Important sentence structures

Contents:

Appositives Enumeration Structures of comparison Structures of contrast Cause-effect development

Appositives 同位語

Constructing appositives Appositives are used principally to expand the

meaning of nouns by supplying defining or identifying details about them.

We can construct an appositive from any sentence in which a noun phrase follows the to be verb (is, are, was, were). Eliminate the subject and the verb, insert commas or dashes.

Generally, we position an appositive next to the noun that it identifies, whether that noun is at the beginning or end of a sentence.

Examples:

Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly by digging up entire fields of infested crops. The poinsettia whitefly is a pesticide-resistant superbug.

(Relative clause) Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, which is a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly, a pesticide-resistant superbug, by digging up entire fields of infested crops.

In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter as a health food for the elderly. Peanut butter is the favorite food of American children.

In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter- the favorite food of American children - as a health food for the elderly.

Appositives can be just as handy for summarizing or generalizing.

To avoid bankruptcy, some major national

airlines are joining forces with successful

regional airlines, a trend that is likely to

continue.

Example:

Short summarizing appositives - appositives of one or two words - can produce a striking effect, especially at the end of a sentence.

Half an hour later, the second police diver returned with the same report - nothing.

Incorporated into humanistic programs in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practice in education – standardized testing.

The “sunbelt” states of the South and West – states that remained rural and backward during the industrialization of our country – have come to dominate the U.S. economy during the technological revolution.

Bloodhounds are friendly and gentle creatures, not the vicious beasts their name would lead you to expect.

Longer summarizing appositives can fill in important background information.

When we pack appositives into a series, they summarize by listing characteristics:

In Aesop’s fables, the animals that overcome great odds represent qualities we want for ourselves: power, intelligence, thoughtfulness, and honesty.

Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns. Adjectives can be used as appositives, if we move them from their normal position in front of the noun they modify.

My blind date turned out to be an honest, fun-loving, affectionate, and wonderful person.

My blind date turned out to be a wonderful person – honest, fun-loving, and affectionate.

Practice: 1. ____ Stark, forbidding, awesome, spectacular – Death Valley is a hauntingly

beautiful place to visit.

2. ____Shanghai is different from other Chinese cities – more European and cosmopolitan.

3. ____ A number of U.S. presidents – including Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Kennedy – have died in office.

4. ____ Appositives are generally set off by commas, dashes, or colons. The different punctuation marks create different effects.

o

o

o

o

Use a connective (namely, including, especially, particularly, notably, mainly) for providing an example.

Examples: Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs

can now register for Medipet, a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet - a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet: a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

(hardly calls attention)

(longer pause, more emphatic)

(formality)

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.

More examples:

(essential information)

(essential information)

(not essential information)

Enumeration

A writer starts with a general class, then proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts.

General class

Member or partMember or partMember or partMember or part

Four ways for Enumeration:

1. Ordinal numbers

2. Pronouns

3. Descending order

4. Ascending order

Listing signals(1) First, there are …

Second,

Third,

Last,

(2) The first kind / type / step is…

The second (Another)

The third (The next)

The last (The final)

- Ordinal numbers

(3) Descending order- To mention the most important one first.

More important

Less

important

The

most essential

most important

primary

largest

chief

kind is…

reason is…

Example:

My chief reason for choosing that university was its wonderful study program in agriculture. Second, Bingston hires only the finest teachers to teach in its graduate program. Then, there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable tuition.

(4) Ascending order- The last item is the most important.

- To emphasize the importance.

Less

important

More important

The

most essential

most important

primary

largest

chief

kind is…

reason is…

kind, however, is…

reason, however, is…

But the

Finally, and most importantly, there is

Example:

There are several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all, the tuition was reasonable. Second, the university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my parents. Another reason was the fact that Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to teach in its graduate program. My chief reason, however, was Bingston’s mandatory study program in argriculture.

Structures of comparison

Structure 1 - adj. / prep. Structure 2 – attached statements Structure 3 – correlative conjunction Structure 4 – predicate structures Structure 5 – sentence connectors Structure 6 – punctuation only

Structure 1 - adj. / prep.(1) same…as

(2) similar to…

(3) like…

Kennedy was killed on the same day of the week as Lincoln. (adj) (prep)

exactly / almost / practically (degree of similarity)

Kennedy’s death was similar to Lincoln’s in that they both died in office. (adj) (prep)

somewhat / rather / very / quite (degree of similarity)

Kennedy’s death was like Lincoln’s. (prep)Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary’s warming. (basis of comparison)

Structure 2 – attached statements

(1) …too

(2) …either

Kennedy was succeeded by a Southern Democrat, and Lincoln was too.and so was Lincoln. Kennedy could arouse the sympathy of the public, and Lincoln could too.and so could Lincoln.

Kennedy’s secretary couldn’t prevent the president’s assassination, and Lincoln’s couldn’t either and neither could Lincoln’s.

Structure 3 – correlative conjunction

(1) both…and

(2) Neither...nor

Both Kennedy and LincolnKennedy and Lincoln both had their elections legally challenged.

Neither Kennedy’s wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to happen that day. Neither Kennedy’s children nor his wife was expecting anything unusual to happen that day.

Structure 4 – predicate structures(1) to resemble

(2) have…in common

(3) There are similarities

Kennedy’s popularity resembled Lincoln’s.

vaguely / closely / greatly (degree of similarity)

Kennedy and Lincoln have features in common.

There are similarities between Kennedy and Lincoln.

certain things / many qualities / two characteristics / several aspects

certain / many / several / two…

Structure 5 – sentence connectors

Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named

Johnson;

similarly,

correspondingly,

likewise,

in the same way,

Lyndon Johnson, a Democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy.

Note:

A semicolon is often used before a sentence connector. However, since each of the sentences can stand alone and be considered grammatically correct, a period can also be used after the first sentence.

Structure 6 – punctuation only

Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908.

Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; likewise, Kennedy’s was Mrs. Lincoln.

semicolon (;)

Structures of contrast

Structure 1 - …than Structure 2 – prepositions Structure 3 – adverbial structures Structure 4 – adjective Structure 5 – Verbal phrases Structure 6 – sentence connectors Structure 7 – conjunctions Structure 8 – punctuation only

Structure 1 - …than(1) is…than

(2) as…as

The introvert than the extrovert

is quieter

is more reliable

is less optimistic

learns more slowly

The extrovert the introvert.

is not as quieter as

is not as reliable as

does not learns as slowly as

Structure 2 – prepositions

Unlike

Contrary to

As opposed to

the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life.

(basis of contrast)

The extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a well-ordered mode of life in the opposite way.

Structure 3 – adverbial structures

Whereas

While

the extrovert loses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom does.

(basis of contrast)

Structure 4 – adjective

There are two models in this case. They are completely opposite (different).

They have opposite views on the question.

opposite / different

Structure 5 – Verbal phrases

The introvertcontrasts with

differs from

is different from

the extrovertin regard to

in respect of

with respect to

his or her temper.

(basis of contrast)

Structure 6 – sentence connectors

however,

on the other hand,

in contrast,

The extrovert

loves crowds;

the introvert is fond of solitude.

(basis of contrast)

The extrovert loves crowds; the

introvert,

is fond of solitude.

however,

on the other hand,

in contrast,

Structure 7 – conjunctions

The extrovert loves crowds, the introvert is fond of solitude.

but

Structure 8 – punctuation only

The introvert likes books; the extrovert is fond of people.

The extrovert loves crowds. The introvert is fond of solitude.

Practice:

1. The extrovert loves crowds; however, the introvert is fond of solitude.2. The introvert is fond of solitude; the extrovert, however,

loves crowds.3. The extrovert loves crowds. However, the introvert is fond of solitude.4. The extrovert contrasts with the introvert in regard to need of solitude.5. Unlike the introvert, who is fond of solitude, the extrovert loves crowds.

(in regard to + N/Ving = about)

Cause and Effect developmentstructural signals

When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that your are supporting the topic sentence by listing or enumerating.

Effect – what a certain situation has led to or has resulted in.

Cause – reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did.

cause # 1

cause # 2 Situation

cause # 3

effect # 1

Situation effect # 2

effect # 3

Focus on cause Focus on effect

Structure 1 – sentence connectors Structure 2 – conjunctions Structure 3 – clause structures Structure 4 – phrase structures Structure 5 – predicate structures Structure 6 – participial phrases

Structure 1 – sentence connectors

(cause) (effect)

as a result,

consequently,

therefore,

because of this,

hence,

In some areas,

water levels will fall;

these areas will no longer

be able to support industry.

Structure 2 – Conjunctions

(1) so

(2) for (because)

Some areas will no longer be able to support industry, for water levels will have fallen in these areas.

(effect) (cause)

In some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to support industry.

(cause) (effect)

Structure 3 – clause structures

be so great that

happen so fast thatdry out so much land that

cause such terrible damage that

cause such a severe heat wave that

The rise in temperature will

agricultural patterns will change.

(cause) (effect)

(1) so…that

such…that

such a…that

Use so that to introduce a clause indicating a purpose.

So that is often used with can or could.

Use so … that to place emphasis on the cause.  Use an adverb or adjective after so.

So modifies an adjective or adverb in the cause-clause.  (Note that very cannot be used in place of so.)

Examples: 1. We stayed out all night so that we could watch a meteor storm.2. The starts were so bright that we were amazed.3. The meteor storm was so beautiful that we watched it all night.4. The meteor storm passed so quickly that it went by in one night.5. It was such a beautiful meteor storm that we watched it all night.

Since

Because

Because of the fact that

Due to the fact that

rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will diminish.

(cause) (effect)

(2) Since

Because

Structure 4 – phrase structures

Because of

Due to

As a result of

In view of

the increased heat, agricultural patterns will change.

(cause) (effect)

Structure 5 – predicate structures The predicate of a sentence includes everything from the verb

to the end. In this group of structures, the cause-effect relationship is indicated either by the verb or the words following it.

(cause) (effect)

cause

result in

be the reason for

be responsible for

contribute to

lead to

Changes in water levels will

changes in living patterns.

(1)

(effect) (cause)

result from

be a result of

be a consequence of

be due to

follow from

Drastic changes in living patterns will

changes in water levels.

(2)

Structure 6 – participial phrases Participial phrases have no subjects, and contain verbs which

are in the –ing form.

(cause) (effect)

causing

leading to

contributing to

resulting in

Water levels will change,

changes in living patterns.

(1)

(effect) (cause)

resulting from

following from

Living patterns will change,

changes in water levels.

(2)

More examples: Massive shifts in population will result from all of

these environmental changes.

The Greenhouse Effect will cause dramatic changes in the way we live.

All of these environment will change; hence, population will shift massively.

Because of all the environmental changes, the population will shift massively.

In the way we live will change dramatically, resulting from the Greenhouse Effect.

Dramatic changes in the way we live will follow from theGreenhouse Effect.

Web links

http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/esl-link.htm (common writing problems)

http://lbarker.orconhosting.net.nz/words.html (words that are often confused)

http://www.englishdaily626.com/c-mistakes.php (common mistakes)

http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/8-8.html (grammar)