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IMPACTS OF URBANISATION AND METAL
POLLUTION ON FRESHWATER TURTLES
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
by
Carol Lindsay Browne
School of Biological Sciences
University of Sydney
August 2004
SUMMARY
Over 85% of Australia’s population live in urban areas and many turtle populations
occur on Australia’s east coast where urban development is particularly concentrated.
In the state of NSW, over half of the freshwater coastal wetlands have been highly
modified or completely destroyed, and urban freshwater creeks often have only a
narrow strip of weedy bushland left along their banks. Even though habitat
degradation may result in declines in density and distribution of turtle populations,
there are few data on Australian freshwater turtles in urban areas.
In addition to extreme habitat alteration, urban waterways are innundated with
anthropogenic contaminants from sources including wet weather surface runoff and
industrial and sewage discharges. Pollutants can impact all systems of the body with
potentially severe effects on reproduction and survival that can result in deterioration
of animal populations. Turtles are particularly susceptible to anthropogenic
contaminants due to their intimate contact with the aquatic environment, an often high
trophic level, their ability to accumulate toxins, and their longevity. For almost all
contaminants, the degree of accumulation in and effect on reptile species is unknown.
Sublethal effects in field situations are particularly poorly studied and have never
been documented in pleurodiran turtles.
As a pioneering work in Australian reptile ecotoxicology, this thesis takes a broad
approach, but focuses primarily on immunotoxicity and reproductive toxicity – two
areas that greatly impact the size and continuance of animal populations. The aim of
the thesis is to provide baseline data on haematology, cellular immunology and tissue
metal concentrations for freshwater turtles in Sydney – data which were lacking for
all Australian turtle species prior to this study. After initial assessment of the
distribution and density of freshwater turtles in Sydney, the study examines the
potential for Sydney’s turtles as sentinel species for measuring the effects of pollution
on haematology, cellular immunity, and parasite loads; and considers the relationships
between urban metal pollution and reproductive variables. The relative suitability of
non-lethally sampled tissues (blood, carapace, egg) for use in biomonitoring is also
assessed.
i
Three species of Australian freshwater turtles were found in the Sydney region, with
Chelodina longicollis occurring naturally in the area, and populations of Emydura
macquarii and Elseya latisternum likely to have originated from translocated
individuals. The North American turtle Trachemys scripta elegans was not
encountered during this study despite concerns that it was establishing in the Sydney
area. Chelodina longicollis populations were widespread, although poor recruitmment
was indicated by low capture rates and comparatively low percentage of juveniles at
some sites. Not so widespread, Emydura macquarii was present in much larger
numbers than C. longicollis and with a high juvenile component in some areas of
southeastern Sydney.
I provide information on erythrocyte and leucocyte parameters in C. longicollis over a
range of sites, pollution conditions, and seasons. In C. longicollis, numbers of
lymphocytes, heterophils and eosinophils varied over sites, but not due to pollution
from sewage treatment plant outfalls. There was significant temporal variation in
erythrocyte, lymphocyte, eosinophil, heterophil, and basophil number, the
heterophil:lymphocyte ratio, and haematocrit, but not consistently among sites. Future
studies should ensure simultaneous sampling across sites for comparative purposes.
Similarly, turtle populations downstream of sewage treatment plant outfalls showed
no consistent difference in number, body condition, blood haemogregarine load, or
leech (haemogregarine vector) load from upstream populations. Leech (Helobdella
papillornata, with some Placobdella sp.) load and haemogregarine numbers increase
dramatically once C. longicollis reach a carapace of 110 mm. The number of leeches
on turtles varied across season, year, and site. Turtles with large numbers of leeches
had reduced haematocrit, but the presence of leeches had no other correlations with
haematological parameters. Haemogregarine numbers did not change across season or
year, and were not correlated with haematological variables. The hypothesis that
pollutants lead to an increase in normal blood protozoa due to reduced immunity thus
was not supported.
The concentration of metals in C. longicollis and E. macquarii carapace and in lagoon
sediments varied significantly over four urban and four national park sites, but not
based on this split. Pollution in periurban areas, such as illegal dumping of toxic
wastes and atmospheric deposition of pollutants, means that each site must be
ii
classified separately as to degree of metal pollution. There was little or no affect of
species, size, sex, or gravidity on metal concentrations in the carapace of adult turtles.
Emydura macquarii had higher concentrations of blood Fe than C. longicollis from a
different site, but this is possibly due to an increase in haemoglobin resulting from the
site’s low aquatic oxygen concentration rather than any increased environmental
exposure.
Chelid turtles in Sydney do not show much promise as a biomonitoring tool. Carapace
analysis is largely discounted as a potential tool for metal biomonitoring due to poor
correlations between potentially toxic metals in non-lethally samplable tissues
(carapace, claw) and internal organs (liver, kidney) or bone (femur). However,
carapace metal concentrations still potentially reflect long-term metal presence or
different dietary exposures as evidenced by the significant variation in concentrations
over sites. A rare correlation was found for concentrations of aquatic Pb and carapace
Pb, and a correlation was also found for concentrations of blood Pb and carapace Pb
in E. macquarii. Thus any potential for tissue biomonitoring seems to lie with this
highly ecotoxicologically relevant metal. Although two other ecotoxicologically
relevent metals, Cu and Se, were significantly higher in egg contents of C. longicollis
compared to E. macquarii, these elements are also essential and a lack of baseline
values means it is not known if this simply reflects natural taxonomic variation. Ni, a
metal of toxicological concern in sea turtles, was not present in egg contents, and only
variably present in eggshell. The absence of Pb from eggs, despite its presence in
many maternal tissues, suggests that selective metal uptake into eggs may be
protective of toxic elements, rather than eggs serving as a maternal method of toxic
metal elimination as has been previously suggested. The paucity of toxic metal
detection in eggs renders them unlikely tissues for biomonitoring.
The maternal tissue or tissues or environmental source from which egg metals
originate remains obscure, although a significant negative effect of maternal carapace
concentrations of Ca and Mg on eggshell thickness in E. macquarii indicates that
there may be mobilisation of Ca and Mg from the carapace for eggshell formation.
The only metal whose eggshell concentration correlated with eggshell thickness was
Mg, indicating that ecotoxic metals previously associated with eggshell thinning are
not problematic in the Sydney chelids. As with North American turtles living at
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iv
polluted sites, none of the chelid hatchlings were found to have any overt
abnormalities. Hatching success was poor and hatching mass low for eggs of both C.
longicollis and E. macquarii, although results from natural nests are required to
determine whether or not this was an outcome of hormonally-induced oviposition and
artificial incubation.
It is difficult to interpret metal concentrations found in the soft tissues, calcified
tissues, and eggs of chelonians due to the paucity of comparative data, and much more
research is required on tissue metal concentrations before patterns will emerge. This
especially applies to pleurodires for which no previous information is available. From
comparisons with the limited data available for other freshwater turtles, marine
turtles, and other aquatic reptiles, it does not appear that Sydney’s turtle populations
have unusually high metal concentrations in tissues. Exclusion of toxic metals such as
Pb from the egg may also be protective to the developing embryo. An ability to live in
polluted habitats, while limiting the accumulation of toxic contaminants, may be one
key to their persistence in urban waterways from which other freshwater fauna have
disappeared. Reproductive impacts such as low embryo survival and small hatchling
weights require more rigorous examination, but may have less effect on these animals
which have such naturally high egg and hatchling mortality.
Although it was generally hard to demonstrate biochemical, physiological or
population impacts of contaminants, C. longicollis from a site with severe sewage
pollution did display unusual alterations in a number of haematological variables,
body condition, and carapace bone structure. Despite this, the population was large
and had a comparatively high ratio of juveniles. Additionally, the adverse
haematological alterations appeared reversible. Thus, successful populations in
Sydney probably are more dependent on basic ecological needs being met, than on
low levels of environmental contaminants. The ongoing persistence of chelid
populations in Sydney is likely to be dependent to some extent on their opportunistic
diets, which generally make animals less vulnerable to habitat modification and the
reduction in prey item diversity following pollution (Mason 1996, Allanson &
Georges 1999), with a further benefit possibly bestowed at some sites on E. macquarii
by its omnivory.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly I would like to thank my granting bodies, who provided much needed support for field and
laboratory work. Field work was supported by the Royal Zoological Society of NSW for the
Reproductive Study, and by the Peter Rankin Trust Fund for Herpetology and the Linnean Society
of NSW for the Immune Study. This financial support also provided great moral encouragement.
Most of all, I am greatly indebted to AINSE (Australian Institute for Nuclear Science and
Engineering) for their postgraduate award including generous financial support of my laboratory
analyses performed at the Environmental Division of ANSTO (Australian Nuclear Science and
Technology Organisation), as well as the student stipend which provided some seriously needed
financial relief. Their support allowed for a much more indepth scientific study than could ever
have otherwise been realised. I would also like to thank Ray Ritchie for originally suggesting the
application. Additional thanks go to my mechanic Steve and the Mighty Boy, and my brother
Derrick and the Trumps Mazda 131 for providing (really really small) emergency field work
vehicles when the old EK was all quiet on the braking, accelerating or steering fronts.
I extend a deep gratitude to my supervisor Associate Professor Michael Thompson and the
University of Sydney who found me wandering lost and orphaned, and took me on very late in my
candidature and encouraged and guided me through the thesis writing process. I was very
privileged to be part of the Thommo Lab. Thanks also to my associate supervisor Dr Ross Jeffree
who was very supportive of all the work I performed at ANSTO.
When you’re feeling overwhelmed, lonely & isolated, plus you’re wearing large baggy green
rubber pants and carrying quantities of appearingly illegal fishing equipment, it can make an
indescribable difference to have the occasional bit of company during field work. For the first half
of ‘my time’, biggest thanks of all goes to my old school buddy, Michael Payne, who fortunately
suffered prolonged bouts of unemployment during my field studies. When suspended on an
overhanging branch above a ranging torrent trying to retrieve a net, it was reassuring to have
someone there to comment ‘maybe you shouldn’t be doing that Brownes’. Despite full body
submersions in fouled waters, chronically leaking waders, cyanobacterial rashes, psychotic turtle
attacks, foul fish (the hideously ugly bullrouts and the truly repellent giant thrashing carp), a
metamorphosing car cabin temperature and pressure, booby-trapped paths, and crazed exhausted
frazzled depressed PhD student for sole primate company, Payney was always a willing,
uncomplaining, and cheerful research assistant (as long as he was fed a kebab every four hours).
Thanks to those others who broke the loneliness and isolation for a day or two: Chris Schell,
Carolyn Herlihy, Derrick Browne, Bill Browne, Jenny Browne, Glenda Browne, & Glenn Shea. To
all those who came and carried or rowed nets long distances to Lake Toolooma, Jibbons Lagoon,
Marley Lagoon or Kangaroo Creek in my third and final season (Robyn Stevenson, Ted Martin,
Michael Payne, Glenn Shea, Karen Darby, Tony Murphy & Roger Browne)…I couldn’t have done
it without you. And to Dean Metcalf, thanks muchly for helping me pull nets out of trees after The
Flood. Thanks also to Owen Moore and Mita Atkins from Process Engineering Technologies for
pulling turtles out of the poo pit.
For the second half of my incarceration, biggest thanks go to Glenn Shea for unwavering
nutritional, emotional, and statistical support, for showering with turtles, providing ‘laboratory
facilities’, and for the tricksy turtle tipping tip. You are a star! Many thanks also go to: My father,
Leigh Browne, for desperately needed, whoppingly large and ever increasing financial loans. My
brother, Derrick Browne, for employment at his fine establishment (Trumps Bridge Centre,
Mosman), and letting me work such crazy hours. My sister, Glenda Browne, her partner, Jon
Jermey, and my nephew, Bill Browne, for thorough and expert editorial comment. My niece, Jenny
Browne, for not asking me the top thesis question: ‘And what job do you anticipate getting on the
basis of hopping into creeks and playing with turtles?’. Craig & Gabrielle Latta for the turtle
induction method. Chris & Leah Schell for generosity and friendship – you were lights in a dark
place. The insanely furious bull at Redbank creek for not stampeding me. God for limiting The
Flood to two days and two nights. Bookie the cat, for listening. Kids at creeks everywhere for their
interest & enthusiasm, and for thinking I had a great ‘job’. Strange lurking men at creeks
everywhere for not violating me. Levelle of Withers Rd, Kellyville, for the tour of his
architecturally unique back yard and encouraging me to the top of his rickety old 3-story dead-tree-
house. And of course many thanks to all those people who stole nets, threatened me, or were just
generally obnoxious or obstructive, for reminding me that there are, and always will be, complete
bastards in the world.
I also extend my gratitude to those who provided access to private property. Jim (manager) and the
residents of St Vincents de Paul’s drug and alcohol rehabilitation property at Quakers Hill for their
interest and access to Breakfast Creek, Sheryl and Lou of Terrace Road, North Richmond, for
access to Redbank Creek, the rangers at Nurragingy Reserve for access to Eastern Creek, the
owners of 36 Poole Rd for access to Smalls Creek, the residents at the end of Third Ave in Lugarno
for access to South Creek, Castle Hill STP for access to the sludge lagoon, Rouse Hill STP for
access to Second Ponds Creek, Riverstone STP for the key to the gate for access to Eastern Creek,
and Centennial Park and Moore Park Trust for access to Model Yacht Pond, Kensington Pond, and
Busby’s Lagoon.
But most importantly of all…thanks to the 170 metres, and 552 kilograms of turtles that so
enthusiastically participated in this study.
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THE REQUEST ‘I should like to have it explained’, said the Mock Turtle.
Lewis Carroll 1832-1898: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, 1865
THE COMMENCEMENT In a situation where the consequences of wrong decisions are so awesome, where
a single bit of irrationality can set a whole train of traumatic events in motion, I do
not think that we can be satisfied with the assurance that ‘most people behave
rationally most of the time’. C. E. Osgood: in Norman Dixon, On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, 1976
THE FIELD WORK We only wish to represent things as they are, and to expose the error of
believing that mere bravo without intellect can make himself
distinguished… Karl von Clausewitz 1780-1831: On War, 1832-4
THE WRITING Never express yourself more clearly than you think.
Niels Bohr 1885-1962: in Abraham Pais, Einstein Lived Here, 1994
THE SUBMISSION Now this is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the
end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning. Winston Churchill 1874-1965: London speech, 1942
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Summary i
Acknowledgements v
Abbreviations xv
SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
A.1 Chelidae 2
A.1.1 Morphology 3
A.1.2 Habitat 4
A.1.3 The Eastern Longneck Turtle (Chelodina longicollis, Shaw 1794) 4
A.1.3.1 Distribution & Habitat 4
A.1.3.2 Morphology 5
A.1.3.3 Diet 5
A.1.3.4 Migration 6
A.1.4 The Macquarie Turtle (Emydura macquarii, Gray 1830) 7
A.1.4.1 Distribution & Habitat 7
A.1.4.2 Diet 8
A.1.5 Saw-shelled Turtle (Elseya latisternum, Gray 1867) 8
A.2 Study Area: Sydney Basin 10
A.2.1 Geography and Waterbodies 10
A.2.2 History of Urbanisation 10
A.2.2.1 The History of Water Pollution Control in Sydney 12
A.2.2.2 The History of Air Pollution Control in Sydney 14
A.3 Pollution 14
A.3.1 Metal Pollution 15
A.3.2 Bioaccumulation 18
A.3.3 Biomonitoring 20
A.3.3.1 Comparison with Chelydra serpentina 21
A.3.4 Metal Effects 21
A.3.4.1 Metals & Reptiles 22
A.4 Aims 23
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SECTION B: GENERAL METHODS 25
B.1 Fieldwork 25
B.1.1 Trapping 25
B.1.1.1 Fyke nets 25
B.1.1.2 Yabby traps 25
B.1.1.3 Snorkelling 26
B.1.2 Transport & Holding 26
B.2 Turtles 26
B.2.1 Identification 26
B.2.2 Measurement 27
B.2.3 Aging 27
B.2.4 Marking 28
B.2.5 Tissue Sampling 30
B.2.5.1 Carapacial Bone 30
B.2.5.2 Blood 30
B.3 Study Sites 31
SECTION C: SYDNEY TURTLE SURVEY 33
C1 Survey Introduction 34
C1.1 Distribution of Turtles in Sydney 34
C1.1.1 Local Species 34
C1.1.2 Exotic Species 35
C1.2 Maturity 37
C1.3 Aims 37
C2 Survey Methods 38
C2.1 Survey A 38
C2.1.1 Site Selection 38
C2.1.2 Trapping 38
C2.1.3 Site Descriptions 38
C2.2 Survey B 43
C2.2.1 Site Selection 43
C2.2.2 Trapping 43
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C2.2.3 Site Descriptions 43
C2.3 Turtle Processing 45
C2.3.1 Sexing 45
C3 Survey Results 46
C3.1 Survey A – Specific Comments 46
C3.2 Survey B – Specific Comments 46
C3.3 Sydney Surveys – General Results 48
C3.3.1 Turtle Morphology 48
C3.3.2 Size at Maturity/Sexing 48
C3.3.3 Effect of Baiting 48
C3.3.4 Non-Turtle Captures 49
C3.4 Comparison of Turtles over Sites 49
C3.4.1 Species Distribution 49
C3.4.2 Measurement Correlations 50
C3.4.3 Size Distribution 51
C3.4.4 Growth Curves & Body Condition 54
C3.5 Turtle Health 58
C4 Survey Discussion 60
C4.1 Trapping 60
C4.1.1 Activity 60
C4.1.2 Baiting 61
C4.2 Comparison of Turtles over Sites 61
C4.2.1 Species 61
C4.2.2 Translocated Turtle Species 63
C4.2.3 Centennial Park 64
C4.2.4 Measurement Correlations 67
C4.2.5 Size 68
C4.2.6 Growth Curves & Body Condition 70
C4.3 Other Turtle Aspects 72
C4.3.1 Maturity 72
C4.3.2 Turtle Health 75
C4.3.3 Fish 78
C4.4 Summary 80
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SECTION D: POLLUTION, BLOOD CELLS, & PARASITISM 82
D1 Blood Introduction 83
D1.1 Pollution and Immunity 83
D1.2 Disease 84
D1.2.1 Haemogregarines 85
D1.2.2 Leeches 86
D1.3 Haematopoietic Toxicity 87
D1.3.1 Metals 88
D1.4 Aims 89
D2 Blood Methods 91
D2.1 Site Selection 91
D2.2 Site Descriptions 94
D2.2.1 Quakers Hill STP Set 94
D2.2.2 Riverstone STP Set 97
D2.2.3 North Richmond STP Set 99
D2.2.4 Rouse Hill STP Set 101
D2.2.5 Castle Hill STP 103
D2.3 Water Metals 104
D2.4 Trapping 104
D2.5 Laboratory Procedures 107
D2.5.1 Leeches 107
D2.5.2 Turtle Processing 107
D2.5.3 Blood Processing 108
D3 Blood Results 109
D3.1 Turtle Captures 109
D3.1.1 Water Temperature 109
D3.1.2 Turtle Numbers 109
D3.1.3 Size at maturity 111
D3.1.4 Growth 111
D3.2 Sludge Lagoon 112
D3.3 Body condition 113
D3.3.1 Season 115
D3.3.2 Site 115
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D3.4 Fish 117
D3.5 STPs and Blood Parameters 119
D3.5.1 Blood Sample Volume 121
D3.5.2 Blood Sampling Time 122
D3.5.3 Distributions of blood variables 123
D3.5.4 Season Effect 123
D3.5.5 STP Effect 129
D3.5.6 Metal Effects 143
D3.5.7 Haemogregarines 145
D3.6 Leeches 149
D4 Blood Discussion 153
D4.1 Turtle Captures 153
D4.1.1 Population Size 153
D4.1.2 Site Fidelity 154
D4.1.3 Growth at Breakfast Creek 155
D4.2 Body Condition 155
D4.2.1 Season 155
D4.2.2 Site 156
D4.3 Metals, Turtle Captures, and Body Condition 157
D4.4 Erythrocytes 158
D4.5 Thrombocytes 161
D4.6 Leucocytes 162
D4.6.1 Lymphocytes 163
D4.6.2 Monocytes 164
D4.6.3 Heterophils 165
D4.6.4 Eosinophils 165
D4.6.5 Basophils 166
D4.6.6 Heterophil:Lymphocyte Ratio 167
D4.7 Haemoparasites 168
D4.7.1 Leeches 168
D4.7.2 Haemogregarines 176
D4.8 Summary 178
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SECTION E:
METAL BIOACCUMULATION & TISSUE BIOMONITORING 182
E1 Metal Bioaccumulation Introduction 183
E1.1 Biomonitoring 183
E1.1.1 Bone 185
E1.1.2 Blood 187
E1.2 Aims 187
E2 Metal Bioaccumulation Methods 190
E2.1 Outline 190
E2.2 Sites 190
E2.2.1 General Location 190
E2.2.2 Descriptions 192
E2.3 Field Work 198
E2.3.1 Trapping 198
E2.3.2 Water and Sediment sampling 198
E2.3.3 Field Turtle Processing 200
E2.4 Laboratory Turtle Processing 200
E2.4.1 Hard Tissue Structure 201
E2.5 Preparation for Metal Analysis 201
E2.5.1 Tissues 201
E2.5.2 Environmental Samples 203
E2.6 Metal Analysis 204
E2.6.1 Quality Control 204
E2.6.2 Microwave Digestion of Samples 204
E2.6.3 ICPMS & ICPAES Digest Analysis 205
E3 Metal Bioaccumulation Results 207
E3.1 Turtle Captures 207
E3.1.1 Turtle Size and Body Condition 207
E3.2 Metal Analysis 208
E3.2.1 Quality Control 208
E3.2.2 Metal Detection 210
E3.3 Water and Sediment 210
E3.3.1 Water Quality 210
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E3.3.2 Metals in Water 211
E3.3.3 Metals in Sediment 212
E3.3.4 Metals in Water, Sediment, and Carapace 212
E3.4 Organ Metal Distribution 214
E3.5 Metals in Carapace 217
E3.5.1 Size 217
E3.5.2 Sex 217
E3.5.3 Species Differences 218
E3.5.4 Site Differences 223
E3.6 Metals in Blood 223
E3.6.1 Blood vs Environment 223
E3.6.2 Blood vs Carapace 230
E3.7 Bone Structure 232
E4 Metal Bioaccumulation Discussion 235
E4.1 Turtle Captures 235
E4.2 Environmental Parameters & Urbanisation 236
E4.2.1 Physicochemical Parameters 236
E4.2.2 Environmental Metals 238
E4.3 Biomonitoring 245
E4.4 Metals in Organs 247
E4.4.1 Liver & Kidney 248
E4.4.2 Bone 256
E4.5 Carapace Metals 259
E4.5.1 Variations in Carapace Metal Concentration 259
E4.5.2 Non-Essential Elements – Specific Comments 265
E4.6 Blood Metals 268
E4.6.1 Blood Metal Toxicity 271
E4.7 Summary 274
SECTION F: METALS & REPRODUCTION 277
F1 Metals & Reproduction Introduction 278
F1.1 Reproductive Aspects of Turtles 278
F1.1.1 Nesting 279
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F1.1.2 Eggs 280
F1.1.3 Hatching 280
F1.2 Reproductive Toxicity of Metals 281
F1.2.1 Metals in Eggs 281
F1.2.2 Reproductive Toxicity of Metals on Young 282
F1.2.3 Reproductive Toxicity of Metals on Adults 282
F1.3 Aims 284
F2 Metals & Reproduction Methods 285
F2.1 Induction of Oviposition 285
F2.2 Egg Incubation 285
F2.3 Eggshell Thickness 286
F3 Metals & Reproduction Results 287
F3.1 Reproductive Parameters 287
F3.1.1 Clutch Size 287
F3.1.2 Egg Dimensions 287
F3.1.3 Eggshell Thickness 287
F3.1.4 Hatchlings 289
F3.2 Maternal Carapace Metals 292
F3.3 Egg Metals 292
F4 Metals & Reproduction Discussion 301
F4.1 Clutch Parameters 301
F4.1.1 Clutch Size 301
E4.1.2 Egg Size 303
F4.2 Hatchlings 304
E4.2.1 Egg Incubation 304
F4.2.2 Hatchlings 305
F4.3 Egg Metals 306
F4.3.1 Eggshell Thickness 308
F4.3.2 Egg Metal Concentrations 309
F4.4 Summary 313
BIBLIOGRAPHY 315
xiv
ABBREVIATIONS
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
AMG Australian map grid
ANOVA analysis of variance
ANSTO Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
ANZECC Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
BOD biological oxygen demand
CBD central business district
CCL midline curved carapace length
CH Castle Hill (Section D)
Cl Chelodina longicollis
CL straight-line carapace length
cond. conductivity
CONT control creek (Section D)
CW width of the carapace at the widest point
DO dissolved oxygen
DORM-2 dogfish muscle standard reference material
down downstream (Section D)
E Effort = number of 24-hour fyke net periods
EDP an iodine antiseptic powder
EDTA disodium ethylenediamine-tetraacetate
Em Emydura macquarii
EPA Environment Protection Authority (Australia)
HG haemogregarine
ICP-MS inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
ICP-AES inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry
K-W Kruskal-Wallis
LCR Lane Cove River
metal symbols see Table E2.2 at the end of Section E2
na not analysed
nd not detected
NPWS NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service
NR North Richmond (Section D)
xv
NRMA National Roads and Motorists’ Association Ltd
NSW New South Wales (Australian state)
P1 park site 1, Lake Toolooma (Section E)
P2 park site 2, Kangaroo Creek (Section E)
P3 park site 3, Jibbons Lagoon (Section E)
P4 park site 4, Marley Lagoon (Section E)
PCV % packed red cell volume, haematocrit
Per E per effort = number of captured turtles/E
PLmax length of the plastron from the most anterior to most posterior point
PLmin length of the plastron from the most anterior point to the anal notch
PWa width of the anterior lobe of the plastron
PWp width of the posterior lobe of the plastron
QH Quakers Hill (Sections D & F)
R Riverstone (Section D)
RBC red blood cell, erythrocyte
re animals recaptured within the same trapping period
RH Rouse Hill (Sections D & F)
S1 first summer trapping period (Section D)
S2 second summer trapping period (Section D)
SD standard deviation
SE standard error
SEM scanning electron microscopy
SIMS secondary ion mass spectrometry
STP sewage treatment plant
TDS total dissolved solids
U1 urban site 1, Model Yacht Pond (Section E)
U2 urban site 2, Botany Swamps (Sections E & F)
U3 urban site 3, Sir Joseph Banks Park (Section E)
U4 urban site 4, Bicentennial Park (Sections E & F)
up upstream (Section D)
W post-winter trapping period (Section D)
WBC white blood cell, leucocyte
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