohingya’ and promoting other ethnic identities, or pretending to be a ‘migrant’ or ‘refugee’ are primary strategies. Accordingly, the new generation constructs ‘fluid’ and ‘multiple’ identities in order to compromise and interact with others in each circumstance to struggle for their living and survival in the borderland.

Keywords: Rohingya, Thai-‐Burma border, ethnic identity, cross-‐border trade


114

The Leke Religious Movement of the Karen on the Thai-‐Myanmar Border: De-‐territorialization and Connectivity

Kwanchewan Buadaeng

Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Leke is one among many religious cults of the Karen peoples in the Thailand-‐Myanmar borderland. Leke has its own religious structure and practices, which are different from those of Christianity and Buddhism. The salient feature of the Leke, however, is the upholding of li chaw wae, literally chicken-‐scratch letters, the sacred scripts, being vegetarians especially on Saturdays, and other ritual procedures. Leke communities can be found in many villages of several townships, mostly in Hpa-‐an District of Karen State of Myanmar.

In the past three decades, as a result of protracted war between the Burmese army and the Karen National Liberation Army, many Leke Karen have fled or moved away from their original villages. Some of them crossed over the Thailand-‐Myanmar border to live in refugee camps, later moving to other countries. Although Leke people are estimated to be around 10,000, and not growing much, they are far from being extinct. On the contrary, as I would argue, being de-‐territorialized and fragmented are conditions of the Leke’s strength. New connections have been made, resulting in the mobilization of more resources to develop Leke centers and to fund their activities. Besides, displaced Leke members are also able to make use of new technologies and modern ideas to confirm Leke identity, to promote Leke ideology, and to adjust Leke practices in a way that they can be perpetuated.


115

Cross-‐Border Linkages: The Strategic Plan of the Migrant Education Integration Initiative

Kyaw Kyaw Min Htut

BEAM Education Foundation / Migrant Education Integration Initiative -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Out of the estimated 400,000 migrant children who are residing in Thailand, only 170,000 are estimated to be in schools. 150,000 of them are registered in Thai schools, while an estimated 20,000 are studying in 126 migrant community learning centers across Thailand. These children have diverse educational and ethnic backgrounds and aspire differently. In most cases, migrant families aspire to go back to their places of origin, but have reservations — the reintegration process may take a longer time, and social protection systems need to be linked across borders.

The Thai education system provides Thai accreditation to migrant students, but the school transfer system between Thailand and Myanmar is not in place, which is necessary for students returning to Myanmar. Identity and culture are also additional concerns for migrant children who are learning in Thai schools. On the other hand, migrant learning centers are unable to provide accreditation to migrant students and require tactical approaches to both educational authorities for linkages.

In the era of AEC, migration between two countries is increasing, but social protection systems are yet to be connected. Grassroots migrant education organizations stood together and initiated a plan through a network called MEII. The plan is for initiating educational cross-‐border linkages.

Keywords: MEII, education reform, pathways


116

Chin People Today: Livelihood, Migration, Displacement, and Exile

Kyin Lam Mang

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow / Yoyamay Ethnographic Textile Gallery

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

This paper attempts to explain the phenomenon of livelihoods, migration, displacement, and exile of northern and southern Chin people in Myanmar from the pre-‐colonial era to the present day. Prior to colonialism, the livelihood of Chin people was peasantry. Yet the work was diverse upon their staple food. In general, corn in northern Chin areas, and upland rice in the south by means of slash-‐and-‐burn cultivation. The soil quality in northern Chin State was poorer and harder to meet carrying capacity as well. Accordingly, British annexation changed the northern Chin young men from peasants to salary men by joining the British army and encouraging their children to access formal education and work as government employees. Likewise, their lives were still easy until 1962. During the period of the first junta from 1962 to 1988, some Chin people started migrating out to Mizoram State in India because their lives became harder year-‐after-‐year, and displacement occurred: some moved to the adjacent fertile low-‐land in Kalemyo and Tamu Township areas for new settlement, while the infamous Hpakant jade mine in Kachin State attracted those seeking jobs for their survival. After 1988, under the second junta, political and religious hardship forced many Chins to flee to India and Malaysia to seek safe and secure lives under the protection of the UNHCR, eventually settling in third countries as exiles. The junta supported a big incentive of double-‐salary to its employees in Chin State to keep people in Chin State and encourage development. Now, some remaining peasant families live on the remittances of their close relatives in exile. By contrast, southern Chin people experienced a food insecurity situation since the pre-‐colonial period to 1988. After 1988, they also faced the same hardship as northern Chin, and many fled to Hpakant jade mine first, later fleeing toward Malaysia to take refuge under the UNHCR as exiles.

Keywords: British annexation, peasants, salary men, junta, UNHCR, Hpakant, Buddhist economics


117

Land Concessions as a Process of State-‐Building

in Northern Shan State, Myanmar

L Gum Ja Htung RCSD, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract In Myanmar, land concessions for agribusiness and industrial development have been on the rise since the late 2000s, with a total of nearly two million acres allocated to the private sector by the military government of the State Peace and Development Council. Since the advent of the current democratic government in March 2011, land issues have risen to the top of the national political agenda, as news reports on protests by farming communities across the country against land grabbing increase day-‐by-‐day. However, unlike the lowland land conflict, upland land conflict is interconnected with ethnic politics and state-‐building in ethnic nationality areas.

The end of fighting provided a situation of greater stability for investment in resource concession projects under the area development programs in conflict areas. On the other hand, resource concessions had reallocated land and resources from the local ethnic populations to outside investors. The past military government was the main actor to facilitate these investments in asserting greater control over areas in Kachin State and northern Shan State. During the ceasefire period, government granted resource concessions to local and Chinese companies, and it created opportunities for them to grab resources across the ceasefire areas. Among them, large-‐scale agribusinesses were some of the largest resource-‐grabbing entities during the ceasefire period. Since the 1990s, after liberalization of the market economy, large-‐scale land concessions — mainly to Chinese businessmen or to local companies and local militias acting as front — have increased in ethnic upland areas. More importantly, the Myanmar government has strategically used this national and transnational capital under the name of development to control territories in ethnic borderlands. Therefore, it can be said that these resource concessions have helped the government to expand its military, administrative, and economic reach into areas of the country where it previously had little or none.

Keywords: land concessions, ethnic politics, state-‐building


118

Accumulation by Dispossession and Local Livelihood Insecurity:

A Case Study of Ruby Mining in Mogok, Myanmar

La Ring RCSD, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Mogok has been regarded as the finest ruby mining site in Southeast Asia since the colonial era when the British won the first Anglo-‐Burmese war. The main occupation of local people in Mogok used to be ruby mining until the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) passed the Myanmar Gems Law No. 8/95, which enabled private companies and mining cooperatives to form joint ventures with the State to enter the region around Mogok to mine rubies via the intensive mechanized method of previous decades. Thereafter, local people were no longer allowed to access to ruby mines.

Thus, the livelihoods of these local ruby miners changed significantly after 1995. The Gems Law revoked all previous ruby and jade mining licenses previously granted to the local people, declaring that all gems were now military property and the Myanmar Economic Holdings Limited (MEHL) was created to grant licenses to large mining enterprises (Wai, 2011). The adoption of these pro-‐market reforms was part of the SLORC’s strategy to stave off total economic collapse, and included opening Myanmar to foreign investment, liberalizing agriculture, timber extraction and fisheries, and encouraging a shift to the private sector (Jones, 2012).

My research primarily focuses on the insecurity of Kachin villager livelihoods after 1995 and the arrival of the joint State/company and foreign investment mining ventures. It will cover the role of mining concessions in transforming the sustainable livelihood strategies of the local people and their coping strategies for their livelihood against the impact of large-‐scale mining projects in Mogok. The study focuses on the period after 1994 when the practices of traditional mining were no longer allowed (Kane & Kammerling, 1992).

Keywords: ruby mining, mining concessions, livelihood, liberalizing agriculture


119

The Rise and Decline of Technocrats: Comparative Aspects of Post-‐World War II Myanmar and Thai Economic Advisors

Lalita Hanwong Mahasarakham University

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Abstract

Myanmar and Thailand were severely damaged by World War II. Reconstruction schemes took place immediately after the war with foreign aid, capital, and advice flocking into both countries. Major economic plans were drafted and implemented. During this process, apart from groups of foreign economic advisors, the first generation of Myanmar and Thai technocrats — well-‐educated and prominent economic experts — also stood at the forefront. The likes of Hla Myint and Puey Ungpakorn represent the face of reconstruction and the emergence of Myanmar and Thailand’s economic planning. Both Hla Myint and Puey share striking similarities: their alma mater (London School of Economics), doctoral supervisor (Friedrich Hayek), their leading roles as rector and president at Rangoon and Thammasat Universities, respectively, and their inclination to welfare economics as a means to improve the lives of millions of impoverished Myanmar and Thai people. Regardless of their prominence, Hla Myint and Puey’s roles in economy and education were considered hostile to the Myanmar and Thai governments during the early 1960s and the late 1970s, respectively. Both men were forced to leave for Britain and never worked in their home countries again. This paper concludes by examining Hla Myint and Puey’s legacy and impact upon Myanmar and Thailand’s economic development today.

Keywords: technocrats, Myanmar, Thailand, Hla Myint, Puey Ungpakorn, post-‐war economics


120

Chinese Power Investment in Myanmar: Challenges and Prospects

Ling Zhang

Law School of Yunnan University of Finance and Economics -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Because of the tremendous hydropower potential and the special relationship between China and the previous military junta government of Myanmar, major Chinese power investors entered into this new market, densely focused on hydropower development projects, and seized almost all of the large-‐scale projects. However, due to Myanmar’s political reform and the rising local opposition towards Chinese investment, particularly the subsequent suspension of Myitsone Dam, Myanmar is no longer perceived as a friendly investment paradise. The massive reduction of Chinese investment over the past few years neither makes any contribution to the solution of Myanmar’s serious domestic power shortage, nor does it help those Chinese power investors who have spent significant amounts of funds on the project-‐planning stage, and eventually will damage the Sino-‐Myanmar strategic relationship.

Based on Chinese investors’ experience, this paper aims to understand the current regulatory framework for BOT projects in the power sector in Myanmar, the approving process for granting concession, the ministries involved, the standardized contract terms and conditions, related issues such as environmental and social consideration, security arrangements for project financing or shareholders’ loan, dispute settlement mechanism, etc. Further analysis illustrates that the failure of the Myitsone Dam and the other stalled power projects invested in by Chinese corporations are partly due to the lack of overseas investment experience and the lack of awareness of corporate social responsibilities from the Chinese perspective, and partly because of the obvious deficits that currently exist in Myanmar’s BOT regulatory framework.

From the perspective of Myanmar, sustainable economic growth cannot take place unless it is built on a foundation of law that expressly outlines the rights and obligations of the foreign investors and the host states, and provides workable solutions in the event of disputes or conflicts. However, the Chinese government


121

should support its investors to enhance corporate social responsibilities, raise environmental and social awareness, and to create a proper profit-‐sharing mechanism to reduce hostility and increase responsible investment to protect existing Chinese investments and interests from further damage and to benefit both nations in the long run.

Keywords: hydro-‐power investment, legal framework, BOT


122

Dawei Local People’s Movement: Concerns over the Dawei Special Economic Zone Project

Luntharimar Longcharoen, Independent Researcher

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Abstract

The Dawei Special Economic Zone (DSEZ) is a bilateral economic cooperation project owned jointly between the national governments of Thailand and Myanmar, initiated in 2008. DSEZ has been designated in an area extending to 204.5 sq. km. Land has been cleared in certain areas, and initial infrastructure development has already begun. The project will comprise primarily an industrial estate area including a deep seaport and dockyards, an oil refinery complex, steel mill, fertilizer and petrochemical plant, pulp and paper processing plant, medium and light industry factories, and one or more electric power plants. The infrastructure project also extends beyond the demarcated economic zone, with an international roadlink also being constructed that links the DSEZ with Thailand. Additional transport links along a similar route are also planned, along with the construction of a new oil and gas pipeline to Thailand. A large water supply reservoir is also planned to the northeast of the DSEZ, a small port to the south, a quarry to the north, and several resettlement villages are planned to receive the populations that will be displaced from the project areas. It is estimated that people within 20–36 villages (comprising approximately 4,384–7,807 households, or 22,000–43,000 people), would be directly affected by the construction of the DSEZ and related projects. As the site is in a populated area, just 20 km from Dawei, the regional capital, the rural, coastal, and urban populations of Dawei District are highly likely to be subjected to negative environmental and other impacts emanating from the industrial and petrochemical complex, if it goes ahead. The report Voices from the Ground: Concerns Over the Dawei Special Economic Zone and Related Projects conducted by the Dawei Development Asociation (DDA) has examined the human rights abuses and socio-‐environmental impacts in the project area.

Keywords: ethnic armed conflict, displacement, accessibility of education


123

Myanmar: Land of No Progress, or Golden Promise?

Framing Practices in the Flemish Press Coverage of Myanmar

Lutgard Lams Faculty of Arts, University of Leuven, Belgium

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Abstract

Given the social and political transformations in Burma/Myanmar during the past few years, the country has garnered more international attention from political elites and policy makers, both in the business world and the international media. Whether this increased interest also translates into well-‐informed knowledge about the many issues of importance to Burmese citizens is worth looking into. Research suggests that foreign discourse on Burma/Myanmar can be divided into two ‘cultures of circulation’ (Prasse-‐Freeman, 2014), namely the liberal human rights advocates using the Western discourses of human rights, democracy, and rule of law on the one hand, and the neoliberal believers that power of the state and market reforms will generate positive political changes, on the other hand.

It has also been argued that Western (primarily Anglo-‐Saxon) media tend to focus on a limited range of topics, mainly the human rights conditions, pitching the autocratic regime against the oppressed citizenry, and/or the government reforms, applauding the leadership for engaging in peace negotiations, constitutional revisions, relaxation of restrictions on foreign investment, tourist flows, and journalists (Brooten, 2008). This paper intends to complement the research by looking at how non-‐English media, in particular the Dutch-‐language press in Belgium, has framed transitional Burma over the last few years. The objects of investigation are the mainstream elite news outlets with a larger proportion of international news, De Morgen and De Standaard. Drawing on the insights of framing theory and critical discourse analysis, the paper adopts a comparative perspective to examine whether the Flemish news outlets also adopt an Orientalist ‘good versus evil’ paradigm (Aung-‐Thwin, 2001-‐2002) and celebrate the opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi as a depoliticized, nearly deified, female celebrity icon. It looks into hierarchies of topics and representation practices of the main actors and events (including ethnic minorities and conflicts) and aims to answer which ‘cultures of circulation’ inspire the narratives. Keywords: news framing, critical discourse analysis, Burma/Myanmar press coverage, Belgian Dutch-‐language press


124

Public Participation, Social Movements, and Environmental Decision-‐Making:

A Case Study of the Letpadaung Mining Project

Lwin Lwin Wai “Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow,

RCSD, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Public participation is crucial for development projects because of the socio-‐economic impacts on local people and the environment. This paper focuses on the participation of local people and other stakeholders in the Letpadaung Copper Mining Project, currently being implemented by China’s Wanbao Company, the military-‐owned Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings (UMEH) Company, and Mining Enterprise 1 (ME-‐1). The Letpadaung Copper Mine Project is still generating social conflict over abuse of power, human rights violations, lack of social justice, and limited participation. Local people have staged social protests against the project with the support of civil society organizations and environmental groups. They have also taken part in a community consultation process. Moreover, they have engaged in a traditional “cursing” ceremony.

The purpose of the paper is to describe the reality of what is happening in the Letpadaung area as a way to understand the possibilities for public participation in decision-‐making about development projects in Myanmar today. Public participation is not only a democratic practice in which people are engaged and involved in development activities that affect their lives, but also a process in which different people from different sectors integrate their opinions into decision-‐making processes. The research used qualitative research methods to obtain data through semi-‐structured interviews, key informant interviews, group discussion, field notes, and observations.

This research attempts to answer the question: What role do public participation and stakeholder involvement play in the decision-‐making processes related to development projects in Myanmar?

Keywords: participation, social protest, decision-‐making, development project


125

Environmental Damage and Poverty Migration among Myanmar and its Neighbours

Lynn Thiesmeyer Faculty of Environmental Information, Keio University, Japan

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Abstract

Informal migration in Southeast Asia has long received a good deal of attention, and climate change migration and environmentally-‐induced migration have now begun to attract the attention of scholars and policymakers. Yet in this year of repeated drought, there is still a limited interest in environmental migration in the Southeast Asia context, with a primary focus still on human rights. Based on several years of socio-‐economic and environmental surveys along the China-‐Myanmar border, this paper aims to show the situation of destitute migrants who face the increasing pressure of rapid environmental loss and degradation on their rural livelihoods. Their migration consists of informal movement both into and out of Myanmar as a survival strategy all across Myanmar’s borders in the upper GMS.

The migrants in this study are rural, low-‐skilled, and low-‐educated whose origins and destinations are rural areas within southern Yunnan Province and central to northern Myanmar. Their increasing number; their engagement in whole-‐household migration; their movement sometimes involuntary and often on foot, away from their now environmentally unviable places of origin; and their current invisibility within regional policy distinguish them from the region’s economic migrants with slightly greater assets or access to networks. The destitute migrants in this research were moving to distant destinations without benefit of migration networks or transportation. Their migration also goes against the received wisdom that migrants go from “poorer” countries to “richer” ones; recent migrants from rural China were found at work on the plantations and in the outdoor markets in the least-‐developed rural areas of Myanmar.

This study relates this phenomenon to the relatively high incidence of environmental damage, particularly livelihood-‐destroying slow-‐onset disasters and anthropogenic damage arising from energy development projects in the upper GMS, and considers the position of environmental migration within the context of ASEAN economic integration.


126

The Sound of Loss and Hope: Pop Music of Karen Refugees from Burma/Myanmar

Manoch Chummuangpak

Faculty of Communication Arts, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper is about the engagement of Karen refugees from Burma with pop music. It explores how the refugee pop music scene, which is not predicated upon mainstream and nationally-‐defined media systems, has been developed and sustained over the past several decades. Specifically, this paper presents how and why a number of Karen groups and individuals on the Thai-‐Burma border and in several resettlement countries are keen to take part in the production and circulation of Karen pop music. It also presents how their music engagement is related to the situations of Karen migration and displacement, as well as Karen political and cultural movements both in their home and host countries. In addition, this paper sheds light on the role that transnational practices and networks play in the development of the pop music scene of Karen refugees. It illustrates the way in which Karen music producers and audiences take advantage of media, communication, and transportation technologies, which in turn helps them to maintain and reinforce a sense of collective Karen identity and community and Karen nationalist sentiment in the diaspora, thereby enabling the Karen to resist being assimilated passively into dominant societies and cultures.

Keywords: refugee, diaspora, transnationalism, pop music, migrant media


127

Myanmar’s Youth and the Question of Citizenship

Marie Lall Reader in Education and South Asian Studies, University of London

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Citizenship in Myanmar under military rule has always been defined from above. In light of the reforms, this paper seeks to examine the views from below — specifically how young people across Myanmar define citizenship. The paper is based on the views of 2,007 respondents that took a mixed methods questionnaire in seven states and four regions between 2012 and 2014.

One of the most prominent cross-‐cutting themes was that of patriotism, nationalism, often linked to culture, religion, and sometimes to language. This included a growing sense of Buddhism as part of the national identity that serves to discriminate/divide rather than unite. A very large number of respondents within the Buddhist ethnic groups — i.e. not only Bamar respondents — equated citizenship with religion, or seemed to think that in order to be Myanmar, one has to also be Buddhist.

Equal rights for all was another theme that transcended all questionnaires. There were, however, regional and ethnic differences on whether the fairness was based on sharing resources (Bamars) or a federated concept of ethnic rights and national rights (other ethnic nationalities). A lot of these rights focused on freedom of culture, religion, speech, access to land, and most importantly, access to opportunities. The paper explores these views and discusses what challenges these pose to a government that seeks to unite the various ethnic and religious groups behind its reformist programme.

Keywords: citizenship, youth, nationalism, religion, Buddhism


128

Natural Resource Use and Environmental Governance in Myanmar: The Perception of the Irrawaddy River Valley

in Burma (Myanmar) by its Inhabitants

Marion Sabrié Laboratory Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Paris

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Abstract

For centuries, Burma (Myanmar) has been considered the land of the Irrawaddy River by both Burmese inhabitants and researchers. The river has always been a source of water for irrigation, transportation, and fish for food. Two ethnic groups, the centrally located Bamars (the ethnic majority) and the Kachins in the north, both share the perception of the Irrawaddy River Valley as central to the Burma Territory. Based on local interviews, my paper will explore the perception of the Irrawaddy's role in the national territorial organization. I analyze the different perceptions of stakeholders that the Myitsone hydro-‐electrical plant project, situated at the Irrawaddy's sources, embodies. These include the political and intellectual elite, the riparian Bamars and Kachins, and the NGOS supporting them. I find that while the central role played by the Irrawaddy River has decreased (evidenced by the capital city moving from Yangon to Naypyidaw in the Sittang River Valley, as well as the disuse of some economic activities), the perception of its greatest indispensability has never been so strong. Because of the recent democratization process and the economic opening, the pressure on the Irrawaddy and the will to protect and ‘save’ it has intensified.

Keywords: Irrawaddy River, Myitsone hydro-‐electrical project, Kachin State, national integration


129

Identity Politics and Ethnicity: Christian Churches and Ethnic Politics

Marja-‐Leena Heikkilä-‐Horn

Mahidol University International College, Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper looks into the variety of Christian denominations in present-‐day Myanmar. Of the major Christian denominations (Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, and Methodist), many are multiethnic, whereas some are strongly embedded in the identities of groups like the Chin, Kachin, and Karen. Christianity was introduced and consolidated by the colonial rule as the British permitted and indirectly supported activities of both American and European Christian missionaries. Christian mission schools and the British army ultimately opened the road to social mobility for some Christianised minorities. With the recent political transformations, Myanmar is yet again open for Christian missionaries and lobbyists. What is the impact of the rapid, albeit unsatisfactory, socio-‐political transition process on the Christian churches? An essential question discussed in the paper is why Christianity is ethnicised and politicised in one group, yet remains unpoliticised in another ethno-‐religious group.

Keywords: Christian denominations, Anglican, Baptist, Catholic, Methodist


130

New routes, New Players, New Challenges: Mutations of Tourism in Myanmar

Martin Michalon

Center for Southeast Asia Studies, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), Paris

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Abstract

Tourism in Myanmar has long been quite controversial and heavily dependent on the internal political situation: until the late 2000s, foreigners were reluctant to visit a pariah state. Moreover, the long isolation of the country severely hampered the development of a basic tourism sector (complex banking system and visa issuing, poor infrastructure, and hotel quality). As a result, in 2008, no more than 200,000 tourists visited “the Golden Land,” while Cambodia and Thailand respectively hosted 2.1 million and 14.6 million people. However, the democratization process, launched in 2010, had a tremendous effect on visitor flows: in 2014, Myanmar hosted no less than three million foreigners, i.e fifteen times more than in 2008.

In 2013, the opening of previously restricted areas, as well as the opening of land checkpoints, also allowed a diversification of the routes tackled by travelers, who have become increasingly numerous in the Tanintharyi Division, as well as in Kayah State. As for the “traditional” highlights of the country (Yangon, Mandalay, Bagan, Inle Lake), they remain unchallenged, but new practices appear: hot air balloons, mountain bike, and trekking, while tourism extends to previously off-‐the-‐beaten-‐track areas.

In parallel of this spatial expansion, new visitors’ profiles are asserting themselves: Asian tourism is becoming both more significant and visible, and domestic tourism is an increasingly important dimension that the researcher can no longer neglect.

However, tourism growth is facing new hurdles: the value-‐for-‐money in Myanmar remains inferior to many other Asian countries; the human resource issue is an acute problem; and the impact of tourism on the local territories (environment, culture, development, etc.) is questionable.


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All along our presentation, we will try to sketch a national assessment of the tourism sector transformations, while also deepening our study through a few local case studies, such as Inle Lake, Bagan, or the Mawlamyine/Hpa-‐An region.

Keywords: Myanmar, international tourism, domestic tourism, investment, development


132

Ethnic Politics and Citizenship in History

Martin Smith Independent Analyst

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Abstract

Different perceptions of nationality identity, politics, and citizenship have existed throughout Burma/Myanmar’s history. Such differences were partially structured during the colonial era of government, and they have diversified into new forms since independence in 1948 as a host of different state and non-‐state actors have struggled, often against one another, to achieve a national political system that reflects the aspirations, identities, and citizenship rights of all peoples. Failure in the accomplishment of such a fundamental task has underpinned the legacy of state failure, ethnic conflict, and political impasse that faces the country today. In particular, while the national armed forces, known as the Tatmadaw, have dominated government and unitary political systems in central regions of the country, a variety of ethnic nationality and political opposition groups have continued to keep alive very different visions of identity, rights, and statehood in the borderlands.

Since 2011, although Tatmadaw dominance continues, a new multi-‐ethnic, multi-‐party political system is being introduced through such elements as parliamentary politics, ethnic ceasefire talks, a national census, and constitutional reform. In consequence, for the first time in several decades, such ground-‐breaking processes are bringing on to the national stage for debate differences of opinion and deep crises in ethnic politics that have long needed to be addressed if nationwide peace and inclusive reforms are to be achieved. Particular challenges include autonomy, federalism, nationality identities, political rights, discrimination, citizenship, refugees, internally-‐displaced persons, and land and economic rights for all peoples. In an overview of history, this paper will argue that, unless such conflicting visions and political divisions are both recognized and addressed, state failure and national instability are only likely to continue. Political transition from Tatmadaw-‐based government is still at a beginning, not at an end.

Keywords: ethnicity, identity, history, politics, citizenship


133

Foreign Influence in the Burmese language

Mathias Jenny Department of Comparative Linguistics, University of Zurich, Switzerland

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Abstract

Burmese has a documented history of one thousand years, with already the first texts showing influence from foreign languages, especially in the vocabulary. Less evidence of foreign influence is found in the grammatical structure of Burmese, though a closer look reveals some structures that seem to be due to foreign influence. Foreign elements are important indicators of the development of the language and contact with other cultures. This study takes the linguistic and historical evidence to draw a picture of contact scenarios into which the Burmese language and culture entered over the past thousand years. Four main sources of foreign elements in Burmese can be identified:

1. Indian Sanskrit and Pali, as carriers of Hindu and Buddhist cultures, naturally play an important role in the linguistic landscape of Southeast Asian lowland cultures. The shape of Indian loans in many cases indicates the time and path of the borrowing. More recently, large numbers of words entered Burmese from Hindi and other New Indo-‐Aryan languages.

2. Mon Mon was the main literary language for a few decades at the beginning of the 11th century at Bagan. During this time, not only was the Mon writing system introduced to Burmese, but also a number of lexical loans entered the language, mostly from the domain of architecture, arts, and administration.

3. Thai During the later periods of Burmese history, frequent wars with their neighbors to the East, the Thais of Siam, a number of Thai cultural concepts were taken over, sometimes with the Thai lexical items.


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4. English The most recent source of foreign elements in Burmese is English, which started entering the language during the colonial time. Like in Indian English, English loans in Burmese show some phonological peculiarities, especially the deaspiration of stops.

Apart from these, Burmese has incorporated elements from various other languages, some of which can be identified, but much research in Burmese lexicography is still required in order to obtain a full picture. In addition, a detailed study of Burmese inscriptions is necessary to better understand the historical development of Burmese syntax and eventually detect foreign elements in different periods of the language.


135

Redefining Citizenship in Myanmar through National Political Dialogue

Matthew Walton

St Antony's College, University of Oxford -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

For the past few years, citizenship in Myanmar has usually been discussed in relationship to the Rohingya community that has been denied citizenship by the government. However, even members of groups that are accepted as indigenous groups in the country experience gradations of citizenship based on ethnicity, religion, geographic location, and socio-‐economic status. Myanmar’s great project of national reconciliation — that will be, at least in part, carried out through the national political dialogue process — will need to address informal as well as formal barriers to full inclusion and participation in the national community. This paper considers the ways in which different groups’ proposed national dialogue frameworks address issues of citizenship. I argue that the different frameworks contain explicit and implicit attitudes towards citizenship and how it ought to be included as part of Myanmar’s national reconciliation process. I also look at other creative arrangements for addressing citizenship and political inclusion that might move beyond a relatively bounded national political dialogue.

Keywords: citizenship, ethnicity, national reconciliation, dialogue, peace process


136

A Geographical Perspective on Myanmar’s Transition: Towards Inclusive, People-‐Centered, and Sustainable Economic

Growth

Maung Maung Aye Geographical Association of Myanmar, Environmental and Economic Research

Institute, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myanmar has a land area of 676,581 km2 with an estimated population of 51.49 million, consisting of diverse ethnic groups speaking over 100 languages and dialects. Myanmar’s transition from military regime to civilian rule started under a new constitution that came into effect in May 2008. During its transition, Myanmar needs more effective national and regional development and governmental reforms and restructuring. People-‐centred development reforms need to be implemented in order to reach international standards and meet the people’s needs. A people-‐centered development strategy incorporates the values of justice, sustainability, and inclusiveness. A number of reforms have already been undertaken in the financial sector, in relaxing media censorship, release of political detainees, and reaching ceasefire agreements in a number of conflict areas. Although the government has enacted the new Environmental Law and related regulations to use natural resources in a sustainable manner, there are many environmental problems caused by development projects of various sectors. Between one-‐third and one-‐fourth of the population is estimated to be living under the poverty line, but almost 80-‐percent of inhabitants are living either in poverty or very close to it. Despite significant efforts during the transition period in Myanmar, there is still a long way to go in developing a comprehensive social protection scheme. Myanmar attempts to manage a “triple transition”: nation building, state-‐building, and economic liberalization. Rule of law is crucial for peaceful and sustainable development. Transitions are never smooth, and it is likely that the situation on the ground in Myanmar will get messier before it gets better. Myanmar should work to ensure that current positive trends continue into 2015 and beyond. In order to sustain its growth momentum in the long run,


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Myanmar should aim for a growth trajectory that is inclusive, equitable, and environmentally sustainable.

Keywords: sustainable development, people-‐centred development reforms, “triple transition”, environmental sustainability, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), poverty reduction, community resilience, inclusive governance


138

Housewives, Thai TV Lottery Gambling, and Praying for Goddesses in Urban Pyay

Mi Mi Cho

RCSD, Chiang Mai University alumni

Wasan Panyagaew Chiang Mai University

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Abstract

Hna Lone Htee is the gambling on two digits by using the Thai stock market index that is broadcast on TV (the Thai MCOT channel 9) daily in Myanmar today. This ‘Thai TV Lottery’ is a kind of locally-‐created lottery gambling system which has recently become popular and is played by ordinary people four times a day for five days a week in several towns and cities throughout Myanmar. This paper investigates the social meaning of this Thai TV Lottery gambling in the daily lives of the housewives in urban Pyay, Bago Region. It examines the mixing of the traditional practices of nat spirit worshipping, beliefs, and interpreting dreams, words, and signs indicating numbers, as well as modern ways of calculating bets, which are all social practices involved in Hna Lone Htee gambling in the daily life of a group of housewives. The paper will show that the popularity of Hna Lone Htee is attributable not only to financial reasons, but for risk-‐taking in the daily lives of the poor housewives in regionalizing Myanmar today.


139

Freedom, Human Rights, and a Film Festival: Experience of Organizing International Human Rights

Film Festivals in Myanmar

Min Htin Ko Ko Gyi Filmmaker

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Abstract

Recent media reforms in Myanmar have allowed the emergence of an international film festival dedicated to an issue essential to the country’s ongoing efforts at democratization — human rights. The original idea for the Human Rights Human Dignity International Film Festival is to connect film and human rights. Its core mission is to promote awareness of human rights in Myanmar through the power of film and the persuasive strength of audiovisual communication, and to create a space for encouraging human rights discussions amongst the general public in Myanmar. The film festival is held under the patronage of Aung San Suu Kyi and Min Ko Naing, both of whom have played important roles in promoting issues of human rights in Myanmar. It screens selections of international and local documentaries, short films, and animations related to issues of human rights. As Myanmar is heading toward its transition to democracy, the aim of the film festival is to encourage discussion of human rights among the public of Myanmar. The festival has also traveled to as many as 13 villages across the rural countryside — some in regions where many residents likely have never had the opportunity to experience cinema. Run consecutively for three years, this talk by the festival organizer will encompass experiences, challenges, and outcomes in an attempt to cultivate people’s understanding about human rights.


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Urbanism and Economic Development: Elite Power and Disparity in the Face of Top-‐Down Urbanization in Yangon

Min Theik Chan Aung

Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Since early 2011, Myanmar has been undergoing a series of discussions about the development of the country, most of which have been focused on the economic aspects of development. This includes the creation of special economic zones and the urban growth centers as important mechanisms for achieving the country’s economic development goals, including the proposal of using Yangon and Mandalay as ‘twin growth poles.’ This paper looks specifically at the case of Yangon and discusses the aspect of social confrontations that have emerged in the name of urban redevelopment. It briefly traces the development of the primacy of Yangon and depicts its transition and current images. Next, it selects some cases of the social confrontations downtown and at the fringes of the city in order to explore the power relations between the government, economic elites, and Yangon’s residents, and how these people interpret the meanings and value of Yangon urban space in relation to their socioeconomic positions.

Keywords: urbanism, economic development, power


141

Performing Poverty Reduction: National and Sub-‐National Poverty Alleviation Programs in Myanmar

Min Ye Paing Hein,

World Bank Myanmar Office -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Since the launch of economic and political reform in 2011, “poverty alleviation” has occupied a central stage in Myanmar’s policy arena. In 2011, President U Thein Sein unveiled the Poverty Reduction Fund (PRF) program to transfer funds to 15 states and regions. In 2013, the legislative branch rolled out the constituency development funds (CDF) to 330 townships in Myanmar. In 2014, the “Ever-‐green village” program came into existence as a pilot program in 1,150 villages across Myanmar under the aegis of the ministry of Livestock, Fisheries, and Rural Development. First, this paper examines the genesis and growth of these poverty alleviation programs between the years 2011 and 2015. Second, the paper addresses some of the limitations and constraints in the programs. Third, the paper presents policy suggestions to improve the mechanisms of coordination and complementarity between these programs in promoting the welfare of the poor in Myanmar.


142

Burma as a ‘Corridor’: A Case of South Asian Descendants’ Community in Northern Thailand

Mineo Takada

Hiroshima Shudo University, Hiroshima, Japan -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper highlights the location of Burma (Myanmar) and reviews its geographical territory and historical position as a ‘corridor’ that connects two areas: Thailand (or Southeast Asia as a whole) and South Asia. Historically, there were many forms of exchange between the two regions. It is well known that two great religions as well as cultures of South Asian origin, i.e. Hinduism and Buddhism, were spread from South Asia to Southeast Asia mainly by sea. Muslim Indian traders also brought Islam with the trade goods to Southeast Asia as a new religion and civilization. Generally speaking, South Asia and Southeast Asia consist of an ‘Indian Ocean world,’ and there were and are the frequent trade and intimate communication between these two regions by sea. On the other hand, as a matter of fact, there were and are a lot of people coming from Burma to Thailand by land.

Considering these facts, a simple question comes to mind: Were (and are) there not any flow of people from South Asia to Thailand (or Southeast Asia as a whole) traversing Burma? Or, was there anyone who walked across Burma, and coming from somewhere in the South Asian region to Thailand by land? Surely there were (and are). But, curiously enough, few scholars pay attention to the aspect of Burma as a ‘corridor’ that bridges South Asia and Southeast Asia.

This presentation tries to focus on this point, i.e. Burma ‘as a corridor’, by considering the case of a South Asian migrant group in Thailand, a Bangladeshi (or Eastern Bengal) Muslim descendants’ community in northern Thailand.

Keywords: Burma, Thailand, Muslim, trans-‐border


143

Socio-‐economic Patterns of Yintaw Township (1853–1910)

Moe Moe Oo

Department of History, Mandalay University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

How Yintaw town came into existence under Myanmar monarchical rule, and how it changed in the successive periods, are discussed in this paper. Yintaw was first inhabited by the Pyu, and it became an important locality ruled by Myanmar kings. When the colonial government divided the country into districts, Yintaw became a district and later a sub-‐division of Mandalay Division. When colonial administration was introduced, priority was given to the maintenance of law and order rather than to the effectiveness of administration. This work reveals a broad perspective on the importance of the region in the development of societies throughout history. As is already known, the interrelation between the society and agrarian economy was so great that one cannot develop if the other is weak. In order to discuss these topics, the researcher has made extensive field research to collect primary source materials which have never been used before. Stone inscriptions, bell inscriptions, land mortgage deeds, and contemporary records were used to illuminate the area’s supra-‐ and infra-‐relations, administrative patterns, self-‐sufficiency economy, economic hardship, social status, and various religious sectors. I believe that this research work will be of significant value for scholars of Southeast Asian Studies.


144

Social Exclusion, Livelihoods, and Gender Violence: Burmese Muslim Refugees in Thailand

Mollie Pepper

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Northeastern University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This work seeks to understand gender-‐based violence and the connection between violence and livelihoods for refugees living in conditions of social exclusion. Through qualitative research consisting of 40 interviews, a market survey, and observation conducted among Burmese Muslim refugees in Thailand, this work analyzes the connection between livelihood strategies, social exclusion, and gender-‐based violence. Muslims are a marginalized group within Burma, and also experience ongoing discrimination while living in refugee communities in Thailand, which results in risk for several kinds of violence at multiple levels. The experiences of Muslim refugees living in Thailand offer insight into the conditions that shape violence for refugees more generally. Findings show that several factors contribute to the incidence of gender violence, including structural, community, and interpersonal stressors and constraints. These dynamics also shape violence, whether domestic abuse, harassment and assault within the refugee camp, or experiences with Thai authorities. By showing the complex conditions that shape gender-‐based violence for refugees in this context, this work demonstrates the need for consideration of marginalized groups within refugee populations and the layered nature of the conditions that underpin dynamics of gender violence. This paper concludes with consideration of the implications of these findings for the possibility of refugee return to Myanmar in the context of ongoing ethnic difficulty and livelihoods struggles.

Keywords: ethnic minority, Muslims, livelihoods, gender violence, refugee


145

Social Media: Agent of Change or Cause of Conflict?

Mon Mon Myat

Human Dignity Film Institute (HDFI) -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Political liberalization of Myanmar’s military regime after the 2010 general election encouraged rapid media development in Burma. Among various forms of media in Myanmar, Facebook has recently become the most popular social media among journalists and media entities for its speediness and its ability to evade censorship control. This paper discusses two important aspects to understand how social media plays a role in the democratic transition of Myanmar. First, it explores ways in which Facebook is used by journalists and media organizations. Second, it examines how social media has played an important role in recent ethno-‐religious conflicts in Myanmar. The paper argues that in many cases of recent ethno-‐religious strife, i.e. in Rakhine State and in Meikhtila, social media was arguably a cause of conflict. By examining the detailed scenarios of the recent ethno-‐religious conflicts, the paper further argues that the deployment of social media serves to construct an image of the military as an essential institution for Myanmar’s security and stability.


146

The Challenges of Nat-‐Kadaw in Myanmar

Mya Mya Khin Professor and Head of Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Animism predates Buddhism in Myanmar. King Anawrahta (1044–1077) of Bagan introduced Buddhism to Burma (Myanmar). Traditional beliefs were not easily abandoned by the native people, and so King Anawrahta merged nat worship with Buddhism. Nat-‐kadaw and nat believers also accept Buddhism. Nat-‐kadaw and nat believers mention that they are Buddhists (e.g, on census forms, ID cards, and biographies). For nat-‐kadaw, offering to the nats instead of believers becomes his or her profession. They also endeavour to learn and practice the Buddha’s teachings. They are ready to support Buddhism. Buddhists also regard them as Buddhists. The Sangha and nuns also recognize them as Buddhist and teach them Buddha’s teachings as other Buddhists. Nat-‐kadaw and nat believers have the chance to decide by themselves to continue or abandon nat worship.

Most Buddhists believe in the cause and effect of kamma. The vital role of nat beliefs is in the gradual reduction of sufferings among native people. Buddha’s teaching is to reduce wants and desires. As a component of human nature, it is difficult to reduce and control desires. According to the nat believers’ demands, nat-‐kadaws become the essential persons for their rituals. In this paper, the methods through which nat-‐kadaws attempt to maintain their role in the Buddhist community despite nat belief being regarded as misconduct by some Buddhists, how they try to maintain their survival in Myanmar Buddhist communities, and especially how the Buddhist and animists live together harmoniously will be investigated.


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Burmese Women’s Participation in International Migration to Thailand

Myint Myat Thu

International Program, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In this paper, secondary data as well as the personal knowledge of the presenter are utilized to explore women’s migration in the context of urbanism and development by focusing on Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines, and Singapore as the case study areas. It begins with stating the meaning of “urbanism” and “development,” and follows to “women’s migration.” Then, it expands with a literature review concerning the topic from a social sciences perspective. Back to the study areas, comparison of conditions in women’s home communities and receiving urban communities, and also the push and pull factors to migrate and settle in the urban cities, are conveyed. There are several reasons for the urban migration of the women in order to seek their development, such as for economic purpose, education purpose, and for better life condition. Thus, it explores if their means can fulfill their goals, and explains the reason. On top of all this, this paper discusses what the women contribute in terms of the context of urbanism and development, and what their impacts on the urban areas are. Moreover, it later analyzes the role of state policies and international organizations and social research on this issue, as well as the future migration patterns for women in the context of urbanism and development.

Keywords: gender, migration, participation


148

Kokang Self-‐Administered Zone Employment Development: Case Study of the Gambling Industry in Kokang

Myint Myint Kyu

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

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Abstract

Kokang Special Region (1) became one of the self-‐administered zones in Northern Shan State, Myanmar, after the central Myanmar government granted self-‐autonomous rights to local authorities in 2010. The region had been under its own administration for centuries. The majority of people living in the region are Kokang Chinese, along with other ethnic groups such as Kachin, Lisu, Lahu, Miaozi, Wa, and Shan. Opium was the main source of income for Kokang people for centuries before poppy cultivation was officially banned in the region in 2002. Following the opium ban, the local Kokang people faced severe food shortages and many social problems. With the help of the neighboring country, China, and limited assistance from the central government, the local authorities attempted to solve the problems caused by the poppy ban. The gambling industry became one of the main activities utilized to overcome the problems faced by Kokang people despite it being illegal in Myanmar. The industry has brought many profits to the region in terms of infrastructure, economy, and livelihoods for local people. This paper highlights and explores the development of the gambling industry of the Kokang region and the impacts it has had on Kokang people.


149

The Different ‘Returns’ to their Homelands of Former Burmese

Prime Minister U Nu and Former and Future Greek Prime Minister Constantin Karamanlis and the Nature of the Military

Regimes that They Had Faced and (Not) Overcome

Myint Zan Faculty of Law, Multimedia University, Malacca

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Abstract:

On 23 July 1974, (then) former Greek Prime Minister Constantin Karamanlis (1907–1998) made a dramatic return to Athens, Greece, (from Paris, France) where he had spent 11 years in exile. Karamanlis’s unexpected, triumphant return from exile took place when the then Greek military junta suddenly collapsed after the invasion by Turkey of Cyprus and the junta invited him to return to assume power. At 3 am on 24 July 1974, Constantin Karamanlis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister, and later he became President of Greece as well.

On 29 July 1980, former Burmese Prime Minister U Nu (1907–1995) returned, also from 11 years in exile, mainly in India and earlier in Thailand, to Burma. His ‘rebellion,’ which started at a Press Conference in London on 27 August 1969, when he, among others, announced that he was ‘still the legal Prime Minister’ and that he ‘would not rest in his struggle against the same kind of fascism in Burma which General Aung San had fought against.’ Though the news announcing the return of U Nu in all pages of government newspapers of 30 July 1980 stated that the then-‐president U Ne Win, who had overthrown U Nu in a military coup in March 1962, had invited U Nu to return to Burma “in consideration, recognition, and honour of the leading and distinguished role in the freedom struggle,” it was after all an abandonment of U Nu’s struggle, and he came back under an amnesty order. The returns of U Nu and Karamanlis to their respective countries were radically different: U Nu never again held political power again, whereas Karamanlis did.


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This presentation will cover snippets of aspects to these two veteran politicians’ return to their homelands, and also the events leading to Karamanlis becoming both head of state and head of the government of Greece again. The nature of the military regimes which Karamanlis faced and overcame, and the nature of the military regimes which initially imprisoned U Nu and later drove him to self-‐imposed exile for the avowed purpose of overthrowing what he at the start of his rebellion in 1969 called a “cruel and sadistic regime” would be contrasted on the 35th anniversary almost to the day of U Nu’s return to Burma from exile.

Keywords: Constantin Karamanlis, U Nu, Greek military regime (1967–1974), Burmese military regime


151

Gender Dimension of HIV Healthcare Services and Treatment of Myanmar Migrant Workers in Mae Sot, Thailand

Naing Aung Lynn

Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This study aims to explore the access to HIV healthcare of HIV-‐positive migrants from Myanmar living in Mae Sot, Tak province, Thailand, and how deeply-‐rooted stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV and AIDS hinders the utilization of HIV health-‐related services. Many other factors, such as migrants’ legal status, not knowing specific language, their struggle for daily survival, discrimination by healthcare providers, insufficient funding for provision of ARV treatment, lack of HIV/AIDS knowledge, inaccessible healthcare settings, lack of well-‐trained HIV healthcare providers, and inconsistent provision of ARV medications, also render barriers and obstacles for those seeking HIV healthcare services.

The study also investigates the availability of HIV healthcare services, as well as the implications of current political changes and how they affect this marginalized population. Moreover, the research seeks to understand how stigma, gender ideology, cultural barriers, legal status, poor educational background, and poor financial status shape migrants’ HIV healthcare-‐seeking behaviour and negatively affects their adherence to effective treatments. As a result of my analysis, I will argue that a general lack of HIV/AIDS-‐related knowledge and delayed diagnoses hamper migrants’ ability to seek HIV healthcare services in a timely and effective manner. The results point to the importance of voluntary counselling and the value of testing in strengthening the lives of migrants living with HIV. In the meantime, I am hopeful that the findings of this study will contribute to the push for improvements in the provision of quality HIV healthcare access for the migrant population, and will also reduce the stigma, discrimination, and institutionalized barriers and obstacles experienced by migrants from Myanmar.

Keywords: gender, Myanmar migrants, HIV, stigma


152

The Impact of Centralized Education on Post-‐Primary School Management in Rural Shan State, Myanmar

Nang Htay Aung

Independent Researcher -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In 2010, elections based on the 2008 Constitution were held in Myanmar, and Thein Sein became president of the new quasi-‐civilian government. Since then, the government has launched several new reforms, including of the education system, but all within a highly centralized government structure. Most governments and international NGOs are interested in education reform and have provided high levels of financial support to the government. However, only a few are aware of the challenges of education in rural areas within a centralized system. The purpose of this research is to analyze the management system of post-‐primary schools within the centralized education system in rural areas when education reform is being debated. This research was conducted in two primary schools in Mong Kung Township, Shan State. It was conducted using qualitative research methods in order to better understand the challenges of parents, teachers, and students. The research reflects the challenges of teaching in rural areas, the impact on academic outcomes, and the cooperative ways in which villagers are coping with these challenges. The results show that there is also a lack of basic education infrastructure, including school buildings. Due to the centralized education system, parents cannot be involved freely in their children’s education, teachers face challenges in delivering the appointed curriculum, major language barriers complicate parent-‐student-‐teacher relationships, and the financial, physical, and food support required in the current education system become burdens for parents.

The research encourages the stakeholders to consider all the challenges of rural school management within the centralized education system.


153

Where Does This Road Take Us?: Economic and Political Transformations in Villages along the Dawei Roadlink Project

Naruemon Thabchumpon, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

Carl Middleton, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

Fransiskus Adrian Tarmedi, Faculty of Political Science,

Chulalongkorn University

Surada Chundasutathanakul, Faculty of Political Science, Chulalongkorn University

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Abstract

Myanmar’s stumbling political transformation towards democracy since 2010 and a liberalizing economy has held profound implications for Tanintharyi Region in Southern Myanmar, which borders Thailand to the east and the Andaman Sea to the west. Many people of the region have experienced a history of violent conflict between the Karen National Union (KNU) and the Myanmar military (Tatmadaw) that was subject to a Ceasefire Agreement in 2012. This has fundamentally shaped the subsequent political, social, and economic transformations.

A number of rapid and profound changes are now underway. The preliminary stages of a “roadlink” project that connects Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, to north of Dawei town, under construction since 2012, has significantly changed transportation access, and facilitated a growing cross-‐border trade with Thailand. The “roadlink” – presently only in access road form — ends at the Dawei Special Economic Zone (SEZ), which has been planned since 2008 by the Thai construction company Ital-‐Thai Development Corporation under Myanmar’s previous military government. It was redesigned as a government-‐to-‐government project between Myanmar and Thailand in 2013.


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The Dawei SEZ and roadlink have been highly contested in terms of their impacts on local communities due to uncompensated loss of land and other impacts of resettlement, livelihood, and culture, as well as overall weak levels of public participation. The project was originally envisioned by its proponents to be the largest petrochemical industrial estate in Southeast Asia, but now is under construction in a heavily scaled-‐back form — at least for the time being. Meanwhile, accelerating investments in agribusiness (including rubber and corn) and large mines (coal and tin) by domestic elites and investors largely from Thailand are transforming local economies across the Tanintharyi Region, often with serious and negative implications for local people’s access to, and control of, natural resources.

This paper will discuss the economic and political transformations in villages along the Dawei Roadlink Project.

Keywords: economics, political transformation, Dawei Roadlink


155

From ‘Unidentified Corpse’ To ‘Hometown Association’: The Standing of Self in the Religious Sphere

Among Myanmar Migrant Workers in Ranong, Thailand

Nattchawal Pocapanishwong Faculty of Liberal Arts, Ubon Ratchathani University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This article studies the practice of the standing of self among Myanmar migrant workers in Ranong province, Thailand, which occurs through hometown association constructed within the religious sphere. In the past, Myanmar migrant workers have been limited to a socially self-‐less existence due to their illegal status, the lack of government protection, and the rejection by local people. The lack of self is particularly evident in the “absence” of migrants’ deaths. Even more evident is the way that deceased migrants’ bodies have been assigned the status of “unidentified corpse” and “the object of merit” to be “stored” in the cemetery to await the “cemetery cleansing ceremony,” initiated by local people of Chinese descent. Over the past ten years, improved legal status and more flexible state policy has brought about many religious activities and religious gatherings among migrants. Arising from this phenomenon are “hometown associations” which oversee social welfare and life-‐quality improvements for migrants. In particular, funeral associations assist in the proper handling of deceased migrants by seeking relatives, seeking bodies of the deceased, organizing public processions for the deceased bodies, arranging funeral ceremonies, and transporting bodies of the deceased across the border to Myanmar. In effect, these hometown associations are transforming “unidentified corpses” into “identified bodies” entitled to proper religious traditions, social space, and dignity akin to the locals. By this implication, the “corpses” of migrants are not only lifeless bodies but a “place” which has been constructed and given social meaning as a site of negotiation of translocal subjects. There is an emerging practice in which migrants effectively stand for the “presence” of self through translocal networks, arising from the rebuilding of neighborhoods and communities in the host country through the religious sphere. Keywords: Myanmar migrant workers, unidentified corpse, hometown associations, religious sphere, translocality


156

Tourism as a Tool for Poverty Alleviation: A Case Study of Baganmyothit, Myanmar

Naw Mar Lar

Department of Geography, University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper attempts to analyse the contributions to the tourism sector in Baganmyothit, Myanmar. Using both quantitative and qualitative data from a recent household survey and interviews, the study examined the effects of tourism on employment and poverty conditions of households. The survey found that although households engaged in a range of economic activities, tourism-‐related activities alone comprised about 60-‐percent of all activities. This study also found that tourism businesses conducted by household heads with permanent positions was less in the tourism-‐employed group than the non-‐tourism employed group. This study indicated that those who were involved in tourism are likely to be richer than those who were not involved in tourism in comparison of quality of housing material, amount of landlines and mobile phones used, food expenditures, energy expenditures, daily income, and the net dropout rate of children under the age of 15 years. The findings confirm that tourism has positive economic impacts on their livelihoods. Recommendations are suggested for the provision of skills and knowledge related to the tourism business in order to improve the well-‐being of locals.

Keywords: tourism, development, poverty, well-‐being, Bagan


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Towards a Community-‐Centered, Primary Health System

in Burma: Ethnic and Community-‐Run Health Service Provision for Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Conflict Zones

of Eastern Burma

Nay Htoo Burma Medical Association

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Ethnic communities of eastern Burma have faced decades of conflict and widespread human rights abuses, which, coupled with longstanding neglect of health services by successive Burmese governments, have resulted in a health catastrophe. Ethnic and community-‐based health providers, often operating across borders, have responded to the protracted health crisis, including the dearth of reliable health data, through a network of both stationary clinics and mobile medical teams. Forming the Health Information System Working Group (HISWG) in 2004, they began conducting population-‐based surveys in displaced ethnic communities. In 2013, 6,620 households and a target population of 456,786 people in 64 townships were surveyed. Infant and child mortality rates remain higher than Burma’s official national figures, resembling other conflict zones, such as Somalia. Human rights abuses remain widespread: over 10% of households experience at least one indicator of abuse within the preceding year. 70% of respondents relied on community-‐based, ethnic-‐led programs for health services, while 8% accessed centralized government facilities. Over 70% of women delivered with the assistance of trained traditional birth attendants. Although decreased compared to prior surveys, malaria remained the primary cause of death (17.7%), and 16.8% of children had moderate-‐severe malnutrition. The results indicate that IDP communities in eastern Burma continue to face a complex humanitarian disaster despite recent ceasefires, and ethnic health organizations continue to be the sole providers of services for many IDPs. These findings suggest that, in the rapidly changing humanitarian landscape of Burma’s transition, recognizing and supporting existing ethnic community-‐based health structures is crucial. As members of the communities they serve, they access vulnerable populations,


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which international humanitarian assistance and the government cannot, populations that disproportionately suffer from malnutrition, malaria, and infant and child mortality. Neglecting such health structures risks ongoing failure in reaching critical health development goals for Burma; it may also further marginalize these communities and heighten ethnic mistrust of the government, jeopardizing prospects for national reconciliation and a durable peace in Burma.

Keywords: primary health care, ethnic, health systems


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The Rise of Anti-‐Muslim Hate Speech Shortly Before the Outbreaks of Mass Violence Against Muslims in Myanmar

Nickey Diamond (Ye Myint Win)

Institute of Human Rights and Peace Studies (IHRP), Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

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Abstract

Anti-‐Muslim sentiment is not a new phenomenon in Myanmar, as it is deeply rooted in its pre-‐ independence history. Throughout the period of the military junta in Myanmar, the escalation of anti-‐Muslim hate speech aimed to instigate Buddhist-‐Muslim riots in order to deflect the people’s anger and exasperation away from the military regime. Since 1988, when the military ruled Myanmar, anti-‐Muslim hate and dangerous speech have been mainly circulating in the print media, and nowadays particularly on social media in Myanmar, although most of the people in rural areas cannot access the Internet. Anti-‐-‐Muslim hate speech and propaganda, such as pamphlets, leaflets, DVDs, VCDs, CDs, posters, and other forms, have been distributed in some parts of Myanmar right before outbreaks of mass violence against Muslims, such as the anti-‐Muslim riot in Mandalay (1997), the anti-‐Muslim riot in Taungoo (2001), and the anti-‐Muslim riot in Meikhtila (2013). Based on interviews and documents, such as pamphlets, leaflets, DVDs, VCDs, and CDs, and sermons, as well as interviews given by nationalists and nationalist Buddhist monks, this paper analyses speech acts that promote anti-‐Muslim sentiment, which is a precondition for instigating anti-‐Muslim violence. This paper argues that promotion of anti-‐Muslim sentiment has always escalated shortly before the outbreaks of mass violence against Muslims in Myanmar. The contribution of this paper is to call attention to a dynamic that could lead to atrocities against Muslims in Myanmar.

Keywords: anti-‐Muslim hate speech, anti-‐Muslim sentiment, anti-‐Muslim violence, Myanmar


160

Between HIV and ‘Male Sex Worker’ Identity: Young Shan Men and the Presentation of Enviable Life in Chiang Mai

Nikos Dacanay The Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto

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Abstract

Integrated in the global economy of HIV intervention, young and mobile Shan men in Chiang Mai who work as hosts, dancers, and masseurs in gay establishments are now plugged into discrete health categories (i.e., men who have sex with men (MSM), male sex workers (MSW), “Burmese” migrants, “hidden population”, etc.). Current HIV interventions have employed information communication technology (ICT), which produces standardized HIV information dissemination, testing, and treatment. This paper examines Shan men’s use of their mobile phones. Using Miller and Slater’s (2000) concept of dynamics of objectification, I analyze the creative use of mobile phones as realizing aspired and ascribed identities, characterized as presentation of enviable life in Chiang Mai. On Facebook, they engage in political discussion, conduct religious activities, and manage their social networks. I argue that the presentation of enviable identities reflects notions of masculinity and health, which determine Shan men’s access to, awareness of, and management of health information. HIV testing is crucial in HIV prevention, but Shan men value their role as economic providers more than spending for personal health and undergoing HIV tests. They perform Buddhist rituals as supplication for a healthy body. The paper illustrates the failure of dissemination models and the importance in knowing the situated knowledge of Shan men’s sex work in order to provide effective HIV interventions.


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Who is “Non-‐Burman”?: Territorial Categorization of British Subjects in the Expulsion Policy of Colonial Burma

Noriyuki Osada

Institute of Developing Economies, Japan External Trade Organization -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In 1926, the colonial government of Burma enacted the Expulsion of Offenders Act. This legislation enabled the government to expel “non-‐Burman” habitual offenders from the territory of Burma, then a province of British India. Its assumed target was Indian criminals in Rangoon, the capital city of the province. Previous studies explain this enactment by the rise of Burmese nationalism. But this paper aims to clarify how the British colonial administrators required and enacted such legislation by focusing on the context of urban governance. Colonial Rangoon society embraced vast floating populations most of whom were immigrants from outside of the province, especially from the Indian subcontinent. The fluidity of the population made it difficult for the authorities to undertake police activities in the city. During the 1910s, the government of Burma developed measures to expel unlawful Chinese by utilizing the Foreigners Act. The Foreigners Act was a law of the central government of India and enabled expulsion of undesirable non-‐British subjects from the territory of British India. The authorities came to perceive expulsion of undesirable outsiders as useful for maintaining order. However, the Foreigners Act could not be applied for the British subjects, including Indians, who occupied the majority in Rangoon city. Thus, the government of Burma began to search for measures to expel Indian criminals from the province, which led to the enactment of the Expulsion of Offenders Act in 1926. This paper pointed out that the term “non-‐Burman” in the law was a territorial category rather than racial one, and argued that this enactment was epoch-‐making because it enhanced the territoriality of the province of Burma. This paper also suggests that this development was a part of the state-‐making by the provincial administration which would lead to its separate statehood from the rest of India.

Keywords: urban governance, immigrant criminals, territoriality


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Legal Structures Impacting Agricultural Myanmar Migrant Workers in Tak Province

Nwe Nwe Lwin

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow, RCSD, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

A qualitative ethnographic study is being conducted to explore the gap between what is available and what agricultural Myanmar migrant workers think exists in terms of the existing legal structures in Thailand. The objectives of this research is to identify the general legal issues encountered by the agricultural Myanmar migrant workers in Thailand, to identify available legal resources and structures impacting the workers, and to explain how they have responded to the structures and practices to cope with the situation. Agricultural plantation sites in Mae Sot and Phop Phra districts of Tak province in northern Thailand were chosen as field sites.

This study employs a legal anthropological perspective and is interdisciplinary in nature. Data has been collected through group discussions, involving 20-‐to-‐25 agricultural migrants, and includes participant observations, work-‐site observations, two series of in-‐depth interviews, and 10-‐to-‐15 small-‐scale interviews with key informants. These informants include the migrants, representatives from the workers’ associations, community workers, and a Myanmar government labor attaché.

Part one of the findings introduces the migrants’ life in general in Tak Province, including the primary reasons for migration with compelling evidences. Part two deals with the structures impacting the minimum wage, focusing on the migrants' perceptions of legal entitlements and exploitation suffered. Part three explores the migrant regularization policy and the registration system. In the final part, authorized and unauthorized restrictions to the workers’ movement are discussed. All themes are observed from the standpoint or perceptions of the agricultural migrant workers employed in the plantations of Tak province, in order to reveal the gap between what is available under the law and what they think is available.

Keywords: law and society, legal structures, agricultural Myanmar migrant workers, legal anthropology


163

Muslim Minorities in Transitional Societies: Myanmar Muslim Groups’ Different Experiences in Transition

Nyi Nyi Kyaw

School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, Canberra

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Abstract

Political and social liberalizations in Myanmar since 2011 have received wide acclaim, especially from the international community. However, the experience on the part of Myanmar has not been a bed of roses. With the rise of anti-‐Muslim sentiments and occurrence of violent sectarian conflicts in 2012 and 2013, the ‘Myanmar Muslim minority’ has caught the headlines and attention of both academic and policy circles in the international domain. It generally holds true that Myanmar Muslims in general have experienced social suffering and an identity crisis as a community over the last three years or so. The issue of the Rohingya, who have suffered most, has understandably become the dominant topic in all the talks and writings on Myanmar Muslims in general. However, there are a few other Muslim minorities whose experiences in the transition have been different depending on their identity and dwelling place. This paper will highlight the experiences of two Muslim groups in Myanmar — ethnic Kamans and Mandalay Muslims — who have also been affected by the rise of anti-‐Muslim sentiments and violent/non-‐violent conflicts, and argue that their sufferings are different from those of the Rohingya, which implies that there are Muslim minorities, not a Muslim minority, in Myanmar.

Keywords: Myanmar, Rohingya, Muslim minorities, social suffering, transition


164

Self-‐Medication: An Important Aspect of Self-‐Medication in the

Context of Primary Healthcare in Shan Kalay Kyun Village, Mandalay Region, Myanmar

Nyunt Nyunt Win

Department of Anthropology, University of Mandalay -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This study was done to find out an important aspect of self-‐medication in the context of primary healthcare in Shan Kalay Kyun Village. In 2001, villagers went to China for their survival as craftsmen. They got access to technologies which they have applied. Now they have established the home industry of wood sculpture and bronze ware in their village for over two years. Consequently, this paper discusses the primary healthcare system for the common diseases according to their economic and lifestyle changes. Most of the people over 40 are suffering from high blood pressure, and a few of them have diseases related to the sensory system. Cough, skin diseases, and body aches are common to everyone. The majority of the people suffer from flus seasonally. People did not use to go to medical clinics or hospitals. They had financial problems in receiving medical treatments and some of them did not even consider that they should seek medical treatments from professionals. Some of them had no time to see the doctors. They relied on traditional medicines for their health. At present, although the village has one public clinic and two private clinics, the people rely mostly on modern medicines and herbal medicines that are available at the village’s retail shops when they experience fever, pain, and minor high blood pressure. Some of them use traditional herbal medicines made at home. They prefer to get a massage when they have aches. Some even consult with spirit-‐mediums and make offerings to traditional spirits. The people do not usually go to the hospitals or clinics for regular medical check-‐ups. Despite the fact that the economic situation at the village has improved, the people still lack knowledge on proper healthcare. In doing field research, a community-‐based ethnographic research design was carried out by collecting data on socio-‐demographic characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, and practice of self-‐medication related to community workers and their behavior using qualitative approaches. Keywords: self-‐medication, common diseases, traditional herbal medicine, modern medicine, socio-‐demographic characteristics


165

Myanmar Agriculture in Transition: New Policy and Strategy Vision to Enhance Modernization and Productivity

Ohnmar Khaing

Food Security Working Group (FSWG) -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myanmar remains a largely agricultural and rural economy. The agricultural sector accounts for over one-‐third of the GDP and contributed up to 40-‐percent of the total export earnings during the past two years. Despite the well-‐endowed land and water resources with highly favourable land-‐man ratio, Myanmar’s agricultural land productivity and per capita earnings in agriculture, compared to other agrarian economy neighbours, remained very low with roughly USD $360 and USD $1,000 respectively in 2013 and 2014. The agricultural sector’s share of employment at 60-‐percent is high. Given that about 26-‐percent of the population, mostly rural, falls below the national poverty line, low farm productivity translates into high rate of poverty. The diagnostic assessment of structure and recent performance of the agricultural sector highlights even more obviously its unfulfilled potential. Myanmar is undergoing a rapid and significant political and economic transition. This transition to a market economy and government organization structure makes it necessary to devise a new policy and strategy vision for the agricultural sector, for the following reasons:

• The necessity to transform agriculture policy vision from rice-‐centric and production orientation to income and welfare orientation;

• The necessity to reorganize and restructure agriculture sector with appropriate institutional and legal infrastructure;

• The necessity to increase investment in agriculture sector by both the public and private sector;

• Expanding global and regional integration particularly to benefit from the economic dynamism of the Asian region; and

• The necessity to diversify and modernize agriculture to become a major food basket and trade hub in the region through fostering the supply chains.


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The agriculture and rural economy in Myanmar is still trapped in a vicious cycle due to inadequacy of the business as usual approach in agriculture. These approaches have not yielded desirable results of economic changes and instead led to institutional inflexibility and slow changes in rural economy. The net results are high cost on farmers’ welfare and continuing disparity in rural areas. Improving the performance of agricultural value chains and integrating the smallholders into them with the new agricultural policy and strategy vision will pave the way to reap emerging demand-‐driven market opportunities to modernize agriculture sector, raise its productivity growth and rural incomes.


167

Mon Diaspora and the Relationships with their Homeland

Pakawadee Thongchompunuch Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Khon Kaen University

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Abstract

This article aims to explain the relations of the Mon diaspora at Baan Wang Ka, Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand, with their homeland. It argues that such relationships are diverse and reflect the complexity of notion of “bifocality,” explaining that homeland is the place of spiritual and cultural roots while host countries are more associated with economic and livelihoods. Members of the Mon diaspora have been living in Baan Wang Ka since 1948. The ethnic suppression policies in Myanmar are the major cause of transnational mobility of these people, although, in the later periods, some of them left their homeland to go to Thailand for trading and eventually resettled at the village. Currently, Mon people in the village include four generations who were from Myanmar and heirs of those from Myanmar, however these people associate with their homeland differently. Some relate to their homeland as the place of spiritual and identity of Mon origin. For others, their connections to homeland have to do more with economic, rather than cultural and spiritual, dimensions. Such diverse relationships are related to not solely generational differences and causes of migration, but also individual’s experiences, economic opportunity, legal status, social status in Thailand, as well as religious beliefs. On another score, the diversity of relationships has also been associated with their homeland and host country contexts.

Keywords: homeland, Mon ethnic group, diaspora


168

Dr. Than Tun and Myanmar Language and Literature

Pamaree Surakiat Department of History, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,

Prince of Songkla University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

History, language, and literature are inseparable. Undoubtedly, historians represent the past via language and employ literature as historical evidence. The late Dr. Than Tun, the highly respected and prominent Myanmar historian, was trained in a positivist fashion under the supervision of D.G.E. Hall and G.H. Luce, the leading colonial scholars. Hence, his treatment of literature fundamentally confined to an empirical historical framework, attaching great importance to its factual data and historicity. Nonetheless, some of his writings reveal that he did not neglect discussing how to trace back and interpret Myanmar history from fictional genres of the past, for example, myth, legend, and folklore. He suggests that pre-‐Buddhist elements of pre-‐literate society are preserved in those traditional songs, fables, proverbs, riddles, and customs. Moreover, the study of Myanmar literature is supposed to begin with the earliest form of literature, the oral tradition. While his copious historical research was primarily based on very formal literary evidences — for instance, inscriptions, royal orders, first-‐hand accounts, contemporary historical documents on tax, revenue, demography, and even tombstones — when he wrote his own works, he preferred to write in the colloquial Myanmar form. He advocated Ludu U Hla's campaign for simple and accessible writings for people. He also urged his pupils to write their theses in the colloquial language. This paper attempts to analyze Dr. Than Tun's perception of Myanmar language and literature in a light of the historical context of Myanmar society.


169

Gender Equality and Cultural Norms in Myanmar

Pansy Tun Thein Executive Director, Local Resource Centre, Yangon

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

In this paper I intend to analyze the current developments of predication practices in Burma in regard to the social and political transformations linked to the transition. Myanmar is giving increasing attention to gender inequality as an impediment to development and the attainment of human rights, particularly women’s rights. Realizing the close inter-‐relationship between gender equality and cultural norms, a qualitative research study on “Transforming Inequitable Gender Norms” was undertaken with the objective of furthering the understanding of social and cultural norms in Myanmar and their impact for men and women in relation to family and community life, work, health, and education. The study was implemented in May 2014 covering 543 women and men participants covering seven states and four regions in Myanmar.

This study has illustrated that cultural norms and related social practices impact men and women throughout their lifespan, from the most deeply personal — the sense of self, body, confidence, love, and marriage — to the practical organization and valuing of paid and unpaid work; education opportunities; health status and services; participation in community development; and the affairs of the nation. The study shows how social and cultural norms carry ideas of different functions and worth for men and women, impacting their life opportunities. Women, regarded as ‘bearers and protectors of culture,’ are often blamed for what are seen as disappearing cultural values, and this can be a barrier to the realization of women’s rights and gender equality.

Some salient recommendations from the study include: 1) using a gendered lens on all developmental issues; 2) re-‐framing gender equality from being seen as a ‘women’s issue’ to an issue of political advancement, human rights, and democracy; 3) broadening the base in gender equality work from the circles of current activists, and engage people of different sexes, socioeconomic


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backgrounds, education levels, ethnicities, locations, and abilities; and 4) focusing on gender inequality around concrete issues in peoples’ lives that impact both individual and collective levels.

Keywords: gender equality, cultural norms, women’s rights, human rights


171

Nat and Nat-‐Kadaw: The Existence of the Local Cult in Myanmar Transition

Patchareepan Ravangban

Health Social Sciences Program, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The long-‐standing and extensive belief in holy and tutelary spirits (nats) among Myanmar people could be generally cited as Myanmar’s tradition prior the Theravada Buddhism, which was officially established as the national religion by King Anawratha. Although their socio-‐culture conditions have been apparently changed from the history, nowadays this spirit faith is noticeably seen in the rural areas. The worship festival of nats is annually held every March. Family members deeply believe in the nat tales that have been continuously inherited be the next generations because those nats could protect them from all afflictions. There are plenty of ritual ceremonies, either appealing rites for general auspicious wishes or offering ceremonies for succeeded desires. Particularly at Taungbyon village, located in the northern part of Mandalay Division, this annual celebration has been set-‐up and participated in by most of the villagers. In the present, it is widely spread in websites, books, and news to propagate their various and colourful cultures. Their private and public ceremonies, in addition, are traditionally organized by the ritual master as so-‐called “nat-‐kadaw” (spirit mediums); spirit and people interpreter. The nat-‐kadaw is selected by spirits and intensive training with the traditional practices. The nat-‐kadaw ranks can be classified in five statuses from their skills and experiences. The existence of the local belief and rite has closely been in their ways of life from Buddhist beliefs, with strict Buddhist and non-‐Buddhist alliances. Some interesting aspects are how Myanmar’s socio-‐economic status is changing in the modern society under the influence of globalization, what effects this will have to their local belief and spirit worship, and how this social transition will affect the people appealing, and the role nat-‐kadaw will play in their lives. For these reasons, some possible clarifications will be demonstrated in this article with secondary documents and interviews of three nat-‐kadaws living in different villages.


172

Democratization in Myanmar: Will Aid Help or Hinder?

Patrick Strefford Department of International Relations, Kyoto Sangyo University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Whether or not external agents can democratize a country is an extremely important question in International Relations. Certainly, if we look at history, we can see examples where external agents influence the process of democratization, both positively and negatively. We know that the strategic use of aid and assistance can influence the transition to, or consolidation of, democracy. However, there are countless other factors that are specific to time and place, and because of this, there is no consensus within the academic literature on whether aid helps or hinders democratization. Regardless of this, all OECD aid donors prioritize, to varying degrees, aid for the specific purpose of supporting democratization in the partner country. How will these policies fair in Myanmar? Given the history of the sanctions period, the donor community has no option but to provide aid, but how is it doing so? What is the environment, and what are the prospects?

Keywords: foreign aid, democratization, Myanmar


173

Justification for Communal Violence: Understanding Perceptions in Six Different Cities in Myanmar

Phyu Phyu Thi

Myanmar ICT for Development Organization -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Communal violence between Buddhist and Muslim communities is causing high rates of violence and serious tensions in Myanmar. In 2012, violence broke out in the western Rakhine State. Since then, violence has spread to central Myanmar, including the cities of Mandalay and Meikhtila, and later to Lashio in Shan State. The violence followed in the context of the promotion of Buddhist nationalism, and the motivation and influence of the monk-‐led “969” movement. Unless there is an effective government response and change in societal attitudes, communal violence could negatively impact Myanmar’s transition.

Mass violence does not erupt spontaneously. It must be organized and mobilized. Whatever structural factors needed to be aligned, mass violence must also be justified. The people involved in communal conflict believe in some justifications for violence. The narratives of justifying violence can be of many forms. These justifications needed to be understood. People who are involved in violence believe they may be doing the right thing, even when others would disagree. Therefore, it is important to understand their beliefs. Once understanding how people justify violence, local and international actors can more effectively respond and prevent the situation, and they may also evade from unexpected harm when planning and implementing their work.

This paper presents initial findings from a research project begun in January 2015. In order to understand how people may be justifying violence, the project seeks to listen to people’s concerns and perceptions regarding communal violence in Myanmar. Analysis for the paper will draw on interviews with more than 70 residents of six Myanmar cities: Sittwe, Meikhtila, Mandalay, Lashio, Pathein, and Mawlamyaing.

Keywords: violence, nationalism, justification


174

Development of the Mae Sot SEZ: The Implications of Thailand's

Position in the Global and Regional Economies

Pinitbhand Paribatra Gaculty of Political Science, Thammasat University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

On July 15, 2014, the Policy Committee on Special Economic Zone Development, chaired by General Prayuth Chan-‐o-‐cha, prime minister and the head of the National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO), announced its plan to develop special economic zones (SEZs) in five potential areas, including Mae Sot of Tak province, Aranyaphrathet of Sra Kao province, Sadoa of Songkla province, Trat, and Mukdahan. Along with the aim for easier integration into both regional and world economies, the development of SEZs would increase employment in the border regions, improve the locals’ well-‐being, and halt cross-‐border crimes, such as human trafficking and smuggling of illegal products. Through the case of the Mae Sot SEZ, this paper aims to elucidate Thailand’s position in the regional and global economies since the 1990s. Despite the current government’s exuberance, the collection of the past governments’ statements and policies suggests that Mae Sot has long been part of a plan for an industrialized border zone, driven by exports of textile and garment manufacturing. Not until recently have policies and laws for budget allocation, city planning, and local government structural changes been discussed. Based on documentary research and interviews, this paper also tries to answer the questions of how the post Cold War global and regional economic interdependences have pressured the Thai state to adopt more economically integrated strategies, and, especially, the plan of Mae Sot SEZ; why, on the contrary, the plan has been interrupted and occasionally dropped; and to what extent have Thailand’s national politics impacted on the plan, its interruption, as well as its revival. This paper lies astride the globalist vs. skeptic debates, which will be used for understanding the position of the Thai state in the juxtaposition, if not the tension, of globalizing forces and the perseverance of national sovereignty and autonomy.


175

Myanmar Amidst Great Power Politics: The Influence of the Great Powers in Transitional Myanmar

Pongkwan Sawasdipakdi

Faculty of Political Science, Thammasat University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Since the so-‐called “democratic transition” in 2010, Myanmar has undergone a number of political, economic, and social reforms. Numerous infrastructure and other development projects are also underway. However, these changes are not entirely endogenous. Some of the developments and reforms have been an indirect, if not direct, influence of the global and regional powers, including the United States, China, and Japan, and to a lesser extent, India. For these major powers, Myanmar is a strategic location as it lies at a crossroads of South, East, and Southeast Asia. In the eyes of many neo-‐realists, the attempts of these major powers to engage in Myanmar’s affairs demonstrate a willingness to balance other major powers’ influence. At the same time, these major powers also see economic opportunity in this newly-‐opened market where they could gain benefits as the first lander. Nevertheless, international relations scholars often focus on each major power’s foreign policy towards Myanmar, but not the interaction of these major powers on Myanmar. In fact, the foreign policies of each major power have been constructed by actions and reactions of each other and therefore cannot be understood in separation of those of other countries. This paper attempts to explore two things. First, it tries to seek out the interaction and interplay of the said major powers in Myanmar’s affairs. Second, it tries to understand how these interactions shape the direction the development of transitional Myanmar.


176

The Role of General Practitioners in the Myanmar Healthcare System: A Study of Private Clinics in Yangon Division, Myanmar

Pyone Mjinzu Lwin “Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow,


Abstract

This study was carried out to examine the role of general practitioners in urban settings of Yangon Region, Myanmar. The nature of their interactions with patients, their perceptions of primary healthcare, professional development, and the patients' expectations regarding the services of GPs were studied. The study was conducted with 15 GP clinics and their patients by using qualitative methods. Most GP clinics offered a wide range of curative and preventive services, operated for longer, had more flexible hours, and reached further to the communities than public facilities. Based on the results of this study, for broader expansion of comprehensive primary healthcare services, GPs should be encouraged and supported in their professional development and in their participation in public health activities. In addition, stakeholders and healthcare authorities should be contributing to the effort to enforce the interactions between the public and private sector because it is potentially beneficial in reducing the workload of the public services, and improving the quality of care in both sectors, as well as expanding healthcare delivery.

Keywords: general practitioners, private clinics, urban health care, Myanmar


177

The Impact of the Minorities Issue in Northern Myanmar on China-‐Myanmar Relations

Qingsi Li School of International Studies, Renmin University of China

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The long-‐lasting contradiction and conflicts between minorities in northern Myanmar and the central government have not yet been resolved since Myanmar obtained independence from Great British. That is to say, the Myanmar government betrayed its original promise and deprived the ethnic groups of autonomy rights. Along with reconciliation between Myanmar and the U.S. and preparation for reform, its domestic political process has evolved into large regional power struggles. Thus, the background of conflicts between northern Myanmar ethnic militants and the military government have very deep external forces. In fact, though there is every reason for Myanmar domestic conflicts to break out, and for a long time there were actual conflicts, however, the current conflicts directly result from the U.S.’s Asia pivot strategy to contain China, not only making China the victim of Myanmar’s domestic conflicts, but also seriously deteriorating China-‐Myanmar relations.


178

Mobile Phone Appropriation and Non-‐Adoption at the Bottom

of the Pyramid (BoP): Evidence from the Pre-‐Privatized Telecommunications Era in Myanmar

Rajiv George Aricat

Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Rich Ling Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Mobile communications in Myanmar was a governmental monopoly until the second half of 2014. This was reflected in low telephone diffusion in the country and a high entry price: as much as $1,500 for a single subscription. This paper reports on ethnographic research that was conducted in four townships in Lower Myanmar — Bago, Chaungzon, Kyaikto, and Mawlamyaine — to understand the use of mobile phones among the bottom of the pyramid (BoP) population previous to the arrival of privatized services. Barriers to adoption included pricing, lack of skills for using the mobile phone, no perceived need, and sector-‐specific barriers like fishermen’s widespread lack of citizenship documents. Even as the call tariffs and connection costs remained high, there were, nevertheless, some BoP mobile phone users, although there were unique ways of adopting the device depending on professions and livelihoods. The main themes identified for appropriation included:

1) blurring of lives and livelihoods; 2) sharing of the mobile phone; and 3) control of individuals by employers or elder family members through mobile phones or phone credits (control through benefaction).

The paper calls for modernization in the primary sectors of agriculture and fisheries, which would help towards a more intensive incorporation of mobile phones into business communication structures.

Keywords: bottom of the pyramid, mobile phone adoption, privatization, Myanmar, ethnography


179

Asserting Control and Power in the 2015 Pre-‐Election Period in Myanmar: A Closer Look at the Strategy

Behind the Proposal of New ‘Race and Religion Protection’ Laws

Richard Roewer Department of Psychosocial Studies, Birkbeck College, University of London

Amalie Weinrich

Department of Politics, Birkbeck College, University of London -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The proposal of the controversial package of four bills, known as the “Race and Religion Protection Laws” (11.14), has evoked an outcry from national and international civil and human rights advocates, as well as from several of Myanmar's ethnic and religious minority groups. Similarly political responses from outside the country have largely reviewed the proposal as a development that stands in stark contrast to Myanmar's ostensible liberalisation process that followed the general elections in 2010. With general elections scheduled for November 2015, the proposal of the four bills comes at an ostentatious time. Research on pre-‐election periods warrants the suggestion that the proposal is part of the election campaign of the current government. Thus, it might be introduced at this point for reasons that go well beyond the obvious legislative changes that are proposed (nevertheless, their immediate effect is considered). Furthermore, it aims to identify the reasons for the proposal itself, as well as its partial success (status 13.04.2015) through a psychosocial analysis of control and power. Relating the psychosocial understanding of control and power to the political process evoked by the proposal of the “Race and Religion Protection Laws” will unravel possible motivations and thus suggest that there is indeed a strategic use beyond the apparent legislative changes.

Keywords: pre-‐election strategy, control, power, Myanmar


180

Warlord’s Learning Curve:

A Case Study of the Pa-‐O Self Administrated Zone

Ricky Yue City University of Hong Kong

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The post-‐colonial political landscape of Myanmar has been occupied by persistent internal ethnic conflicts since independence. One of the reasons is that ruling regimes were only interested in nation building instead of state building. Ironically, genuine attempts to build Myanmar as a state started only after the pro-‐democracy movement in 1988. Since nullifying the general election result in 1990, the military junta has signed over 20 ceasefire agreements with various armed groups. The Pa-‐O people were one of the original ethnic groups demanding self-‐determination. After decades of fighting with the central government, the Pa-‐O National Organization (PNO) signed a ceasefire agreement with the regime in 1991. Fighting with the Tatmadaw subsided, and the Pa-‐O people have had their own self administrated zone (SAZ) since 2011. Using Mancur Olson’s (2000) terminology, the PNO has effectively transformed from being a roving bandit to become a stationary bandit. The objective of this paper is to contextualize this change in the role played by the PNO, and to ask what this change actually means to the Pa-‐O people. Based on interviews conducted with various political actors in the Pa-‐O SAZ, this paper argues that the PNO did a very poor job in being a stationary bandit. However, things began to change for the better after President U Thein Sein took office and set the country on the path of democratic transition. There is a warlord’s learning curve, but it has steepened when the stationary bandit faces competition.


181

Holding Back the Tide: Can Myanmar’s Democratic Political Leaders Prevent a De Facto Religious Test

for Full Citizenship Rights?

Ronan Lee Deakin University, Australia

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

In 2010, Myanmar held its first elections in two decades, transitioning from direct military rule to a nominally civilian form of government. Accompanying this political transition has been increased political and media freedom. Democracy means public opinion is more important than ever to the country’s political leaders, while reforms to Myanmar’s media censorship regime have allowed previously suppressed opinions to be widely disseminated through the media. While pro-‐democracy political groups have taken the opportunity to organise, this paper is concerned with the opportunities these freedoms have provided to Myanmar’s more divisive political figures.

Ethnic relations in Myanmar have been a long-‐standing source of domestic conflict. Ethnicity can be a test for citizenship, and ethnic identity is often closely linked with religion. Communal conflict between elements of the country’s Buddhist majority and the Muslim minority since 2012 have exposed previously suppressed staunch anti-‐Muslim voices from within the Buddhist community. Notably, the 969 Movement and activist monk Ashin Wirathu have argued it is in Myanmar’s national interest to protect the Buddhist religion from a perceived Muslim threat, calling for restrictions to Muslims’ political and civil freedoms.

This paper suggests that the success of U Wirathu and the 969 Movement’s political agenda would add another layer of complexity to how Myanmar’s citizenship laws operate in practice since existing citizens would have their rights restricted on the basis of religion. This would amount to the creation of a de facto religious test for full Myanmar citizenship rights. This paper asks: Can Myanmar’s national democratic political leaders hold back this apparent tide of popular support for the creation of a de facto religious state?

Keywords: religion, citizenship, ethnicity, politics


182

Economic Development in Southern Myanmar: How Local Mestizos Create a Stable and Strong Economic

Development under Obstacles

Saibhorn Biboribankul Ministry of Commerce, The Royal Government of Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Since the economic and political reform in 2012, Myanmar has been attracting local and foreign investors. Myanmar GDP numbers in the recent years are one of the highest rates among ASEAN countries. It can be seen that a dramatic change and development is mostly occurring in a few main cities. However, apart from Yangon, Mandalay, and Nay Pyi Taw, the rest of the country is still trying to make a catch on this fast growing economic system. Also, out-‐of-‐date rules and regulations, over-‐valued land prices, and a lack of basic infrastructure remain major obstacles for a growth in the long run.

This paper explains economic prosperity in southern Myanmar through the foreign government officer’s eye that made trips to the field. In the southern part of Myanmar where most cities are not fully exposed to the world, some local businessmen have been expanding their territories quietly. These businessmen are second generation Chinese who moved to Myanmar. The paper generates key factors that these mestizos who are hardworking and social-‐oriented shepherded their businesses through the transition. The paper also explains the way that these executives are fulfilling all tasks that government cannot accomplish, and how the management is making a good return when these tradesmen got their hands on major concessions and loyal labourers to finish projects.

The last part of the paper points out a comparative case of economic development and the emergence of local patronage in Thailand in 1970s, when Thailand was in a half-‐democratic state. It predicts the possible paths for these local entrepreneurs: how they can protect the properties and pass them to their children.


183

A Threatened Identity: Social Structure and Traditional Leadership in Cho (Chin) Society Before Christianity

Salai Myo Chit

“Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow, RCSD, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This research is about Cho (Chin) people and includes their oral history, social structure, and traditional leadership. The Cho (Chin) people are those who do not have many historical records and documents since their literacy is relatively low, although they have concrete historical information and evidence. So, this research is very important and a valuable document since it keeps the oral history and facts that are nearly forgotten. The research tries to explain the social structure and traditional leadership of Cho (Chin) society before Christianity by dividing the information into five chapters. The paper provides general information of the Cho (Chin) people and their social structure that show their marriage practices and kinship relation. The kinship structure of the Cho people is explained by the gift giving to one another. They manage conflict by giving animals like mythun, pigs, and traditional blankets. The traditional Cho cosmology influences the social structure and traditional practices such as festivals called segawh. The research describes many kinds of sacrifices and mythun festivals. At the heart of the paper is traditional leadership in Cho society. There were two main factors of leadership in Cho society. There were sacred leaders called ngtaiyϋ and secular specialist chiefs known as pikhawng ngnamtai. There were four kinds of ngtaiyϋ sacred leaders and each leader had their own specific responsibilities for the society. The sacred leaders, ngtaiyϋ, were powerful in leading the people to sacrifice, celebrate festivals and feasts, funerals, and farming activities. On the other hand, the secular specialists, pikhawng ngnamtai chiefs were responsible for security for the society and leading the people in collective activities like hunting, fishing, and farming. Those two kinds of leaders had their own roles but led the people together in some activities like festivals, funerals, and conflict management. The paper also briefly describes the history of Christian missionaries in Cho society. The first Christian mission arrived in Cho society (town level) around 1950, but after three


184

decades Christian churches appeared in the village in Cho society. There were arguments and disputes among the people who converted to Christianity and those who preferred to maintain their traditional beliefs and practices. That argument was the beginning of the breaking of the unity of Chin society. In addition, the research finds out three main factors that have caused the Cho people to give up the tradition of practicing. They were conversion to Christianity, Burmanization, and modernization. The research concludes that because of these factors, the traditional leadership declined and the unity, collective activities, distinctiveness, identity, and the existence of the Cho people are in a threatened situation.


185

Chin Ethnic Identity and Chin Politics in Myanmar

Salai Vanni Bawi Chin League For Democracy Party

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Nowadays in Myanmar, the political transition, economics, social change, and education reform are very important factors in the development agenda. In fact, growing together and harmonizing in political circumstance is also one of the keys for innovating a new generation in Myanmar as well. For instance, local politics, especially Chin politics, is the main fact to understand the image of Chin people in Myanmar. Moreover, environmental governance and lessons learned from current development practices in national development are vital to analyze and design a better life for Chin people. Thus, we, members of Chin political parties, are aiming to inspire the spirit of local self-‐ determination in participation for political, economic, and community development and the poverty reduction strategy of the state.

In addition, full participation and full engagement on the political development of Chin people is one of the key factors for achieving sustainable development and significant results of promoting democratization from the local level to the national level as well. Especially, in remote places such as Chin State, for instance, where people primitively live, the overwhelming majority of people are strangers to what federalism is and how it could guarantee their political rights, the rights to self-‐determination and self-‐administration. For instance, Chin people have limited perspectives on how the indigenous knowledge and values can inform the core system of federalism. Therefore, this article aims to address the notion of the political sphere of ethnic political parties in Chin State.

Keywords: Chin State, ethnic political party, development, federalism


186

Refugee Women from Myanmar and Reinterpreting Sacred Spaces along the Border

Samak Kosem

Center for ASEAN Studies, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This research contributes to gender studies in anthropology by exploring the intersections of gender, religion, and space in Islam by looking at the ways that Burmese Muslim women in a refugee camp construct these categories in their personal narratives on religiosity. This paper focuses on Muslim women’s lives and experiences to examine how gendered social relationships negotiate space and create particular places by imbuing them with social meaning. It additionally calls attention to the complicated role that Islamic discourses play in shaping the religious identities and spatial experiences of women. In this way, the paper emphasizes the spatiality of the social relationships that produce gender and circumscribe the mobility and freedom of Muslim women in public space. This paper does not seek to reduce the experiences of these women to religious experience alone. Yet, it also engages with the opposite problem of collapsing the significant religious experiences of these women into their perceptions of social, political, and cultural norms of transnational Muslim society from Myanmar. These norms create cultural space for the development of autonomous selves through the use of potent religious symbols. They simultaneously emphasize their Muslim identity and claim some measure of autonomy as a practical and useful life strategy along the border. In whatever situation these women find themselves, they rely on the legitimacy of Islam as opposed to the polluting effects of “culture” to provide themselves with opportunities to become public women and good Muslims simultaneously. This is achieved by navigating the constructed “moral geographies” of Muslim culture through their own experiences of cross-‐border mobility and their consequent conceptions of the limits and limitlessness of freedom.

Keywords: sacred space, religiosity, Muslim women, performativity, refugee camp, border studies


187

Conservation of Cultural Heritage Buildings in Bagan Area

San Nan Shwe Department of Architecture, Technological University (Hmawbi), Yangon, Myanmar

Maung Hlaing

Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University, Yangon, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This research paper should be conducted to integrate cultural heritage buildings and new public buildings within the whole area of Bagan harmoniously. New public buildings such as hotels, motels, guesthouses, inns, museums, and viewing towers are constructed within the old Bagan area, new Bagan area, areas inside the city wall, and Nyaung Oo area. The authorities demarcated laws and regulations, building control plans within archaeological zones, monument zones, and preservation zones for the construction of new public buildings. The new public buildings must not be constructed within the demarcated areas. At present, new public buildings are influencing the area of Bagan according to their site and setting, form, and height. Bagan Archaeological Museum is influencing not only the environment of Gawdawpalin temple, but also the whole Bagan area due to its massive form. The viewing tower is also influencing with the height of its building. Construction of new public buildings such as the Bagan Archaeological Museum and the viewing tower can be compared in relation to their height and massiveness of existing Bagan monuments. These new building can easily dwarf existing monuments, losing the essence of the visual aspects of Bagan. While taking every respect of old cultural heritage buildings, it is very important to consider:

( i ) not to lose the value of cultural heritage buildings,

( ii ) not to influence with site and setting,

( iii ) not to influence with the form of building, and

( iv ) not to obstruct with the height of building.

Therefore, in-‐depth research work should be conducted for the emergence of new public buildings in Bagan’s environment.


188

Understanding the Role of Civil Society Organizations in Raising Public Voices to the Government

in Bogalay, Ayeyarwady Delta Region, Myanmar

Sandar Cho Oo “Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow,

RCSD, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In Myanmar, discussion and engagement between the government and the public was nearly impossible during the previous government. Nowadays, there has been engagement between the government and the public through civil society organizations. It is very interesting to understand how these engagements are happening, how the relationship between the government and public are happening, how the public is advocating to the government and addressing the important issues that the public is facing because these public and government engagements are critically important for Myanmar’s transition to democracy.

The objective of this study is to understand the role of civil society organizations in raising public voices to the government in Bogalay of Ayeyarwady Delta Region, Myanmar. This study uses mainly qualitative research methods for anthropology research conducted in Bogalay, Ayeyarwaddy Region, from December 2014 to September 2015. One successful and another unsuccessful advocacy and engagement on issue are selected. Data was collected using methods of social anthropology, including in-‐depth interviews with members of grassroots associations, community members, and government officials, and field observations of the public-‐government relationship in Ayeyarwaddy.

The outcomes and the relationship of public and government engagement can be different according to the common interest among them, the participation of people, relationship among the stakeholders, different advocacy strategies, and efforts. In conclusion, this study provides real-‐life experiences of rural peoples’ and civil society oranizations’ engagement with the government authorities addressing issues that are critically important. By presenting the one successful and another unsuccessful engagements, this study explores the factors influencing the engagement process.


189

Socio-‐Economic Changes on Livelihood of Htanataw Village, Amarapura Township

Sandar Win

Department of Anthropology, Yadanabon University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Considering health in well-‐being terms, this study examines the changes experienced by villagers living around Taungthaman Lake in Myanmar since the impacts of privatization and modernization policies. It explores the relation between their health and environmental changes, time, and their struggles based on disposal-‐limited resources. This research was conducted in Htantaw village, located within the ancient township of Amarapura, Mandalay Division. Villagers with different conditions, ages, occupations, and economic statuses were interviewed at their homes, while a focus group method was used in the first data collection phase. Additionally, the researchers encouraged village leaders to participate by village mapping and talking about geographical and social changes, their hardships, and survival strategies.

Before 1990, the villagers had been typically agricultural with work on rice farms, fishing, wickers, and livestock. In 1996, socio-‐economic change occurred when an irrigation channel was blocked for fish breeding in Taungthaman Lake. The military government later issued fishing concessions to a private company, which had a significant impact on villagers, both fishing families and livestock farmers. They raised milk cows and planted rice by using paddy fields and agricultural land around the now-‐flooded lake. The other significant social change happened in 2000 when Yadanabon University was established to provide education services for over 20,000 students a year. The university attracted both students and people seeking jobs. At that time, some villagers started renting rooms and opening grocery shops. Others earned income by operating small businesses such as food stalls, bookshops, mobile phone and internet shops, hair salons, dress-‐making shops, and bars. As result, social tensions between local people and new arrivals have appeared and the villagers have struggled to make ends meet. As the study was conducted among cooperation of university staffs and village leaders, its results may be used for further discussion and cooperation in the area, in order to support economic and educational developments, and to create a model for the peaceful development of learning-‐based societies in Myanmar.


190

The Gender Gap and Women’s Political Participation in Burma/Myanmar

Sang Hnin Lian

Institute of Human Rights and Peace Studies, Mahidol University, Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Women's political participation and representation varies dramatically within and between countries. This paper selectively reviews the literature on the gender gap and women's participation in politics, focusing on women's formal political participation, particularly from the 2010 general election in Burma/Myanmar. The paper discusses, moreover, various barriers and challenges, including traditions, religion, lack of education, experience in public discussion, participation, and, more importantly, the military-‐drafted 2008 Constitution for women's political participation and representation in Burma/Myanmar. It also explains the importance of women's participation in politics and the role of international actors, gender quotas, and mechanisms, particularly the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Electoral Quotas System for empowering women’s participation in politics. Furthermore, it explores the gap between the 2008 Constitution and the CEDAW standards. Throughout the review, the paper demonstrates a very low level of women's participation in decision-‐making from secondary data and in-‐depth interviews with women parliamentarian explaining the challenges and difficulties for women’s participation in politics and decision-‐making. It also reveals the most common mechanism for increasing women’s participation in politics, the quota system. It also shows that in making the quota systems effective, both women and men require access to training and skills development. Importantly, the paper also asks what degree and under what conditions elected women actually do represent women and contribute to gender equality and democracy, and whether women are distinctive — does having more women in office make a difference to public policy?

Keywords: gender, women, politics, women’s political participation, Burma/Myanmar


191

Resilience to Challenges: Indigenous Knowledge in Relation to the Kamoethway River

Saw Frankie Abreu

Tenasserim River and Indigenous People Networks (TRIP NET)

Naw Moo Kho Paw Tenasserim River and Indigenous People Networks (TRIP NET)

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

The dense forest-‐covered territory of Tenasserim Division has become opened to both local and foreign investment in recent years. Communities residing along the Tenasserim river basin face a high level of insecurity due to the prevalence of unexpected rapid economic development and business activity, such as the Dawei Deep Seaport project, which is designated for the area. The project has caused several challenges to local communities.

In order to deal with the challenges, Tenasserim River and Indigenous People Networks (TRIP NET) was formed by active social and environmental activists. In 2012, local knowledge-‐based community research was introduced by TRIP NET in order to enhance local knowledge and wisdom, and to conserve and control local resources by local people. The research is a way of informing community members that they have rights to manage their local resources by themselves in sustainable ways.

TRIP-‐NET believes that sustainable development can be achieved only when local people have the right to participate in the development process, and to control and manage their natural resources according to their traditions and culture.

Keywords: local activism, environmental conservation, sustainable resources management


192

Migration as a Challenge Issue for Socio-‐economic Development: Case Studies of Hpa-‐an and Mrauk-‐U Townships in Myanmar

Saw Yu May

Geography Department, University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Migration is the act or process of moving from one place to another with the intent of staying at the destination permanently or for a relatively long period of time (Longman, 1992). It can also refer to people making a movement from one place, usually their home place, to work or to settle in other places. Basically, migration takes place in an area where the migrants believe that their opportunity and life circumstances will be better at their destinations than the present location. Nevertheless, if an area has a movement of in-‐migration because of positive conditions (pull factors), this will generally increase the population and human resources. Similarly, if an area has a movement of out-‐migration due to negative conditions (push factors), this area will lose its population or human resources. Sometimes out-‐migration has negative impacts and creates challenges for sustainable socio-‐economic development of an area. Therefore, this study is based on some specific areas of Myanmar: Hpa-‐an Township, Kayin State, and Mrauk-‐U Township, Rakhine State, where the migration process takes place by focusing on the question of how and why the people are migrating in these areas. This paper is intended to explore the migration patterns of these areas and to point out the main push and pull factors for these migrations. To obtain the relevant data, it is analyzed with field observation and semi-‐structured in-‐depth interview survey methods with the local authorities, experts, and local people. Some of the facts from the interview data are assessed by SWOT Analysis to know the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats due to migration. As demonstrated by the results of this study, economic condition is the key factor of the migration for the study areas and the effect on the socioeconomic conditions of these areas.

Keywords: migration patterns, push factor, pull factor, potential challenges, Hpa-‐an Township, Mrauk-‐U Township


193

Urban Transitions: Streetscape as Expression of Change in Yangon, Myanmar

Scott Jennings Melbourne

Landscape Architecture at the University of Hong Kong -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The urban experience of today’s Yangon is defined by a distinct vibrancy, with commercial and social activities spreading throughout the city’s historic core. A particular mix of opportunity and demand helps propel this active street culture, with limited interior spaces and relatively expensive rents pushing sellers outdoors even as the minimal capital costs required for vending offers a valued means of income. From book selling to food preparation, the typically generous widths of the colonial era sidewalks have previously been able to accommodate these activities, in addition to allowing for pedestrian movement and shading street trees. Increased economic activity and eased rules for automobile imports have, however, triggered a dramatic increase in vehicular traffic and demands for parking. As a result, these streetscapes are an increasingly contested space, with historic sidewalks torn out in an ad-‐-‐-‐hoc fashion to make space for cars. This sometimes results in damage or removal of street trees, and necessarily impacts the adjacent activities. Meanwhile, the overtaxed storm and wastewater infrastructure that typically is located beneath these sidewalks (as opposed to the center of the street) is undergoing a process of expansion to support increased building massing. With each block of replaced trenches there is need and possibility for defining the new physical conditions that will support street activities during the next phase of Yangon’s development. This paper utilizes the streetscape as a point of entry for identifying the interrelated forces of change reshaping the urban fabric of Yangon’s historic core.


194

Rural Livelihood and Agricultural Reform in Chiba Village,

Shwebo Township, Sagaing Region, Myanmar

Shin Thin Tun Department of Anthropology, Dagon University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Rice is the staple food of Myanmar people, and paddy cultivation is the livelihood as well as traditional occupation of the majority of cultivators. The purpose of this research is to find out from an anthropological perspective whether the development programmes of the government have had a positive effect on rural people or not. The research area is Chiba village, upper granary of Myanmar, as well as the producer of Shwebo Baygya rice commanding the biggest market in paddies. In Chiba village there are 748 households, 744 families, and 3,331 in population. Residents have various forms of livelihoods besides paddy-‐growing agriculture, such as gardening, shopkeeping, loom operation, pottery, and work as daily wage earners.

Since 1988, Myanmar has been transitioning into a developed country centered on agriculture, and has implemented rural development programs aimed at enhancement of rural people's socio-‐economic development with increased momentum. The paddy land over the years has used up the soil, and oxen are unable to struggle in the changed fields, so cheaper buffaloes are bred as they can negotiate the changed field. Before 2003, farmers were forced to sell their quota of paddy assigned by the government and struggled with bad weather. Their living was hard and debts accumulated quickly. The practice of farmers in the past was to plough the earth well and plant seedlings densely. In 2007, a foreign-‐trained agriculturist came and asked the farmers to adopt the new technique. A paddy farmer tried that system with success and all other farmers soon followed suit. In the past, the strain of summer paddy to be grown was decided by the Department of Agriculture, but since 2012, paddy farmers have been able to grow what strain they like. Capital is a deciding factor in the improvement of local's livelihoods because livelihood patterns are influenced by access to assets.

Keywords: livelihood, development programs, assets


195

Migrant Education in Thailand: A Rights Perspective

Shirley Worland Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

The Royal Thai Government (RTG) became a signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1992. As a member of ASEAN, it is also committed towards the implementation of the Roadmap for the achievement of an ASEAN community of which education is a key element of the sociocultural dimension of that roadmap. While a comprehensive education system is in place in Thailand that respects the tenets of these rights, there are significant holes in the safety net protecting the future of children in this country. Falling through these holes are the more than 400,000 children of migrant laborers and refugees living in Thailand. Some of these families have lived here for three generations, mostly originating from Burma.

Attempting to patch-‐up these holes are a number of community-‐ and government-‐based initiatives. These include the extensive migrant learning centers in existence across Thailand that provide varying levels of unregistered and unaccredited education. From a RTG perspective, especially since 2005, systems are in place to accept children without documentation to Thai based schools. Even so, the holes continue to exist with several problems relating to sustainability of the migrant learning centers, uniformity of policies within the Thai education system across its many provinces, and particularly the issue of accreditation of the learning achieved by these migrant children.

This paper is the first in a series of four presented in a panel that focuses on this issue of migrant education for children and youth from Burma.

Keywords: migrant children and youth, education access


196

A CGE Analysis of Myanmar’s Import Liberalization and Economic Development

Shwe Zin Ko

School of Business, Faculty of Business and Law, Edith Cowan University, Western Australia

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myanmar’s import structure has been gradually changing since 2012–2013, and the widening trade deficit, rising inflation rate, and intensified import competitiveness are hindering the country’s trade and investment liberalization measures. The criticisms of Myanmar’s trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) policies raise the question whether there are any corresponding gains to the country and the people of Myanmar. In this study, the researcher explores the effect of the policy change in the tariffs and tariff equivalent non-‐tariff measures (NTMs) on Myanmar’s economic development. She applies the concept of Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) and ORANIG model to test a sample of 57 production and services sectors using the GEMPack software. The dataset extracted from the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) and prepared by the Centre of Policy Studies (CoPS) was used in this study. The results obtained reveal that liberalization of the tariff and NTMs policy in the manufacturing industry would have positive effects on the other three winner industries and four industries with growth potential in the short-‐term, through the acquisition of capital and new technologies from FDI. The manufacturing industry itself would have to experience both the challenges and opportunities. In this regard, strengthening the financial policies and institutions plays a critical role to have macroeconomic stability. With sound financial environment, the manufacturing industry would help Myanmar to have higher-‐productive industries with competitive advantage. This study provides the blueprint for Myanmar to liberalize tariffs and NTMs commitment in the AEC, to set up sound financial foundations, and to establish a strong linkage between the manufacturing industry and other industries across the country so that the country can successfully achieve the objectives of its second five-‐year plan of reducing poverty and inequality.

Keywords: CGE analysis, Myanmar, import liberalization, economic development, FDI


197

The Uneasy Subordinate Alliance: The Relations between Myanmar and the Shan States in the Late Nineteenth Century

Shwe Zin Maw Department of History, University of Mandalay -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper is an attempt to examine the continuities and changes of Shan-‐Myanmar relations in late nineteenth century. The Shan people played a vital role in the monarchical history of Myanmar from the collapse of the Bagan dynasty to the mid-‐sixteenth century. They were the founders of the successive dynasties up to mid-‐sixteenth centuries before the conquest of the Shan States by King Bayinnaung of the Taungoo Dynasty, which founded the second Myanmar Empire. From that time onwards, the Shan States became the subordinate alliances of Myanmar kings, and Shan chiefs were the satellite kings of the kingdom of Myanmar. The tributary relations of Shan Sawbwas (hereditary chiefs) abruptly changed after the Second Anglo-‐Myanmar War when Myanmar was defeated by the British and lost her territory. Meanwhile, many of the Shan Sawbwas began to throw off Myanmar’s yoke and a few continued to exist as the faithful alliance of King Mindon (1853–78) and King Thibaw (1878–85). This paper would like to examine the causes of the attempts of Sawbwas to revolt against Myanmar rule and the effects of the rebellions of Sawbwas on the politics of Myanmar under the last decades of monarchical rule. The discussion would be extended to the status of Sawbaws under early British colonial administration. The discussion on the repercussion of the rebellions of Sawbwas in the pre-‐colonial era and annexation of the Shan States by the British on the neighbouring countries, particularly Thailand, would be made in this paper. The researcher of this paper will use primary source materials such as parabaiks (manuscripts), pes (palm leaf manuscripts), and British official records by exploring the national library, universities' central libraries, field research, and personal interviews. By making utmost efforts in using primary source materials, the researcher hopes to yield new information and to fill the gap in the study of the history of Shan States.


198

Man Mui Zhiang Ta: Burmese Dance in Thailand — Origin, Meaning, and Lyrics

Sittiporn Netniyom

Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This article is an analytical description using historical research methodology to examine the origin, meaning of the performance’s name, and lyrics that appeared in the music of Man Mui Zhiang Ta performances. The study revealed that Man Mui Zhiang Ta is a performance resulting from cultural diffusion and cultural flow across the border between Thailand and Myanmar. The name of the performance, “Mui Zhiang Ta,” originated from “Wei Zyan Ta,” the name of a traditional song of Myanmar that is also used as the opening song of the Man Mui Zhiang Ta performance. The lyrics of Man Mui Zhiang Ta are written in Burmese transliteration using Thai alphabets. The content can be transcribed as a narration about the nostalgia felt for a lover while being in the rough environment of the forest, unlike Wei Zyan Ta, which describes the beauty of the city of Mandalay.

Keywords: Burmese dance, Man Mui Zhiang Ta, Wei Zyan Ta, cultural flow


199

Democratic Voice of Burma and the Role of Ethnic Media in Myanmar’s Reforms

Soe Lynn Htwe Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

A series of political and economic reforms since 2011 has brought about changes in media development in Myanmar. Improvements in press freedom have been noticeable not only for mainstream Myanmar media, but also for many exile-‐based and ethnic media organizations, which have recently gained a foothold inside the country and participated legally in Myanmar’s media sphere.

Drawing on field research conducted in 2013–14, this paper explores the role of ethnic media in Myanmar’s democratic transition. It focuses on two ethnic print media, Kantarawaddy Times and Hsen Pai News. While Kantarawaddy Times is operated by ethnic Karenni journalists who were previously based in a refugee camp in Mae Hong Son, Thailand, Hsen Pai News is a larger Shan language journal run by Shan intellectuals based in Yangon. The paper considers the history of these organizations, the goals and strategies of the media producers, as well as the attitudes of their readers. It further examines particular challenges these ethnic media are facing as they tend to appeal to a non-‐mainstream market, use ethnic languages, and encounter financial constraints. Primarily I argue that because of natural resource exploitation projects and unsettled armed conflicts in ethnic minority areas, access to accurate information is crucial for ethnic minority peoples in Myanmar. Ethnic media organizations are therefore important means to disseminate news and cultivate their distinctive perspectives, toward the larger goal of contributing to a truly inclusive and multi-‐ethnic Myanmar society.


200

Drivers for Changing Livelihoods of Farming and Landless Households in Ayeyarwaddy Delta

Soe Soe Htway, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok

Aye Sandar Phyo, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok

Clemens M. Grünbühel, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok

Liana J. Williams, Land and Water Flagship, CSIRO, Brisbane

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In Myanmar, rural livelihoods are built around a diversity of activities and income sources. In contrast to other Southeast Asian nations, the proportion of landless rural households in selected townships of the Ayeyarwaddy Delta (AD) was found to be as much as 50% in 2014 (32.6% in AD overall, 23.6% in Myanmar). The livelihoods of farmers and landless households have traditionally been closely connected: farmers provide employment for landless labourers in the same village or village tract. More recently, however, these linkages seem to be increasingly unravelling, which accelerates rural change dynamics.

In this paper, we explore the livelihoods of farmers and landless households in rural AD based on household survey data and focus group discussions conducted in 2014. Using quantitative and qualitative data, we examine the current livelihood activities for both groups, how they are connected, and how and why they respond to processes of industrialisation, mechanisation, and migration. Household livelihoods are highly diversified, with different subsistence and economic activities for farmers (farm diversification, trade, labour) and landless (agricultural or industrial labour, trade, retail). Mechanisation of farms is increasing; however, mostly among large farmers, with smaller farmers less able to access equipment. Dynamics between mechanisation, migration, and labour costs are linked across these groups. Labour costs are increasing, which encourages mechanisation, which, in turn, encourages migration and exacerbates local labour scarcity.


201

The paper describes these challenges to the social fabric of the Delta as well as the associated adaptation strategies by rural households. We conclude by viewing these changes within the wider context of societal transition in Myanmar.

Keywords: rural change, livelihoods, migration, mechanisation, labour


202

Figure of Beauty, Social Media, and the Shan Contestation over Ethnic Identity

Somkid Saengchan


Abstract

With the growing popularity of online social media among the Shan migrant population in Thailand, social media has come to play an important role in identity construction among the Shan migrant community. The paper discusses the case of Nan, a Shan female migrant previously employed as a waitress in a restaurant in Chiang Mai before her beauty landed her a job as a fashion model in Thailand. Since the Thai press published her story as a Shan/Burmese migrant who struggles to make ends meet and whose beauty exemplifies the pride of Shan/Burmese people, the Shan migrant community started to respond to various types of representation produced around Nan through social media. The paper explores various representations of Nan in the Thai media and Shan online social media. It asks two important questions. First, what are the representations of Nan in the Thai and Shan media? Second, what do the cultural complexities that both surround and construct beauty queens such as Nan tell us about Shan ethnic identity?

Keywords: social media, ethnic identities, representation, Shan model


203

Burmese Women on the Move: A Case Study of Gender and Development in Bangkok

Sutthida Keereepaibhol

International Program, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

John J. Palen (1992) states that urbanism is seen as one of the consequences of urbanization. Urbanization is a complex process of social and economic change including structural change. Regarding urbanism, big cities in Thailand are becoming more urbanized and increasing in the degree of urbanization and urbanism. Government development plans in the sectors of economics, education, transportation, culture, and residential areas are a result of this large increase.

This paper explores the impact of these development plans on women’s migration in Thailand within a gender perspective framework. Women from Myanmar migrate to Thailand in large numbers for different reasons, but mostly for seeking a better life. They are expecting to benefit from modern urbanized city living. However, in most cases, they face obstacles that prevent them from accessing the full benefits of the Thai government’s urbanization development plans.

Focusing on the city of Bangkok, this paper presents a secondary data analysis of the obstacles faced by women migrating from the rural areas of Myanmar to the largest urbanized city in Thailand.

Keywords: gender, migration, development


204

Educational Development in a Changing Burma: The Future of Children of Migrant Labourers Returning

from Thailand to Burma

Sutthida Keereepaibhol International Program, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper presents the findings of a research study that investigated the level of education that children of migrant labourers from Burma now living in Chiang Mai, Thailand, can access, as well as looking at the possibility and different channels for their further education should their parents decide to return to Burma. The focus of the study concentrates on four different ethnic groups — Karen, Karenni, Palaung, and Shan — by looking at children from the ages of four–13 years old to identify factors that are involved when these migrant children move back to Burma. At the same time, for many children who have spent most of their lives in Thailand, it is interesting to see the possibilities and challenges for them in relation to accessing education since Burma is a new home for many of them. Therefore, it is also interesting to see how Burma’s government, as well as the Thai education system, will respond to this issue of educational development in the changing economic and democratic processes of these countries.

Keywords: educational development, migrant children and youth


205

Cross-‐Border Migration and Revitalization of Shan Buddhist Practices in the Myanmar-‐Thai Border Area

Tadayoshi Murakami

Graduate School of Language and Culture, Osaka University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This presentation aims to examine how new Shan migrants help revitalize Shan Buddhist practices in the Myanmar-‐Thai border area in Northern Thailand. This area has a long history of ceaseless migrations of the Shan and other ethnic groups. The flow of people has continued even after the border demarcation in the early 20th century. Recently, we could find two contradictory processes: a rigid border control by the state administration, and a fluid border crossing of people, goods, and information. The border crossing of people may be characterized by a one-‐way flow from Myanmar to Thailand and its steady increase in quantity. By focusing on the flow of Shan lay Buddhist readers/reciters in Mae Hong Son, at the northern Thai-‐Myanmar border area, this presentation analyzes the important role of the border crossing migrations for revitalizing Shan Buddhist practices in Northern Thailand.

Keywords: Shan, Buddhism, migration, Mae Hong Son


206

Religious Networks of Tai Buddhists across the China-‐Myanmar Border

Takahiro Kojima Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Japan

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Abstract

This paper explores the religious network of Theravada Buddhists across Dehong Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China, and Shan State, Myanmar. One of the main groups in this area is the Dai (Tăi), who follow Theravada Buddhism. However, over the past decades, monasteries in Dehong face relatively low numbers of monks and novices. Some are uninhabited. Without resident monks, everyday Buddhist rituals are performed by virtue of the direct relationship between the lay community and their Buddhist texts, Buddha images, and Pagodas. In particular, holu, experts in reciting Buddhist scriptures, play important roles as mediators in this relationship. This paper looks at aspects of religious border crossing, focusing particularly on the movement of monks and holu from Shan State, Myanmar, to Dehong in China. When the monks move to the Chinese side, local networks of the sects take on an important role in the local practice of Buddhism even though the Myanmar and Chinese governments attempt to regulate and control these sects. In case of holu, the migration of holu from Shan State has impacted upon the Buddhist practice of the local people in China, and in turn local people try to keep their on-‐the-‐ground practices intact to a significant degree. The paper argues for the need to pay attention to the interaction between political power and the practice of local people to understand the religious dynamics of border areas.


207

Heritage Conservation of Historic Built Environments

in Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin Town, Myanmar

Than Htay Oo Department of Architecture, Mandalay Technological University

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Abstract

Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin has a high quality built environment, with its wealth of historic buildings, conservation areas, and historic monuments. This represents an important social, cultural, recreational, and educational resource, as well as helping to make it an appealing place to live, work, and visit. This research is focused on conserving the historic buildings and its surrounding environments in Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin town. As there is physical degradation due to the impact of urban development, the conservation of these areas will include their development and harmonious adaption to contemporary life (UNESCO, 1987). During the 19th c., the British planned well with impeccable signs of urban planning and local architecture and built the many famous buildings in Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin town. These colonial buildings are now standing as heritage buildings and structures so that targeting conservation resources towards particularly vulnerable group of sites and environments becomes important.

Because of the elevation, situation, climate, and verdant environment, Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin has become prominent as a famous highland town. In urban areas, increased attention must be paid by the institutions for its conservation. New issues have to be addressed due to the dramatic changes occurring. It suffers from physical and functional decay, and seems to have been seriously affected by inconsistent development. The historic architectural and urban features of Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin deserve a careful survey and assessment in order to be protected as a substantial part of Myanmar’s heritage. It involves actively caring for the heritage, maintaining it in good physical condition, making it readily accessible for study, enjoyment, recreation, and tourism. This research thoroughly documents the existing conditions of Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin town and identifies the possible heritage areas to be conserved with the development of this town. The study also presents the principles and methods of conservation and criteria for conservation through a


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literature study in support of this research. Finally, this research intends to give general guidelines for existing historic buildings and new buildings built harmoniously in the existing environment and to create encouragement and promote heritage awareness of historic buildings in Pyin-‐Oo-‐Lwin Town.

Keywords: urban heritage conservation, socio-‐culture development, historic buildings, colonial houses


209

Gender Identity and Female Education of Akha Nationals Living in Kengtung Township, Shan State, Myanmar

Than Pale

Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper examines the gender identity of Akha nationals and the education of female Akha living in Kengtung Township, Shan State, Myanmar, with a focus on the identities of masculinity and femininity of the Akha. In addition, this study intends to elicit the education of the Akha women for gender mainstreaming in formulating development planning in the study areas. Data were collected from three villages: Hwe Yoke 1, 2, and Naung Hlam in Mong Hkun village tracts, in Kengtung Township, Myanmar, by using qualitative methods. IDI (in-‐depth interviews), KII (key informant interviews), and FGI (focus group interviews) with Akha men and women, including informal conversations, were employed to get the data. The findings illustrated that politeness, respect, skill at household tasks and field tasks, and wearing of traditional headdresses are important for married Akha women. Having good management skills and social dealing with other people are also critical for Akha men.

This paper examined that the gender identity of Akha are concerned with the qualifications of Akha men and women. This identity is closely related to the education of female Akha. This study showed that the majority of Akha girls and boys finished at the primary level, and very few boys can attend in the middle and higher levels. Local Akha people hold that daughters must do household and field tasks. Their traditional attitudes do not value the education of girls because they are expected only to be good housewives. Therefore, it is evident that this situation is the main factor that limits female’s access to education. With respect to education, gender disparities in schooling were found in the study areas. Akha women need to be educated because Akha women’s empowerment is important for community development in the study areas.

Keywords: gender identity, masculinity, femininity, traditional attitudes, gender disparities


210

The Transmission of Historical Knowledge between Colonial Burma and Siam: The Case of Princes Damrong-‐Narit’s

Correspondence and Their Writings about Burma

Thanapas Dejpawuttikul Waseda University, Tokyo

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Abstract

During the late 19th c. to the 1930s, the process of transmission of historical knowledge between colonial Burma and the Siamese state had become larger, even if it was still limited in the circle of elites and state administrators. This article focuses on the circulation and reflection of the making of historical knowledge through the works of two prominent Siamese elite scholars: Prince Damrong and Prince Narit’s writings, correspondence, and travel memoirs. Close-‐reading method and analysing its ideology will show the pattern of the Siamese elite’s perceptions and worldview, as well as the change in locating the subject of Siam/Thai relating knowledge on Burma.

Keywords: Burmese-‐Siamese intellectual history, Prince Damrong-‐Narit’s writings, Burmese historiography in Thailand


211

Challenges of English Language Teaching in Myanmar

Thanda Soe Department of English, University of Mandalay

Amy Roberts University of Wyoming, Laramie, U.S.A.

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Abstract

This research details a mixed methods study conducted during the 2015 academic year at Mandalay University, Department of English, Mandalay, Myanmar. It contributes to discourse examining contemporary challenges of English language teaching in institutions of higher learning in the region. Methodology from both qualitative and quantitative paradigms were systematically combined (Johnson & Christensen, 2008) to enhance strength of data collection and advance insights surrounding challenges of English language teaching in Myanmar universities. At the time of the study, all participants were full-‐time university level English language educators. A survey questionnaire, distributed to 70 participants, was developed based on a review of literature and themes generated from analysis of focus group interviews. Eight focus group interviews were conducted with 32 participants. Results suggest that English language teaching in Myanmar mirrors other Asian contexts in terms of the rising influence of globalization for English teaching, a concern for teachers' English proficiency, and the disconnect between policy and practice. Teacher confidence, disconnect between curriculum and preparation of students, low salary, over reliance on the transmission model, and large class size were also reported as challenges. Recommendations call for ongoing discourse between learners, educators, and policy makers to tailor English language teaching to the needs of Myanmar communities; collaboration with local partners to provide English teaching that is both practical and context appropriate; efforts to align pedagogy and attitudes of English language teaching with imperatives across Myanmar education; and, development of initiatives to offer choices for English language teaching that facilitate the skills and knowledge needed for personal and professional benefit of Myanmar learners. Future research should examine the elements that make English an important language in the Myanmar context, and based on this, consider what concept of English, what variety of English, and what methodologies of English language teaching are most productive for Myanmar as a nation in transition.

Keywords: teachers’ challenges, English as a foreign language, mixed methods, Myanmar in transition


212

Voices from the Ground: Situation and Impacts of the Dawei Special Economic Zone

Thant Zin

Dawei Development Association (DDA), Myanmar

Myo Thu Dawei Development Association (DDA), Myanmar

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Abstract

There are many problems in Dawei Special Economic Zone (DSEZ), and Dawei Development Association (DDA) has sent a complaint letter to the National Human Rights Commission of Thailand because the Myanmar government has not been able to address and solve those problems, and because it is Thai investment. In June 2013, the National Human Rights Commission of Thailand came and investigated the DSEZ. Local groups have researched DSEZ to understand the process by which the DSEZ project has unfolded from the perspective of the local people, and the extent to which the rights of the local people are being protected by the relevant States and corporations in the implementation of the project. This report can be used as a tool for advocating for all stakeholders related with DSEZ. There are four main parts in this ‘Voices from the Ground’ report, which are:

1) Background of Dawei SEZ project: project’s current situation, location, and research methodology;

2) Key findings: livelihoods affected, losses and impacts, land confiscation, consultation process, compensation, preparing for the future;

3) International, regional, domestic law obligation, standards and responsibilities, human rights, indigenous people’s rights, and

4) Recommendation to responsible entities

Keywords: situation, impacts, Dawei SEZ


213

Myanmar Teashops: The Space and Hybridity of Food Culture

in an Urbanisation and Tourism Context

Thapin Phatcharanuruk

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Based on a study of Myanmar teashops, this paper presents the social transformations taking place in Myanmar society. The tea drinking culture in Myanmar can be traced back to the monarchy era, on to the colonial and military times, and teashops are now an important cultural symbol of the country. Data from the fieldwork shows how tea drinking patterns and the kinds of tea served in public and household spaces are different, and this reflects the different meanings applied to different spaces. The hybridization of food and snacks that has taken place in teashops illustrates the historical, social, and political relations and multiple cultures that exist in Myanmar. Teashops located in both villages and cities serve a variety of social and economic spaces. Though fewer and cheaper types of foods and snacks are provided in the village teashops, longer opening hours, including 24-‐hour opening in some teashops in the city, illustrate the intensity with which these spaces are used socially and economically. Moreover, consumption patterns in the teashops reflects how lifestyles vary between men and women.

The official modernisation program in Myanmar was launched in 1990, and this helped increase the number of teashops, as well as improved the quality of the services and utensils used at the shops, especially those located in cities. Furthermore, the encroachment of cities into the countryside has affected villagers’ agricultural way of life. Village teashops have been used to sustain families economically. The landless poor have visited teashops to meet their employers while merchants and brokers have met their customers in such establishments. Nowadays, most people in the city have their breakfast at teashops, and this reflects changes in food consumption patterns among those who live in urban areas. Furthermore, within the tourism sector in Myanmar, teashops are now promoted as the cultural symbol of “authentic” Myanmar food culture, though hybridized food and snack items are provided in many of these places.


214

An Assessment of Eastern Burma’s Community and Ethnic Health System

Thar Win

Health System Strengthening Working Group -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Over the last sixty years of protracted crisis in Eastern Burma, ethnic and community leaders have responded by developing a large network of village health volunteers, mobile medics, and clinics, providing prevention and treatment services for the most common communicable diseases and health risks. Starting in 2012, responding to the ongoing peace process, ethnic and other health community-‐based organisations (CBOs) have sought opportunities to coordinate services between and beyond the extensive border-‐based health system to the central government's health system. The purpose of this is to provide improved healthcare, better access for the population, to strengthen the health system and policy, and gain government recognition of border-‐based health programs and workers.

This presentation describes the results of an assessment of this health system conducted in the dry season of 2014/2015. It employed the UNHCR’s “Balanced Scorecard” tool adapted from a camp-‐based to an IDP setting. The goal of the assessment was to determine gaps in quality, service provision and infrastructure, improve linkages between the health and social sector, and enhance evidence-‐based planning, accountability, and transparency. The results will be discussed in relation to health policy and planning in this region.

Keywords: IDP, health systems


215

A Struggle for Democratic Reform of Education in Burma/Myanmar

Thein Lwin

National Network for Education Reform (NNER) -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The presentation focuses on the democratic education reform movement led by the National Network for Education Reform (NNER), including student unions. It argues that the National Education Law enacted in September 2014 neglects democratic principles and practices centralized control. It explains the eleven-‐point proposal made by the student unions to amend the National Education Law. It reveals insights into four-‐party talks among the government, parliament, students, and NNER. It reflects recent crackdowns on students and their supporters by the government, and the impact of the students’ movement. It also highlights the role of the Comprehensive Education Sector Review (CESR) supported by international communities.


216

Breastfeeding Promotion and Protection for Maternal and Child Health and Nutrition in Myanmar

Thelma Tun-‐Thein

Parami General Hospital / Golden Zaneka Public. Co

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Abstract

National nutrition interventions in Myanmar have been momentous with the launching of Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN), SUN and Civil Society Alliance (SUN CSA), and the adoption of a new law to protect breastfeeding. Inappropriate feeding practices, including not breastfeeding, have led to infant malnutrition, morbidity, and mortality in all countries. Currently, Myanmar has low exclusive breastfeeding rates, presenting a detriment for optimal growth, development, health, and nutrition for babies and young children. The International Code of Marketing of Breastfeeding Substitutes was adopted in 1981 by the World Health Assembly to protect and encourage breastfeeding by restricting marketing practices for artificial feeding. In July 2014, the Myanmar government passed the Order for Marketing of Formulated Food for Infants and Young Children (OMFFIYC), a law that: 1) supports breastfeeding for infants and young children; 2) ensures appropriate use of breast-‐milk substitutes; 3) addresses correct complementary food introduction; and 4) defines limits to the marketing, advertising, and promotion of formula. This law has some voluntary provisions for implementing the Code and provides less protection due to dominant industry influences and current lack of independent monitoring mechanisms. Myanmar is especially vulnerable to the onslaught of advertising and marketing from formula and infant food companies and fast food /franchise food companies. Implementation and monitoring of the law currently remains in the formative stage. With the recent adoption of OMFFIYC and focus on nutritional interventions like SUN and SUN CSA, the government is supporting and protecting breastfeeding and appropriate infant feeding practices for improving the health and nutrition of children and families of Myanmar.


217

Architectural Aspects of Stupas During the Reign of King Narapatisithu in Bagan, Myanmar

Thet Oo

Department of Architecture, West Yangon Technological University

Maung Hlaing Department of Architecture, Yangon Technological University

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Abstract

The research paper is about architectural aspects of stupas that were built during the reign of King Narapatisithu through the Bagan dynasties. The author would like to study these stupas depending on four factors, namely: (i) reflection in the form, (ii) spatial compositions, (iii) structural aspects, and (iv) decorative aspects. The stupas are classified according to their development of form, such as stupas with bulbous shape, stupas with octagonal basement, stupas with rectangular basement, stupas with circular basement, stupas with pentagonal basement, and Sinhalese-‐type stupas. Most of the stupas with circular basement, bulbous shape, rectangular basement, pentagonal basement, and octagonal basement in the Bagan period were apparently evolved from the hemispherical stupas like Sanchi and Amaravali of India. Among them, Dhammayazika Stupa is a surpassing example of the Bagan stupas. It required a lot of skill for management, estimating, drawing, and construction. According to cosmic metaphors and symbols of the five Buddhas, the geometrically guided layout is the finest expression during the Bagan dynasties. The Dhammayazika Stupa built in Bagan is the zenith of Myanmar Religious Architecture.

The contribution of this study is the architectural and technological achievements of Myanmar religious architecture that reached its peak during the reign of King Narapatisithu (1174–1211 A.D). Myanmar stupas impressed with special features and their own style distinct from the Indian style. They show an entirely different appearance of the whole structures from the Indian monuments. They may be traced to the Indian origin by signifying the philosophy of the fine arts. This


218

research paper reveals that the architectural typology of Bagan monuments adopted to conform to Myanmar style. Furthermore, the research paper expresses the opinion that those stupas constructed during the reign of King Narapatisithu were the most outstanding and famous compared with other stupas among Bagan periods.


219

Responsible Tourism: Can Myanmar Begin the Journey to Sustainable and Quality Tourism?

Thi Thi Thein

Myanmar Centre for Responsible Business -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The tourism sector in Myanmar is currently experiencing significant growth and has been identified as a priority sector by the government. Given the variety of unique tourism experiences Myanmar has to offer, it has the potential to contribute significantly to job creation, economic growth, and poverty alleviation. However, increased tourism will also have negative impacts and can lead to inherent tensions in the sector. Such tensions are seen elsewhere in the world, but are perhaps nowhere seen as acutely as Myanmar, which has undergone a transformation from isolated country, tourism pariah, and the subject of over 15 years of boycott, to a top tourist destination in the space of only a couple of years.

Fortunately, there has already been significant multi-‐stakeholder discussion of the development of responsible tourism in Myanmar. Government policies exist on Responsible Tourism and Community Involved Tourism, which offer a clear framework for developing the sector, which is absent in many other economic sectors of importance to Myanmar. However, policy will need to be put into practice to avoid negative impacts.

This paper will outline the key impacts of the tourism sector in Myanmar based on desktop and field research conducted across six locations in Myanmar. It will focus on issues including the right to participation of affected communities in decisions related to tourism development, tourism and land-‐related impacts, labor rights in the tourism sector, environmental impacts, the impacts of tourism on culture, and how tourism can negatively impact vulnerable groups such as women and children.

The paper will conclude with a set of recommendations on how tourism businesses already present in Myanmar or planning to invest in Myanmar, as well as the Myanmar government, tourists, and civil society can avoid such negative impacts and work together towards a more sustainable business environment.

Keywords: responsible tourism, human rights, Myanmar


220

Tourist Sites and Socio-‐Cultural Changes: A Case Study of Taungthaman Village, Amarapura Township, Mandalay Region

Thida Department of Anthropology, Yadanabon University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Tourism is one of the activities of humans for pleasure. It is the act of travel and visiting places, independent on the various purposes. It includes private travel for holiday recreation, business and travel. Tourism is one of the country’s major industries which includes three components: transportation, accommodation, and services. There are various types of tourism: special interest tourism, tradition and culture based tourism, and activity based tourism. The anthropology of tourism seeks to identity and make sense of culture and human dynamics. This research illustrates anthropological perspectives on tourism and socio-‐cultural changes in Taungthaman village, Amarapura Township, an ancient city of the Myanmar Kingdom. This research focuses on the relationships between tourism and local development. This research was conducted by using qualitative approaches that involved participant observation and non-‐participant observation. The studying of socio-‐cultural changes in Taungthaman village shows that the evolution of local economy and business and mutual relationship among the guests and the host community.

Keywords: tourist attractions, Taungthaman village, tourism


221

A Glance at the Dynamics of Traditional Social Networks of Simihtun Village, Amarapura Township, Mandalay Region

Thidar Htwe Win Department of Anthropology, Mandalay University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar is attempting to upgrade all the sectors of society, such as economy, health, environment, and welfare, in this transition period. Most of the researchers concerned with community development take consideration of the material resources. The network is necessary to be taken into consideration to carry out the development of the society. This research aims to examine the dynamics of the traditional social network of a village in Myanmar and to point out the various potential of traditional social network in the context of community development. The study site is Simihtun village, Amarapura Township, Mandalay Region. It is situated in a suburban area of Mandalay. In this study, interviewing methods (KII, FGI) and observation methods were used. Research participants are the leaders and members of the local society. In the research area there are social groups based on gender, tasks, and age, such as social groups of bachelors, madams, pagoda-‐trusteeship group, administration group, cooking groups, and so on. The relationships among individuals or groups are shown in their social activities, and this study will focus on the traditional social networks based on their activities. What are the changes in traditional social networks, how do the social networks provide the development of society, and what are the hindrances occurring from the social networks are all questions examined in this research.

Keywords: Myanmar village, social network, community development


222

The Role of Civil Society in Myanmar’s Democratization

Thin Thin Aye Department of International Relations, Yadanabon University

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Abstract Myanmar is in the process of transition to democracy. Therefore, promoting the culture of democracy and national harmony is of upmost importance. Democratic culture is a culture in which all citizens can participate and feel that they have a stake. Civil society moved quickly to democracy. The promotion of democratizing in Myanmar has become the main dominant theme in the current situation. Myanmar's democratization efforts have encountered many pitfalls contradictions and dilemmas that have forced the government to alter its approach. Social capital serves as intermediaries between the state and private citizens, and sometimes exercises delegated authority in specific areas (such as education, development and resource management). Civil society actors are non-‐profit and non-‐government. Civil actors build social capital. The civil society organization of horizontal accountability can help respecting law and exercised properly state authority, eg. the president respected public opinion and suspended the construction of the Myitsone Dam. The government openly invited international organizations for promotion and protection of human rights, and cooperation with UN agencies, and partners already held a number of workshops and seminars since 2000, so as to promote public awareness on human rights problems and promotion. The most prominent one is that a vibrant and developed civil society is the bedrock of democracy. In accordance with the above-‐mentioned factors, several research questions have been raised. How does civil society support Myanmar’s democratization process? How much democracy can we legitimately and realistically expect from civil society? How does Myanmar government form political pacts from civil society? This paper will use qualitative research methods based on a case study. The government has embarked upon a series of reforms, such as expansion of civil and political space, allowing civil society to function freely.

Keywords: civil society, political culture, horizontal accountability, democratization


223

Urbanization: The Structures of Sustainable Urban Landscape of Myanmar

Thin Thin Khaing

Department of Geography, University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

With the major economic system changes, many new developments are observed in every sector of Myanmar. Urban landscaping is an integral part of modern urban construction and also presents the development of economic conditions. One of the most important factors of urbanization is population size. Urbanization is developed rapidly, based on rural-‐urban migration and natural growth of cities and towns. As urban areas develop, changes occur in the landscape, such as buildings, roads, recreational sites, etc. Although the country’s population remains largely rural because Myanmar’s economy is based on agriculture, urban population growth was faster than spatial growth. Yangon is Myanmar’s largest urban area. However, spatially it grew between 2000 and 2010, increasing at a rate of 0.5% a year, from 370 to 390 square kilometers. This paper studies many social (traffic congestion, waste disposal, water problems) and environmental issues (pollution) in urbanization and concludes with long-‐term solutions to these problems. Therefore, this paper presents the structure of urban landscape of some significant features within Myanmar and the controlling factors to this urban landscape. Population growth and urbanization should be given sufficient attention in economic policies that must seek to be managed for the sustainable future urban landscape of Myanmar.

Keywords: urban landscaping, urbanization, social and environmental issues, sustainable future


224

Yangon’s New Stock Exchange in Comparative Analysis

Thomas F. Rhoden Northern Illinois University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

In the political sphere, the citizens of Myanmar have witnessed and taken part in an expanding and deepening process of democratization and political liberalization in the past few years. In the economic sphere, changes are also underway that indicate a growth of economic liberalism. One part of that process is a slowly increasing financialization, as indicated by the new Yangon Stock Exchange (YSE), set to begin trading operations in late 2015. This paper will analyze what this new stock exchange means for the citizens of Myanmar by placing it within a regional comparative analysis of stock markets across Southeast Asia. Some questions for analysis include: Which companies will be traded? Who will have the ability to invest in these companies? How does the Yangon Stock Exchange parallel other equity markets in Southeast Asia? Is Myanmar “ready” for a new stock market now? What are the implications of opening a stock market now? The paper initially argues that the opening of the YSE provides a unique and exciting opportunity for both institutional and lay investors both within Myanmar and without in the international community. There are also concerns about opening a stock exchange at a time when the rule of law is still developing in Myanmar. The second argument is a warning that the new stock exchange of Myanmar at this early stage exhibits similar structural weakness as other Southeast Asian stock exchanges in the past, and this risk factor must be weighted appropriately in an investments strategy for Myanmar.

Keywords: Yangon Stock Exchange, equities, economy, business, YSE, financialization


225

Life in the Machine Houses of Rural Migrants: Case Studies of Capabilities of Rural Migrant Industrial Workers

and Their Families in Hlaing Tha Yar Industrial zones

Tin Maung Htwe “Understanding Myanmar’s Development” Research Fellow,

RCSD, Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In the past five years, Myanmar’s economy and industrial sector has experienced significant development, which has pushed rural workforces into urban industries. Livelihoods of rural migrant industrial workers in Myanmar, along with urbanization and industrial development, face different working environments for survival. This paper mainly discusses about the capabilities of income generation, social relation with urban and origin rural families, and political labor rights. If economic quality of life is to be improved, social needs must be addressed, and labor rights are encouraged for migrant industrial workers. This research mainly discusses the assuming of “Rural migrants experience improved livelihood after moving to work in factories in industrial zones.” Research tries to find out rural migrants’ experiences with development, social standards, and quality of life after moving to industrial zones; the relationship rural migrants have with local industrial workers, other migrant laborers, their families, authorities, and labor unions; and finally, the needs of rural migrants to improve livelihoods, social relationships, and rights of labors.

The purpose of this research is to better understand the livelihoods of rural to urban migrant workers in Yangon industrial zones, to assess how they adapt and survive in their new environment, as well as their social relationship with local habitants, work, unions, and their families, during the period of the economic, social, and political transformation of Myanmar. This issue makes a direct impact on productivity of industries and human rights issues of labors. This research applies livelihood approaches and ethnography methodology to rural migrant workers as a human agency. Research discusses about the basic economic, social,


226

and political foundation of rural migrant labors in industries. The impact of gender-‐based challenges and opportunities, the number of family, age difference, contemporary labor laws, and the various reasons to migrate to urban areas are discussed in the paper.

Keywords: labor rights, capabilities of laborers, rural migrant workers, social policy, human rights


227

Inequality and Way of Life of Burmese Migrants in Thailand:

A Case Study in Chiang Mai

Tithirat Pripotjanart International Program, Faculty of Social Science, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper draws on case studies of Burmese migrants in the city of Chiang Mai, Thailand, to explore concepts and theories of migration, uneven development, and acculturation in which migrants engage in the new environment of urban societies. It examines the new emergence of factors that bring Burmese migrants to Chiang Mai, and uneven development which comes along with development of the city, particularly Burmese migrant workers are recognized as a local symbol of inequality in Chiang Mai, as well as in the Asia region. Further, the paper focuses analytical attention on ‘way of life’ of Burmese migrants of varying cultural, political, and economic backgrounds. It responds to the narratives about urban diversity and development of the cities that they encounter. Keywords: migrant labor, inequality, lifestyle


228

The Acquisition, Use, and Attitude of the Burmese Language According to Individuals from the Chin Hills of Myanmar

Tyler Davis

Independent Researcher -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Chin Hills of western Myanmar have long been a center of controversy in language and education policy. Most residents speak some variety of the Kuki-‐Chin language family, but are expected to learn and use Burmese in school. Nevertheless, many adult Chin speakers are not fluent in Burmese and continue to make extensive use of their own Chin literature.

This paper takes a micro-‐survey of Chin immigrants in the United States and examines their attitudes toward the Burmese language and their mother tongue, and their own reported language use. Interviews were conducted with seven central Chin speakers who were fluent in Burmese. These included two Falam, two Hakha, and three Zotung speakers. The focus of the interviews was on participants’ language use and attitudes toward the Burmese language in comparison to their mother tongue, and their views of the Burman people, including any attitude change since their arrival in the United States. Burmese fluency was assessed on a 1–5 scale, and correlated with the other sections of the assessment, which included 11 questions on language attitudes. A variety of measures were used, such as yes/no questions, demographic information, and culture/language information. Surprisingly, results indicate that arriving in the U.S. may have helped some participants become more fluent in Burmese. For some participants who are more fluent in Burmese, yet stated they did not use it often in Myanmar, Burmese became more useful in the United States, finding use as a neutral code between refugees of different ethnicities from Myanmar.

Keywords: Diglossia, fluency, Kuki-‐Chin, language attitude, multilingualism


229

Myanmar Words – Lanna Words

Ubonrat Pantumin Eastern Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The objectives of this research were to collect Myanmar words not only as they appear in Lanna language, but also in both Lanna and Myanmar, and to study the sound and meaning through the conceptual idea of language borrowing and language contact resulting. The words were collected from important ancient Lanna documents that were written during the Lanna Kingdom under the influence of Myanmar for almost 200 years, and from the Mae Fah Luang Dictionary compiled by Professor Dr. Udom Rungruengsri. This research mainly described the informative appearance which did not emphasize on philology directly. This research found that the majority of words found in ancient Lanna documents could identify exactly that they were Myanmar words, whereas the acquisition, use, and attitude of the Burmese language according to individuals from the Chin Hills of Myanmarot of the words found in Mae Fah Luang dictionary could not be identified because they were used among various ethnic groups. According to the meaning, these collected words could be separated into two groups. The first group had the same meaning, and the second one had different meaning. It was found that some words appeared in Lanna words and were used in a narrow meaning, whereas some words were used in an expanded meaning and some words were used in a total different meaning from Myanmar, such as [if;av; /hin-‐le/ in Myanmar language means a curry that is made from different leftover dishes cooked again, but ‘hin-‐le’ in Lanna language means curry with large pieces of pork mixed with curry paste as the main ingredient and boiled. When the sounds of words were analyzed, they could be divided into two groups: the sound of consonants and the sound of vowels. The sound of consonants could be divided into four minor groups as stop consonant, fricative consonant, nasal consonant, and semi-‐vowel, whereas the sounds of vowels could be separated into five minor groups, as front vowel group, central vowel group, back vowel group, vowel with opened syllable, and vowel with closed syllable. Some sounds of Lanna and


230

Myanmar were quite similar. Some sounds were different systematically. However, there were also different sounds unsystematically which could have resulted from the fact that the words were adjusted to meet the nature of pronunciation of one’s language. It is interesting that some different vowel sounds when being compared with other ethnicities which had these particular sounds in their languages, it could be hypothesized that such sounds in the past could have had the same sound, for example, the consonants p /sá/ o /θá/ in Myanmar language, and จ /cá/ ส /sá/ in Lanna language, or the vowel atmif/àun/ in Myanmar and vowel ออ+_ง / /ŋ_+כ in Lanna language.


231

History of Social Suffering and the Social Agent

Vinai Boonlue Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Based on ethnographic fieldwork with the Karen on both sides of the Thailand-‐Burma border, I analyse in this paper the different strategies and tactics of survival in the lives of displaced Karen people. Through my methodology of walking with and to the Karen land, I see the strategies of survival through the struggle at the level of myth and imagination and at the level of realities. My analysis reveals the Karen’s experience of a culture of death and their efforts to establish a culture of life despite the adversities of everyday life. In this way, my paper is an anthropological contribution to the current peace-‐building process in Burma.

Keywords: Karen, walking, strategies and tactics, culture of life


232

When Ravana Is a Hero: Anti-‐Colonialism in the Contemporary Myanmar Novel Lin-‐gar Di Pa Chit Thu by Chit Oo Nyo

Wathanyoo Faktong

Department of Comparative Literature, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Ramayana, or “Yama” in the Myanmar language, is one of Myanmar’s canonical literary works that has been prevalent since ancient times and appeared in the forms of poetry and dramatic performance. Recently, the story has been modified and reinterpreted into a contemporary novel entitled Lin-‐gar Di Pa Chit Thu by Chit Oo Nyo. Through a post-‐colonial perspective, the novel critiques British-‐Myanmar colonial power relations with the character of Ravana, the protagonist who represents Myanmar natives’ struggles against colonialism with the Rama character representing the colonial powers. This anti-‐colonialist rewriting of Ramayana is achieved by turning upside down the traditional approach to the story, in which Ravana is the antagonist and Rama and his followers are the protagonists.

Keywords: Ramayana, anti-‐Colonialism, Myanmar post-‐colonial literature, Chit Oo Nyo


233

The Small Grocery Stores: The Translocality of Consuming Culture of Migrant Workers from Myanmar

in Khon Kaen’s Suburban Area

Wilasinie Sophaphol Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Khon Kaen University

Jaggapan Chadchumsang

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Khon Kaen University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper deals with the construction of social space through product consumption by migrant workers from Myanmar in their community, which was recently established in Khon Kaen. This is conceptualized with the notion of translocality. The paper aims to show the mobility of products and consuming culture, which are by no means geographically fixed. It also explains how the identity of these workers has come to be constructed within the context of a new space. The data used in the article are drawn from qualitative research. The major data collection techniques were participant observation as well as formal and informal interviews with informants from a wide range of ethnic backgrounds living in the community adjacent to the factory and also merchants in the borderland market between Thailand and Myanmar. The research reveals that despite their relatively long residence and exposure to Thai — specifically Northeastern Thai — culture, this group of migrant workers still prefers using goods imported from their home country. This is evident in eleven small groceries in this translocal community. They also adhere to traditions they used to practice back home in a somewhat strict manner. The paper explains not only the concept of translocality, but shows the connection between the migrants’ homeland and destination. It also demonstrates the significance of the “place in-‐between,” which is situated in Thailand’s western border area, and which plays a key role as the middle point of a “sense of feelings” that allows for a close link between the sending and the receiving country.

Keywords: translocality, consuming culture, migrant workers, Myanmar laborers


234

Prehistory to Proto-‐history of Myanmar: A Perspective of Historical Geography

Win Naing Tun

Myanmar Environment Institute -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The land which we now call “Myanmar” was merely a sea area during the Cambrian Period about 600-‐500 million years ago according to the geological timescale. The Thanlwin (Salween) River was a land-‐water boundary of sea in the east during the Lower Carboniferous Period. The current land area of Myanmar, except the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Delta, matured during the Eocene Period. Eocene age primates found in the Pondaung Formation are represented by Pondaungia cotteri (Pilgrim, 1927), Amphipithecus mogcmngensis (Colbert, 1937), Bahinia pondaungensis (Jaeger et al., 1999), and Myanmarpithecus ytmhensis (Takai et al., 2001). The prehistory of Myanmar spanned hundreds of millennia to about 200 BCE. Archaeological evidence shows that the Homo erectus lived in Myanmar 750,000 years ago, and Homo sapiens about 11,000 BCE, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian, named after the sites found in the Dry Zone of Central Myanmar. The Anyathian period was when plants and animals were first domesticated and polished stone tools appeared in Myanmar (Burma). The Padah-‐lin caves located in Ywa-‐ngan Township, southern Shan State, uncovered more than 1,600 stone artifacts of the Neolithic Age, which are dated between 11,000 to 6,000 BCE, and paintings depicting figures in red ochre of two human hands, a fish, bulls, bison, a deer, and probably the hind of an elephant. The Bronze Age evidence, which is dated 1500 BCE, were found in Nyaungan, Budalin Township, located about 38 kilometers north of the famous Latpadaung copper mine. The Iron Age arrived around 500 BCE when iron-‐working settlements emerged in the south of present day Mandalay and near Bagan. The Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar moved into the upper Ayeyarwaddy valley from present day Yunnan, China, around 200 BCE. The Pyu were followed by the Mon, the Rakhine, and the Bamar in the first millennium CE. Bagan stone inscriptions show the Thet, Kadu, Sgaw, Kayan, Palaung, Wa, and Shan also inhabited the Ayeyarwaddy valley and its peripheral regions.

Keywords: geological timescale, primates, Anyathian, neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Pyu, Mon, Rakhine


235

The Changes of Economy and Political Organization of Waphyutaung Village Tract, Yamethin Township,

Mandalay Region

Win Win Soe Department of Anthropology, East Yangon University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This study aims to illuminate the changes to local administration due to economic changes in Waphyutaung Village Tract, Yamethin Township, Mandalay Region, Myanmar. These changes have forced people to adapt to new environments. People are usually conscious of their adaptive strategies, but often do not discern adaptive processes. The processes of culture changes are mentioned as diffusion, acculturation, innovation, and invention by cultural anthropologists. In this study, the process of acculturation is mainly considered, and data was collected using qualitative research methods such as key informant interviews, in-‐depth interviews, participant observations, life history interviewing, etc. This research was conducted from 2009 to 2015. Waphyutaung Village Tract is about 21 miles from the southeast of Yamethin Township. There are 466 households with 2,202 people, including 738 Bamar, 748 Pa Oh, and 716 Taungyoe people. Therefore, residents possess varied cultural backgrounds.

This study was carried out as a comparison between the circumstances of local administration prior to gold mining (before 2002) and that following gold mining (after 2002). Before 2002 the local people’s main economy was agriculture. Most of the lands were found to be virgin soils or vacant lands. The local people could occupy these lands and cultivate them as they desired. After 2002, the migrants from other regions came into this region to take up gold mining, forcing the local people to gradually change their professions from agriculture-‐based to gold-‐related economic activities. These changes led to the growth and improvement of the economy. The local peoples’ social contacts became more and more frequent and wider with the introduction of migrants. This study has shown some changes in the administration of justice and internal and external security on the administration of village.


236

Extent of Household Catastrophic Health Expenditures among Urban Dwellers in Mandalay City

Yadanar Aung

Health Systems Research Division, Department of Medical Research -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Self-‐payments or “out-‐of-‐pocket” payments (OOP) are the principal means of financing healthcare throughout Myanmar. They leave households exposed to the risk of unforeseen expenditures that absorb a large share of the household budget. The OOP expenditures may be considered as catastrophic in the sense that they absorb a large fraction of household resources.

The catastrophic impact of healthcare costs among households in selected areas of Mandalay city is measured by indices such as incidence, intensity, and mean positive gap. The researcher also explored the opinions of people paying for healthcare by conducting focus group discussions.

As expected, households' catastrophic impacts are considerably high in Mandalay. The incidence of catastrophic health care payment is 8%, 4%, and1.3% for the defined catastrophic thresholds of 10-‐, 20-‐, and 30-‐percent, respectively. The intensities are 1.62-‐, 1.09-‐ and 0.8-‐percent for the same thresholds. Mean positive gaps are 20.2-‐, 27.3-‐, and 61.5-‐percent for the three defined threshold levels. Because of heavy out-‐of-‐pocket healthcare expenditures, most of the households’ incomes are absorbed with repeated borrowing and lending mechanisms that can push these households into impoverishment. Although they pay heavily, Myanmar people do not blame anyone but their destiny because they know little about social mechanisms.


237

Mandalay Economy in Transition, 1859–1877

Yee Yee Win Department of History, University of Mandalay

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Ratanabon City is well-‐known as Mandalay City. It was founded by King Mindon soon after he ascended to the Amarapura throne in 1852. Many obstacles were ahead of him during his reign. Myanmar was defeated in the second war with the British, the result of which was that Lower Myanmar was ceded to the latter. It was indeed a great loss to the Myanmar king, as the lower region supplied rice, salted fish, fish paste, and salt, all of which were essential to Myanmar people’s daily diet. The first and foremost reform to be carried out was to lessen its dependence for rice on Lower Myanmar. The second was to introduce a coinage system to simplify economic transactions and taxation. And the third was the introduction of an economic monopoly system and tax farming in inter-‐regional trade. People could see change in agriculture, the monetary system, and in trade all of which was new. For these changes in economic performances to be successfully implemented, King Mindon had an efficient, enthusiastic, and zealous heir apparent popularly known as Prince Kanaung. He was very interested in the all-‐round development of the kingdom to match with, or supersede, the British imperialists so that they could be driven out and the kingdom could regain lost territories. For these reasons, reforms were introduced and carried out in the kingdom. In brief, this research paper is intended to treat the following three major points: agriculture, the monetary system, and trade.


238

Writing the History of the Chinese Community in Post-‐War Myanmar

Yi Li Nanyang Technological University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

In the 1950s and early 1960s, after years of conflicts in WWII and post-‐war internal military rivalry in Myanmar, the enthusiasm for national reconstruction was palpable, and not without optimism. Among its multiple ethnic participants were the Burmese Chinese, a migrant community that initially emerged under colonial rule. A small group of Chinese-‐language schoolteachers and journalists started to engage in a self-‐motivated project of history writing. They published the resulting accounts in vernacular newspapers and other communal publications with the hope of advocating a unique communal identity and seeking a wider acceptance in newly established, multiethnic Myanmar. This grassroots movement received little institutional support or official recognition from the establishment within the country. The community was instantly aware of its marginalized position in post-‐war Myanmar, where official discourse emphasized the country’s main ethnicity of Burman, and the dominance of Cold War in regional geopolitics. In the end, the burgeoning communal project was doomed under the Myanmar military dictatorship in the 1960s.

This paper looks at this short-‐lived history-‐writing project, which inevitably integrated the pre-‐war extensive Nanyang Chinese connections, and the awkward wartime experience witnessed by many whom temporarily sought refuge in the Chinese hinterland. It follows the process of cultural community building in the Yangon Chinatown, such as rescuing symbolic artifacts, compiling Burmese-‐Chinese dictionary, publishing a dedicated column on vernacular newspapers, and most importantly, writing and presenting the community’s history for academic and public audiences. It presents a story of narrating a communal past in an increasingly hostile present, and explores the implications of the historical materials they have produced.

Keywords: migration, community building, post war, ethnic identity


239

Local Response toward a Japanese Infrastructure Development Project in Thilawa Area, Myanmar

Yuki Miyake Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Concerning the case of a Japanese infrastructure project in post-‐conflict Myanmar, this paper explores the reaction and response of the local residents toward involuntary resettlement resulting from a foreign aid project. Local responses toward development projects have been studied and produced many articles. Therefore, this paper will pay special attention to the context of Myanmar as a post-‐conflict state. After the Republic of the Union of Myanmar formed a new democratic administration in March 2011, the Japanese government changed its economic cooperation policy, resumed its support for the infrastructure to promote Myanmar’s economic development, and signed a loan agreement for Infrastructure Development Project in Thilawa Area, where a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) for manufacturing industries areas and commercial areas would be developed. This was seemingly a good development project for the state; however, it has aroused anxieties from the local residents due to large-‐scale involuntary resettlements and the loss of livelihoods. In January 2013, about 3,800 people of about 900 households were told by the local government office to evacuate to a new settlement within 14 days or be imprisoned for 30 days. Some local residents thought that they could not follow this order, thus, they sent a letter to the Myanmar president, stating the rejection of the notice by the local government office. Furthermore, in June 2014, some of them also submitted a formal objection to Japan’s aid agency, JICA, following which JICA formed an inspection panel and conducted an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Based on the case of affected local residents opposing resettlement under foreign aid project in post-‐conflict state of Myanmar, this paper explores the learning process of the local residents in the face of sudden crisis of traditional livelihoods, networking of civil society organization both at domestic and international levels, and their limitations in the context of a post-‐conflict state.

Keywords: foreign aid, post-‐conflict, local response, civil society network, involuntary resettlement


240

Japan’s Role in Human Resource Development for the Manufacturing Industry in Myanmar

Yuri Sadoi Faculty of Economics, Meijo University, Japan

Than Than Aung

Japan Center for Human Resources Development, Myanmar

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

Myanmar has been receiving international business attention since 2011. Strong growth potential and expectations about the transformation of the Myanmar’s political situation and foreign relations are attracting large foreign direct investment (FDI) from Japan, as well as many other developed countries. Industrialization is an important issue for developing countries for economic development. Myanmar urgently requires industrial competitiveness and catching up with technological capability. Human resource development plays a crucial role in building skills and technological capability, and in realizing a nation’s industrial competitiveness. Myanmar as the latest comer in ASEAN for industrialization and investing in broad human capital development is fundamental for developing into a modern industrial economy.

Since the 1980s, when its FDI accelerated, Japan has been a major contributor of technology transfer to Asian countries. Especially, in ASEAN countries, Japanese technology transfer to the automobile industry has been intensive and has played an important role in the development of manufacturing industry and its human resources.

The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), is expected to bring regional economic integration by the end of 2015.The AEC areas of cooperation include human resources development and capacity building as one of the most important issues in this paper. However, for the late developing countries in ASEAN, the AEC is an


241

opportunity as well as threat. Myanmar has an urgent need to catch up their industries or find out their competitive fields by liberalization. Under these circumstances, the role of Japan will be important for Myanmar. The aim of this paper is to analyze the technology transfer from Japan especially for human resources development.

This paper first discusses the Japanese human resource development system and the role of Japan in Myanmar. Then, the current situation of human resource development and capabilities for manufacturing industry in Myanmar will be analyzed. The third part studies the cases of current trainings and practices with cooperation of Japanese government, such as practices of Myanmar-‐Japan Centre. The final part is an evaluation of these issues.

Keywords: human resource development, manufacturing industry, Japan’s role in Myanmar


242

The Inscriptions of the Pagan Kingdom

Yuttaporn Naksuk

Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Thailand -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

After the decline of the Sriksetra Kingdom, which was the kingdom of the Pyu people, in the middle of the 9th century, the Burmese continuously rose to power, and this is what finally led to their establishment of the Pagan Kingdom with Pagan as the capital city. The peoples settling in the Pagan Kingdom were racially diverse. In fact, the Burmese, the Mon, and the Pyu assumed dominant roles in the very early period. Consequently, most inscriptions of the Pagan Kingdom were likely to bear multiple languages in order to have effective domestic communication with different groups of people, especially with the dominant ones, and so racial equality was ensured. The most famous inscription of the Pagan Kingdom was the Yazakumar Inscription, or the Myazedi Inscription, inscribed in 1113 during the reign of King Kyansittha. It is also the first inscription written in Burmese. Later, inscriptions written in the Pyu language gradually disappeared and they were nowhere to be found between the 13th century and the early 14th century. As for the Mon-‐written inscriptions, they were actively promoted by King Kyansittha, who had a personal preference for Burmese-‐Mon bilingual inscriptions. Bilingual inscriptions were common until the reign of King Narapatisitthu (1174–1211), who intended to lessen Mon power and influence in the kingdom. Thanks to him, Burmese has been the only language used in inscriptions since then. Most scholars agree that there is a higher possibility that the Burmese script developed from the ancient Mon script rather than from the Pyu. This has been supported by ample evidence from different disciplines, such as orthography, historical linguistics, and history.


243

Constructing Knowledge on Transitional Myanmar

Pre-‐Conference Seminar Abstracts


244

Comparative Study on the Myanmar Cloth Painting Fine Art during 11th–18th c. AD through Documentary References

and Survey Findings

Aye Aye Oo Department of Archaeology, University of Yangon

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Abstract In the Bagan period (11th–13th c. AD), depiction of mural paintings was widely practiced in most of the temples. The knowledge of Buddhism was thus distributed through subject matters related to Buddhist literature in the mural paintings. The artists also introduced decorated cloth paintings using woven cotton fabrics being depicted with 550 Jataka stories. In the Abeyatana temple, the cedi was built over the vault and depicted cloth paintings were stuck on the terraces of the cedi. This temple was the only temple built in 11th c. AD. Even after nearly 800 years, some remains of cloth paintings are seen on the lowest terrace of the cedi. With references to cloth painting, ancient Myanmar appears to be one of the oldest areas for these images in Southeast Asia. According to the study findings, the trace of cloth paintings in eighteen temples were found at the portion of porch, arch pediment, vault, ceiling, and rosette of the temple. Some remains of cloth paintings were seen on some parts of the body of Buddha image, reredos (flame of the arch), and throne, etc. There were some small cotton pieces on the wall of the temples. As a believable witness, a medium-‐sized cotton stole with depicted painting was seen for usage as a wrapping piece of the palm-‐leaf inscriptions displayed in Pakkhangyi museum. It is the article of clothing produced in Nyaung Yan, Konbaung Period (AD 18th–19th c.).

Keywords: cloth painting, 550 Jataka stories, terrace, vault, arch pediment


245

Dynamics of Myanmar Drum Ensemble

Cathy Tun


Abstract In every society concerned with the history of arts, musical instruments are universal components of human culture. Myanmar Drum Ensemble (saing wain in Myanmar language) is one of Myanmar’s traditional musical instruments. In Myanmar society, the drum ensemble is used along side annual-‐cycle rituals, life-‐cycle rituals, and crisis rituals. This research describes the dynamics of Myanmar Drum Ensemble, saing wain. Field ethnography, focus group discussion (FGD), key informant interviews (KII), in-‐depth interviews (IDI), informal conversation (IC), and direct observation (DO) were used for data collection. Study sites include Bo Tun Zan ward in Daw Pon Township, No(2) ward in North Okkalapa Township, No(5) ward in Mayangone Township, Ye Mon village, Kyungalay village, Kyauk Ain village in Hlegu Township.

The Bamar drum ensemble emerged from a merger of the Royal Music and the Folk Music from the Kon-‐baung period (AD 1752–1856). It has three special characteristics: the Melodic Character, the Harmonic Character, and the Rhythmic Character. Furthermore, the drum ensembles are known to have had close relationships with the public throughout the colonial and the post-‐independence periods. Today the drum ensemble has closer contacts with people from the rural areas, whereas city dwellers rely more on modern musical instruments for entertainment.

Keywords: Drum Ensemble, saing wain, nat pwe, musical instruments


246

A Religious Study on the Construction of Oo-‐Pwar Pagoda and its Sculptures

Hnin Moe Hlaing

Department of Oriental Studies, Yadanabon University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myanmar culture is an integral part of Buddhism. While there is an abundance of artistic material throughout Myanmar, many people do not know that these artistic pagodas and their sculptures are related with a meaningful background. Therefore, this paper is presented based on Oo-‐Pwar Pagoda in Mandalay. Initially, it is presented to show which one is worthy to be a pagoda and how many kinds of pagoda there are. And then, the history of Oo-‐Pwar Pagoda and the standard of Myanmar art and architecture of that period are presented. The construction of the pagoda and its sculptures are also expressed in which each part of the pagoda related with the teaching of Buddha is discussed. This topic is divided into three main parts, namely: the meaning of pagodas, the construction of Oo-‐Pwar Pagoda, and sculptures in the surroundings of the pagoda. This paper reveals the background history, religious, and traditional customs of the sculptures. The fact can be seen that although Myanmar people are Theravāda Buddhists, some also practice Mahāyana Buddhism and Hinduism as their own traditions. By doing this research, in the compound of the pagoda, the traditions of ancient Myanmar are revealed. The pagodas can be interpreted to be both religious spaces and the invaluable elements of the country’s cultural heritage. Therefore, conservation of pagodas is beneficial to develop Buddhist religion and to conserve Myanmar cultural heritage.


247

Historical Perspective on Mon Settlements in Myanmar

Khin May Aung

History Department, Mawlamyine University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The Mon, who belong to the Mon-‐Khmer stock of the Austro-‐Asiatic sub-‐family, were the ancient inhabitants of both Myanmar and Thailand. In Myanmar, they migrated from the north along the Mekong, Thanlwin, and Ayeyarwaddy rivers. When the Mon came to Myanmar, they were known as Raman, which was later simplified and shortened to Mon. The usage of Ramañña is also found in the Bago Kalyani inscription of 1476 AD. Thus the name ‘Ramañña’ did not emerge only in the 15th century AD, but existed from the early centuries. It was also found that the all-‐inclusive term ‘Ramañnadesa’ has its roots in the three Mon regions of Pathein, Mottama, and Hanthawaddy. The terms Ramañnadesa and Suvanñabhumi were alternately used in ancient Indian literature and the oldest chronicles of Srilanka, Dipavamsa, and Mahavamsa, composed in the 4th and 6th centuries. Traditionally, Suvanñabhumi (Thaton) is believed have been the place where Buddhism originated in Myanmar. Different concepts of the old city site of the Mon settlements were reviewed and the findings of the artifacts and the traditions reveal that the coastal area of Lower Myanmar were settlements of Mon inhabitants.

Keywords: Mon, origin, names, settlements, artifacts


248

Ritual as a Social Institution: The Case of Zaw Ti Gone Village, Hmawbi Township, Yangon

Khin Moe Moe Kyu

University of Mandalay -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This research discusses the social organization and social activities of Zaw Ti Gone village, Hmawbi Township, Yangon Region. Among the villagers, nearly half are Shan nationals, and others are Bamar and migrant people. Participatory development and interviewing are the main research methods of this study. Some semi-‐structured questionnaires and structured questions were prepared before conducting the research. The research has focused on the connection and social roles among their communities concerned with ritual and ceremony. The main rituals and seasonal ceremonies are Shinpyu Pwe, Thingyan festival, Waso festival, Sabbath days, Thadingyut, Kahtain festival, and the New Year Festival of Shan people. This study also observed the rites of passage among villagers, such as monks’ birthday ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. The villager’s participation in connection with their ceremonies is their social role and also institutions for new generations. These are shown for their interest and familiarity among them and degree of involvement to meet his or her societal obligations in their social role. In Zaw Ti Gone village, most of the villagers practice rituals in the Buddhist tradition. For village rituals and social affairs, most of the leading persons are Shan. This paper aims to explore the question, “How are village social organizations organized among themselves to help each other based on these rituals?”


249

Socio-‐Cultural factors of Falam in Chin State, Myanmar

Khin Saw Nwe Department of History, University of Yangon

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Abstract

Chin State is situated in the Western sector of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. The 13,907-‐square-‐mile Chin State is home to the Chin people. In Myanmar, they predominantly inhabit Chin State, which is located in the northwest of the country, bordering Bangladesh to the west and India to the north. Chin State is divided into two divisions, Northern and Southern. A socio-‐economic study of Falam Township was carried out in 2014. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information. A northern sample of 30 households in six villages was selected. A house-‐to-‐house visit was made by two interviewers. There are many collections of the historical and socio-‐cultural evidences of the villages. Out of these villages, the name of the village, Parthe, is explained briefly in this paper.


250

The Art of Myanmar Brass Gong Casting

Lei Shwe Sin Myint


Abstract

Brass gong casting is one of the Myanmar handicraft methods that has existed since the time of the Myanmar kingdom. The brass gong is one of the traditional musical instruments of Myanmar. This research focuses on the art of brass gong casting. Data collections was conducted through non-‐participant observations, key informant interviews, writing of field notes, and taking photographs at the research site of Tampawady quarter, Mandalay. Tampawady has been a place for handicraftsmen and their families since the time of Myanmar kings. In this quarter, there are foundries from nearly 200 years ago. The art of brass gong casting does not involve any machinery, and the tools used in the work are hand-‐made. The craftsmen only conduct the process with manual labor, and they use particular tools at suitable stages. In the process of casting, sharp senses, understanding, and harmonious participation are required. Most craftsmen do not have school education; however, they possess extraordinary skill in brass gong casting. At present, the new generations are not interested in continuing the tradition of their families due to the following reasons: it involves hard work; the commodity prices are increasing; and raw materials are becoming rare. However, the art of brass gong casting, a Myanmar handicraft, still exists in Tampawady, Mandalay, although it is becoming less popular, because some skilled craftsmen are still working and market for this business is still strong.


251

Kinship Terminology and Naming System of Shan Nationals, Zaw-‐ti-‐gone Village, Hmawbi Township, Yangon

Lwin Lwin Mon

Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon

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Abstract

As a member of the Twell-‐let-‐myar project, the researcher traveled to Zaw-‐ti-‐gone village, Hmawbi Township, Yangon, to conduct fieldwork from April to July 2013. During the field trip, the research team members went to homes in Zaw-‐ti-‐gone village to learn the kinship terminologies and naming systems of Shan nationals. The aim of this presentation is to understand the kinship terminologies and naming system of Shan nationals living in Zaw-‐ti-‐gone village, Hmawbi Township, Yangon, and how they engaged the cultural diversity of ethnic communities from different perspectives. In this research presentation, all together two main themes, kinship terminologies and naming systems of Shan nationals, were expressed. Methodology used in this research includes library surveys, field research, key informant interviews, participant observation. The taking of photographs and video recordings were used for special activities associated with kinship terminologies and naming systems of Shan residents. This data was analyzed from a cultural anthropology point-‐of-‐view.


252

Preservation of Dawei People’s Traditional Customs

Maw Maw Aye Department of History, University of Yangon, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

There are many unique traditional customs of the national races of Myanmar. The study of the traditional customs of a national race of Myanmar is the best way to learn about the traditional customs of Myanmar. The culture of a country is its life-‐blood. If the culture of a country disappears, the people of this country will be vanished completely. Today is the age of globalization. Therefore, preservation of our own culture is necessary for all. As Dawei is situated in the southern part of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, it is far from upper and central Myanmar. As a result, the traditional customs of Dawei people are different from the others. As Dawei is located at the inner part of Tanintharyi coastal region, it is a region where ancient traditional culture, folk songs, traditional dance, and dialects can be preserved.

This study focused on the unique traditional customs of Dawei people that are different from the traditional customs of other national races of Myanmar. This paper emphasizes some traditional customs of Dawei people and famous religious festivals preserved until today. It will contribute to the understanding of traditional customs of Dawei people and their preservations.

Keywords: Dawei people, traditions, custom, preservation, culture


253

A Study of the Usage of ‘Ger Aye Who is Beaten by Her Mother’ in Myanmar Language

Mon Mon Aung

Department of Myanmar, Yenanchaung Degree College, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to present the Myanmar usage of ‘Ger Aye who is beaten by her mother’ from the standpoint of sociolinguistics. Myanmar language derived from the Tibeto-‐Chinese family of languages. Myanmar language is a tonal language because high and low tones determine different meaning of words. Besides, Myanmar language has sayings, proverbs, and metaphors like other languages. The usage of ‘Ger Aye who is beaten by her mother’ is a metaphor of Myanmar language. It comes from the poem of ‘Ger Aye.’ Ger Aye is the name of a Myanmar girl. In this poem, the characters are Ger Aye, her mother, Mister Bachelor, and the little monkey. Mother made a bun with paper sticking to it. Then, she offers a bun with the Lilly salver. The little monkey came running down and eats the bun. Mother did not see the little monkey. She thinks the bun was lost by Ger Aye. Because of this, Ger Aye was beaten by her mother. She was crying in the darkness. Mister Bachelor pulled her leg, hanging down. At that time, it thundered in the south of sky. Again, Mother made a bun with paper sticking to it. And then, she offers a bun with the Lilly salver. The little monkey came running down and eats the bun. Mother did not see the little monkey. She thinks the bun was lost by Ger Aye. For this case, Ger Aye was beaten by her mother. She was crying in the darkness. Mister Bachelor pulled her leg, hanging down. At that time, it thundered in the south of sky. These actions are repeated again and again. This poem shows Myanmar traditional culture. The research questions are: (1) What is the root of the usage of ‘Ger Aye who is beaten by her mother’?, and (2) In which social situations it can be used? This problem will be solved using qualitative research methods from the aspect of sociolinguistics.


254

Culture and Mon Aesthetic Literature

Mu Mu Aye

Myanmar Language Department, Mawlamyine University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper presents the nature of culture from a Myanmar point-‐of-‐view. Although culture has been changing throughout history, it is still alive. It can be said that culture exists as long as living human beings exist in the world. Since historic times, there have been standards to evaluate culture. The standards for today include 38 Ma~gaLÈ dhamma, Si~gaLovÈda Sutta, Si~gaha dhamma, AprahÈniya, etc. The standard method to evaluate culture is produced by the combination of pre-‐historic standards and today’s standards. This research paper is intended to study the evaluated culture on the basis of Mon aesthetic literature. Mon aesthetic literature compiled by Sayar Gyi U Lu Phay Win is chosen as the object of study.

Since there are many things to study concerning the nature of culture, we neglect the product section. The cultural standard of the Mon ethnic group can be ascertained by studying the cultural norms that relate to the Mon Aesthetic Literature Anthology. It can be seen that there exist a plethora of facts to extract for each and every standard norm. The Mon Aesthetic Literature Anthology provides evidence of the Mon ethnic group’s valuable culture. As we can see the custom, dignity, belief, and valuable culture from this study, there can be fruitful results for understanding between two ethnic groups in order to strengthen unity. Moreover, from this research, there is a possibility of the emergence of a route to excavate further literary sectors.

Keywords: evaluate culture, cultural norms, value systems, customs


255

A Study of the Buddha Image Made of Bamboo Strips at the Myathabeit Foothill in Thaton, Mon State

Myint Myint Than

Oriental Studies Department, Mawlamyine University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Since the Lord Buddha Parinibbāna (passed away), Buddhists have worshipped with devotion (1) Sarīrika Ceti (Dhātu Ceti), (2) Dhamma Ceti (the teachings), (3) Uddissa Ceti (images), (4) Paribhoga Ceti (the Bodhi tree and utensils), and (5) Pāda Ceti (footprints of the Buddha) in his memory. These five different kinds of Cetis featuring images of the Lord Buddha are called Uddissa Ceti. Traditionally, images of Lord Buddha are made of gold, silver, copper, iron, stone, wood, and bamboo strips. Just as there are many differences with the materials used in carving sacred images, there are also differences in shape, size, and style. Images may be different from each other in hand gesture (mudrā), sitting posture (āsana) and sacred throne (pallaṅka).

A wonderful Hneepayargyi made of bamboo strips exists at the foot of Myathabeit hill in Thaton, Mon State. The group of six young craftsmen who made the image was led by Sayar Myint Naing Oo. Unlike other images, there are interesting and unique features in the creation of this particular Hneepayargyi. Therefore, this monograph on the brief history of statues and images and the creation of Hneepayargyi are compiled and presented so that Buddhists may not only revere and strengthen their faith, but also so that it may be of help to those interested in studying Buddhists arts.

Keywords: Myanmar handicrafts, Buddhist art


256

The Encased Buddhist Monuments and Buddha Statues Found in Myanmar

Myo Nyunt Aung

Bagan Heritage Trust, Bagan, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

The encased Buddhist monuments may be classified into four types in Myanmar. They are the encased Buddhist stupas, the encased Buddhist temples, Moathtaw Zedis with a circumambulatory corridor, and two or three small stupas encased by a bigger stupa on the same plinth. Sometimes the encased Buddhist monuments have not only been found in Myanmar, but also the encased Buddha statues were recovered at Bagan and in the vicinity of Tamoat Region. Most encased Buddhist monuments were recovered at Bagan, Tamoat, Aebya, Myin Saing, Yangon, Tagaung, and Mwedaw Katku in Shan State, and Mrauk Oo in Rakhine State in Myanmar. Most of them were the encased monuments, but a few of them were the third encased monuments (Moathtaw Zedis) discovered in Myanmar. According to the architectural typologies found in Myanmar, some of the inner stupas were built in the Pyu period, while the outer stupas were built in the Bagan period and post-‐Bagan period, such as the Pinya, Inwa, Nyaung Yan, and Konbaung periods. I argue that the inner stupas built by the first donors were covered with the outer stupas built by the secondary donors who wanted to enshrine the first ones in order to last 5000 religious years. There are a few inscriptional evidences regarding the encased monuments in Myanmar. According to the stone inscriptional evidences, the secondary donors would like to build their religious monuments larger and more elaborately than the first donors. Most of the donors of the inner stupas were the ancestors of the later donors.

I consider that the traditional custom of the encased Buddhist monuments in Myanmar came directly from India. I found many encased Buddhist monuments built in the Mauryan period and Gupta period are found in India. In Myanmar, the earliest inner Buddhist monuments were found in the Pyu period, while some of the outer Buddhist monuments have been found to be built in the 17th and 18th c. AD.

Keywords: Buddhist religious monuments, enshrined, 5000 religious years, ancestors


257

Micro-‐Level Study on the Socio-‐economic Situation of Sinlan Village, Pyin Oo Lwin Township: A Geographic Perspective

Nyo Nyo

Department of Geography, University of Mandalay

Soe Sanda San Department of Geography, University of Mandalay

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Abstract

‘Socio-‐economic status’ means an individual's or a group's position within a hierarchical social structure. Socio-‐economic status depends on a combination of variables, including occupation, education, income, wealth, and place of residence. While sociologists often use socio-‐economic status as a means of predicting behaviour, geographers use it to focus on positions, with the relations to or reference of a place, space, or region. Therefore, in this paper, the variables of the social and economic status of a small village will be examined at the individual level with respect to the location, physical phenomena, human resources, land use patterns, and the environmental perceptions of the rural dwellers of Sinlan Village. This village is located about one kilometer northwest of Pyin Oo Lwin town. It lies at an elevation of about 1,160 meters above sea level and has a temperate climate. As a consequence, the main economy and living style of the village is quite different to that of the others. Random sampling methods were used to define the number of households that were to be visited, and interviewing and field observation methods were also applied to collect the necessary data. This research was facilitated by teachers and PhD students from the Geography Department, Mandalay University. The field survey was taken in February 2015.


258

Socio-‐economic Life of People in Myin-‐mu Township, 1852–1885

Pale Aung

Department of History, University of Yangon -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This study is based mainly on the money-‐lending and mortgage deeds of the people living in the Myin-‐mu Township during the late Kon-‐baung period (1852–1885). It also incorporates some other related documents, such as, for example, lawsuits, court decisions, partitions of property among family members, and cases such as breach of trusts. Such deeds and records so far collected for this study number over one hundred. Why these documents appeared in the society are presumably because of economic difficulties and some other emergency cases due to political instabilities and maladministration of the local chiefs. As far as we know, all money-‐lending and mortgage deeds mere made between poor people and their hereditary chiefs, and sometimes between the local chiefs and courtiers, including the ministers and some lesser queens. They all speak of the relations between people of the grassroots level and local landowners. Most importantly, they can explain the general situation of the people. Indeed, the moneylenders and mortgagees were local hereditary chiefs who were accessible to the royal family. The study is to investigate the social changes taking place in accordance with the political and administrative changes. In brief, this will highlight the actual situations of the people of the era.

Keywords: Kon-‐baung, mortgage, Thetkayit, Myin-‐mu Township


259

An Overview of Higher Education Reform in Myanmar

Po Po Thaung Win Teacher Development Program, Myanmar

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Abstract

The Education Reform, especially in Higher Education, started in 2011 when the shift of power from the military regime to the democratic one occurred. Higher Education institutes are governed mainly by the Minister of Education and other various ministries. However, there is not much collaboration and coordination among ministries. Moreover, the published policy or development plan which presents an overall strategy on higher education sector development is not formulated. There are some critical issues in the university sector that is currently serving only elite students. In a country where the diversity of ethnicity, religion, language, and disabilities is challenging the state provision of education, in particular, language remains a dynamite issue in Myanmar. In Myanmar, there are also financial challenges in higher education, like the salaries of teachers and academics, which lead to negative consequences. Curriculum development is one of the considerable issues requiring action to be taken.

The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of higher education reform in Myanmar. This involved a detailed analysis of Higher Education Law, the system of administration, finance, and an example of recent change. A key question that emerged from the paper was what are the drawbacks and whether the recent change could lead to the development of higher education. This paper provides an initial attempt to analyze the Higher Education Law and National Education Law, and then leads to examining the extent of the effectiveness of roles of the different actors in educational changes. It fits different complex educational changes by testing out in the light of research studies of educational reform found largely, but not exclusively, within Myanmar. Moreover, this paper will compare the standard of curriculum and testing systems with international higher education systems. This paper will, first, present an overview of higher education in Myanmar combined with the model of complex educational change derived from an earlier study. Finally, conclusions will be drawn, providing recommendations regarding the question of effectiveness and the development of Myanmar.

Keywords: higher education, reform, Education Law


260

A Study of Saddhamma Saṅgaha

San San Wai Oriental Studies Department, Mawlamyine University -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Saddhamma Sangaha was composed by Dhammakitti Mahāsami Thera in mixed prose and poetry in Ceylon in the 14th century AD. This Thai native, being desirous of traveling to Ceylon to perform meritorious deeds, received ordination under a chief monk. However, some said that he was an Indian. His work is a history of Buddhism in Ceylon. It has eleven chapters and contains the five Buddhist councils: how Buddhism arrived in Ceylon, the life and literary works of distinguished commentator MahaBuddhaghosa, the accounts of Tikas and Ganthantara (General) treatises, the benefits of writing Pitaka Scriptures, and benefit of listening to the discourses. It will the distinguish facts between the Saddhamma Sangaha and other canonical and non-‐canonical books. It is to be assumed that once the text was well acknowledged by the Myanmar Buddhists of Kongboung Period for the stanza beginning with “Akkhara ekamekanca Buddha rupam samam siya” (Each letter of the alphabet is similar in nature to one Buddha) was quoted in the writings on the cords of palm leaf manuscripts belonging to that period. Pali literature has flourished in Myanmar since the Bagan era. Many scholars of Myanmar are studying and researching Pali literature in Myanmar.

Keywords: History of Buddhism, treatises, Pali literature, councils


261

Mapping Thagara Village: Intangible Heritage of an Ancient Site Near Dawei

Soe Thainkha, Dawei University

Zin Maung Maung, Dawei University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ Abstract

This paper documents the rapidly changing vernacular architecture of Thagara, an ancient site dating to the early first millennium CE. Thagara is a densely populated mound, with many of its houses using Dawei traditional methods of construction. Our team made a systematic census of Thagara village architecture, naming the village lands, numbering and photographing each house, and, if present, the household rice barn and ox shed. We interviewed villagers to collect information and photograph traditional crafts and customs. These included a shrine to U Shin Gyi, mat making, production of toddy juice, and welding to make knives. We also documented the seasonal making of sticky rice which comes from the neighbouring village of Taung Myin Pyaung. Its production in Thagara is due to the marriage of women from Taung Myin Pyaung to Thagara men, thus touching on the wider issue of migration, marriage, and the rise of hybrid cultural traditions.

The vernacular architecture of Dawei is distinct from other areas, as is the Dawei dialect, Dawei dance, and other elements of the culture. This intangible heritage is rapidly changing, making our survey and increased public awareness urgent. Many new houses of brick are being constructed, with no record kept of the traditional forms. In 2012, the Ministry of Culture, Department of Archaeology, listed Thagara Ancient City as one of the Notified Zones of Cultural Heritage Regions, and Buildings listed Thagara in the national list of Notified Zones. A field office of the Department of Archaeology has been opened at Thagara, and a museum is being completed in Dawei town. Our survey, however, is the first of the ancient village’s intangible heritage. The paper presents the results of our mapping to bring the heritage of Thagara to a wider audience.

Keywords: Thagara, Dawei, archaeology, intangible heritage, vernacular architecture


262

The Development of Vocational Education in Myanmar, 1988–1997

Su Su Naing

Department of History, University of Yangon, Myanmar -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Vocational education as an integral aspect of human resources development and is one of the principal means of improving the ability of individuals to contribute effectively to society. As it provides assess to skills and entry routes into the labour market, it can be an important route towards a better life. Investing in public vocational education sector must be crucial in knowledge-‐based societies, as well as in developing countries. The government of Myanmar has been implementing and promoting vocational education as a vital aspect of the educational process in the country. At present, the study of vocational education focuses on discussion of vocational factors in education. This study is an attempt to reveal how the government of Myanmar is establishing the Department of Technical, Agricultural, and Vocational Education to endeavour to promote societal and economic development by introducing vocational education. It analyses the vocational programs, training, curriculum, and syllabus introduced in Myanmar. Based on the statistics of vocational education from 1988 to 1997, this paper makes an effort to assess the development of vocational education in Myanmar.

Keywords: vocational education, government’s effort, vocational programs, training


263

The Role of Civil Society in Myanmar’s Democratization

Thin Thin Aye Department of International Relations, Yadanabon University

-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Myanmar is in the process of transition to democracy. Therefore, promoting the culture of democracy and national harmony is of upmost importance. Democratic culture is a culture in which all citizens can participate and feel that they have a stake. Civil society moved quickly to democracy. The promotion of democratizing in Myanmar has become the main dominant theme in the current situation. Myanmar's democratization efforts have encountered many pitfalls contradictions and dilemmas that have forced the government to alter its approach. Social capital serves as intermediaries between the state and private citizens, and sometimes exercises delegated authority in specific areas (such as education, development and resource management). Civil society actors are non-‐profit and non-‐government. Civil actors build social capital. The civil society organization of horizontal accountability can help respecting law and exercised properly state authority, eg. the president respected public opinion and suspended the construction of the Myitsone Dam. The government openly invited international organizations for promotion and protection of human rights, and cooperation with UN agencies, and partners already held a number of workshops and seminars since 2000, so as to promote public awareness on human rights problems and promotion. The most prominent one is that a vibrant and developed civil society is the bedrock of democracy. In accordance with the above-‐mentioned factors, several research questions have been raised. How does civil society support Myanmar’s democratization process? How much democracy can we legitimately and realistically expect from civil society? How does Myanmar government form political pacts from civil society? This paper will use qualitative research methods based on a case study. The government has embarked upon a series of reforms, such as expansion of civil and political space, allowing civil society to function freely.

Keywords: civil society, political culture, horizontal accountability, democratization


264

Foreign Direct Investment In Myanmar

Thin Thin Kyi International Relations Department, University of Mandalay

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Abstract

Foreign Direct Investment is one of the main factors to improve trade in each and every country. To boost trade volume and growth, the government of the Union of Myanmar announced the Foreign Direct Investment Law in 2011, with the new law enacted on 2 November 2012. It specifies regulations for a lot of businesses that are restricted or prohibited, such as timber, forestry, oil and gas, jade, pearls and precious stones, post and telecom, air and railway transport, banks, insurance, mining, power generation, and defense related manufacturing. Those items are allowed on a case-‐by-‐case basis in doing joint ventures or production sharing contracts. In Myanmar there has not been previously been any foreign investment law since the Burmese Way to Socialism was initiated in 1962. After 1988, Myanmar pursued an open market economy in accordance with political changes.

My research question is, “What are the factors that the investors have to know before they come and invest in doing business in Myanmar?” This paper is aimed to raise awareness among the potential investors who are interested in doing business in Myanmar. It will explore avenues for the Myanmar government to overcome social disorder. Moreover, this paper will suggest how the Myanmar government, investors, and the public can work together. By doing so, investors need to be aware of some important things before they start businesses. This paper is expected to include a case study of Labadaung Taung mountain, where China has been exploiting a copper mine in Myanmar.


265

People Appearing in Thet-‐kayit Manuscripts in the Last Dynasty of Myanmar (1752–1885)

Thu Nandar Department of History, University of Mandalay -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

This paper is an attempt to describe the role of people as they appeared in the contractual deeds in the last dynasty of Myanmar using thet-‐kayit manuscripts. Thet-‐kayits are documents which have never been fully explored and contain records about the affairs of social life, such as land mortgages, obligatory notes, lawsuits, and inheritance cases by ordinary people at that time. Even though the scope of information in thet-‐kayit documents is widespread and abundant, the author focuses on people as they appeared in these thet-‐kayits, particularly their role in making thet-‐kayit contracts. This work deals with: the type of people who worked as assayers, weighers, writers, draftsmen, and brokers; the type of people that acted as money-‐lenders and the people who were compelled to borrow money; and lastly, the role of witnesses who seem to have played a crucial role at the time of making the contracts valid and effective by making full use of primary sources, particularly land mortgage and contractual thet-‐kayits.


266

The Value of Life in Myanmar

According to Theravãda Buddhist Thought

Tun Shwe Department of Philosophy, University of Mandalay -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐

Abstract

Studying the value of life is one of the functions of philosophy. Many ordinary men may think that the value and purpose of life lies in the concept of fame, status, power, wealth, etc. However, most philosophers never regard fame, status, power, or wealth as the true value of life. Instead, they advocate happiness, harmony, and knowledge as the true values of life. Such ideas can be seen in ancient Greek philosophy. Like many Western philosophical systems, Myanmar Theravada Buddhist thought never regards fame, status, authority, or wealth as the true value of life. Instead, the act of Dãna (giving or charity), preserving Sila (morality or discipline), having Viriya (effort or energy), constructing Samãrdhi (fixity of mind or concentration), practicing Pannã (wisdom or insight) are regarded as the true value of life. In addition, there are seven criteria that can determine whether a person’s life is valuable or not. The first purpose of this paper is to show the diverse values and purposes of life in the ancient Greek philosophy. The second one is to focus on the idea of value of life instilled in Myanmar Theravada Buddhist culture. The research question is, ‘What is the idea of the value of life in Myanmar Theravada Buddhist thought?’ In connection with this question, there is another supporting question, ‘Which kinds of goodness are instilled in Myanmar Theravada Buddhist value of life?’ The methods to be used in this paper are the Descriptive method and the evaluative method. Since the ancient Greeks regard the concept of mental pleasure, reason, harmony, and knowledge as values of life, their value of life is acceptable. Similarly, Myanmar Theravada Buddhist thought is acceptable since it regards Dãna, Sila, and Bhavanã as true values of life in which moral, spiritual, and intellectual goodness based on the concept of Metta (loving kindness) exist.

Keywords: value of life, Myanmar Theravada Buddhist thought, ancient Greek philosophy, Dãna, Sila, Bhavanã

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