8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

1/20

Pure Car Carrierarises in particular with ro-ro shipment, where dissipation of the exhaust gases

must be ensured. Ships must have highly effective ventilation systems in order toensure a constant supply of fresh air during and after loading or unloadingoperations. This also applies to ferries if the exhaust gases reach areas used bypassengers.

Good ventilation is necessary in ocean-going vessels in order to avoid rust andmold growth (see risk factor Humidity/Moisture).

(iii) Gases

Flammable gases may be released by forced venting of the vehicle's fuel tank. Thetank should accordingly only be filled with sufficient fuel for the vehicle to bedriven at the terminal and for cargo handling purposes.

Exhaust gases released during loading and unloading operations must bedissipated by appropriate ventilation.

(iv) Odor

Active Behaviour:Loading and unloading operations on ro-ro ships may result inan odor nuisance in the hold which must he eliminated by suitable ventilationmeasures.

Passive Behaviour:Trucks are not generally odor-sensitive. However, odortainting, in particular of the upholstery, has occurred in ports due to adjacent cargohandling areas for goods with a strong odor, such as for example fish meal.

(v) Contamination

Active Behaviour:In order to prevent leakage of oil or brake fluid, the vehiclesmust not be kept at an excessively steep angle.

Passive Behaviour:Risk of soiling of paintwork e.g. by industrial fallout, paintmist from shipyard operations, sand storms. During railroad transport, sparks from

the overhead power line may cause burn damage to paintwork.A wax or acrylic coating or adhesive films may be applied to protect the paintsurface from more serious soiling. Removal of snow and ice before and afterloading must be carried out with care, Coarse particles of dust and dirt stuck to

waxed windshields may cause serious scratching when the windshield washer isoperated. Wax or acrylic coatings must thus not be applied onto windshields.

Modern cleaning methods make it possible to diminish the losses arising fromlarge areas of damage to paintwork, e.g. by metal dust, because the replacement of

whole bodywork parts is avoided.

The working clothing for cargo handling personnel must be clean so that theinterior fittings of the vehicles are not soiled.

(vi) Mechanical Influences

In order to avoid damage by mechanical stresses it is essential that stowing andlashing on the means of transport are performed carefully and in accordance withinstructions.

Possible damage includes: damage to paintwork, scratching, damage due tobending, denting, glass breakage, fine (hairline) scratches or flying stones. Therelevant areas should be protected by adhesive films or cushioningmaterial.During

railroad transport, paintwork may be damaged by sandblasting on bridges. Duringrailroad transport, sparks from the overhead power line may cause burn damage topaintwork.

In order to avoid hail damage, it is advisable to erect hail nets at particularly at-risk storage lots.

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

2/20

EnvironmentalProtection

Vehicles should be kept in marked parking areas during storage and intermediate

storage. If the parking area is disorganized, vehicles may be overlooked and damaged.

Comply with the manufacturer's stowing and loading instructions.

(vii) Toxicity/Hazards to Health

If ventilation is inadequate, exhaust gases may be harmful to human health. Ships must

accordingly have highly effective ventilation systems in order to ensure a constant supply of

fresh air during and after loading or unloading operations and dissipate any exhaust gases

which arise.

(viii) Shrinkage/Shortage/Theft

In order to avoid the risk of deliberate damage by vandalism (e.g. stone throwing),

the vehicles should be kept in intermediate storage only in guarded and fenced

storage lots. In order to reduce the risk of entire vehicles being stolen, vehicle keys

should be left inside the vehicle only in guarded and fenced storage lots. However,

separate storage is better.

In order to reduce the risk of theft of easily removed, valuable vehicle parts (radios

etc.), the latter should be shipped separately.

(ix) Insect Infestation

While on storage lots, insects (e.g. ants) may mistakenly find their way into vehicles or

martens may damage the engine compartments.

8.6 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH RO-RO SHIPS

Ro-Ro safety

The problem areas

Although Ro-Ros have proved commercially very successful, some concern has

been expressed about Ro-Ro ships from the safety point of view virtually ever

since the first Ro-Ro ships were introduced.

The whole design concept is different from that of traditional ships because of the

introduction of a number of elements which make Ro-Ro ships unique.

The lack of internal bulkheads

On conventional ships, the hull is divided into a number of separate holds by means

of transverse bulkheads, many of which may be watertight. In the event of th e hull

being holed, the bulkheads will limit or delay the inrush of water, resulting

in the ship sinking slowly enough for the evacuation of those on board or even

preventing the ship from sinking at all.With Ro-Ro ships the installation of unpierced transverse bulkheads is a major

obstacle, at least on the upper "through" decks: the whole idea of the Ro-Ro ship

depends upon being able to drive cargo on to the ship at one end and off again at

the other. The installation of fixed transverse bulkheads would prevent this. Although

Ro-Ros are all fitted with the watertight collision subdivision, and en I

engine-room bulkheads below the freeboard deck prescribed by SOLAS, the huge

vehicle decks make it possible for water to enter very rapidly and fire can also

spread very quickly for the same reason.

(ii) Cargo access doors

The cargo access doors at the stern and bow of the ship represent a potential weakspot, as do the side doors with which some Ro-Ro ships are equipped. Over the

years such doors can become damaged or twisted, especially when the door also

serves as a ramp.

62

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

3/20

I

Figure 8.13: The Tricolor's wreck

(iii) Stability

The movement of cargo on the vehicle deck can affect the intact stability of the

ship, causing

it to list. The sudden inrush of water following damage to the hull orcausing 1:1

failure of watertight doors can be even more serious (and rapid). The fact that Ro-

Ro ships generally have a very large superstructure compared with other types

means that they can be more affected by wind and bad weather.

Figure 8.14: Stern Portion of the Wreck

(iv) Low Freeboards

Cargo access doors fitted on cargo-only Ro-Ros are often very close to the waterline.

This means that a defective trim or a sudden list, caused, for example, by the

movement of cargo, can bring the access threshold below the waterline, resulting in

a sudden inrush of water (if the door is open) which will in turn result in the list

increasing and a possible capsizing of the ship.

(v) Cargo Stowage and Securing

A list can cause cargo to break loose if it is not correctly stowed and secured. The

problem is made worse because the crew of the ship cannot normally see how the

cargo is stowed inside or on the trailer in which it is transported. A heavy load

which breaks loose can cause other units to follow suit. The result can be an

increased list, the spillage of dangerous substances arid, in extreme cases, damage

to the hull and ship's structure.

(6) Life-Saving Appliances

The high sides of many modem Ro-Ros, including passenger ships, pose problems

regarding lifesaving appliances: the higher a lifeboat, for example, is stowed the

more difficult it can be to launch, especially if the ship is listing badly.

.

Pure Car Carrier

63

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

4/20

Environmental

Protection

(vii) The Crew

The factors referred to above indicate that Ro-Ros are highly sophisticated ships

which require very careful handling. This makes them exceptionally vulnerable to

human error.

Figure 8.15: Vessel in Capsized Condition

8.7 ALTERNATE ANTI FOULING SYSTEMS

Enclosed Ro-Ro decks and special category spaces on ro-ro ships are in many ways fire

protected to a standard equivalent to engine rooms.

The boundaries are enclosed by A-class divisions, fire hoses and portable equipment is

provided in adequate numbers and a fixed fire extinguishing system, typically CO 2 on

cargo ships and deluge (water spray) on ferries shall be provided for enclosed spaces.

Such spaces shall also be provided with a smoke detection system.

w

Fire patrol is required for special category space and good ISM practice for ro-ro spaces

on cargo ships.

Compliance with Dangerous Goods Regulations will add some to the above, basically

some more fire hoses.

Open cargo decks have in general no fixed fire extinguishing system (even when

carrying dangerous goods).

Figure 8.16: An RO-RO Vessel on Fire

Fire on RO-RO Decks DNV Technical Paper

DNV has issued a technical paper addressing fire safety on Ro-Ro cargo spaces.This paper identifies fire hazards related Ro-Ro spaces, details the findings from

finding

30 major fires in such spaces and issues recommendations for safe

operation and design of fire safety systems.64

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

5/20

Pure Car Carrier Major fires are rather in-frequent and the fatalities on ships of SOLASstandard are all linked to accidents where passengers stay on the car deckduring voyage (this is no longer accepted under SOLAS and the ISM code).

Many of the major fires start when the vessel is in port (during loading and un-loading operations). The fire detection system is then often temporarilydisconnected and the CO2 system can not be released quickly due to open ramps(internally and externally).

Reliability of the low pressure CO2 systems for cargo spaces is in general low. .41

There are also problems with this system under normal operations.

Conventional deluge systems for Ro-Ro decks on ferries have a good safetyrecord.

DNV has based on the findings in the paper developed our additional classnotation F-C and are working to improve the IMO and DNV standards for bothCO, and alternative fire extinguishing systems.

Additional measures that can he taken

Reliability for the fire fixed extinguishing systems.

Enhanced performance for the fire detection system.

Communication (VHF/UHF) and additional fire-fighters outfit.

low pressure CO2, systems.

The measures are considered to be inexpensive. This due to the fact that althoughserious Ro-Ro fires are expensive, they are rather infrequent (in contrast to engineroom fires).

A few years ago, a car carrier, called the REIJIN ran aground and partiallysubmerged off Spain, full of Japanese cars. The manufacturers were so scared ofpeople stealing whole cars or parts from the wrecked vessel (which was easy toreach from land) that they ordered the vessel, and it's cargo of brand new vehicles,

to be towed out into deep water and sunk.

More recently, the TRICOLOR sank after a collision with another vessel in theEnglish Channel, proving, yet again, the inherent weakness in the design of

vessels with a single massive hold. OK ... until waterets in. With no watertightbulkheads, the free surface effect of that water rapidly de-stabilises the whole

vessel. In a matter of seconds they can capsize.

The seagoing RORO car ferry, with big external doors close to the waterline and alarge vehicle deck with few internal bulkheads that are able to prevent largemovements of flood water, has a reputation for being a high risk design. If any waterenters the vehicle deck, it can begin setting up a free surface effect within the vehicle

deck making the ship unstable and causing a capsize as happened with many vessels.

8.8 FUTURE ISSUES

The acronym ROPAX is usedwhen a RORO vessel is equipped with cabins toaccommodate several hundred passengers.

The ConRo vessel, is a hybrid of a RORO and a container ship. This type of vesselgenerally has a below decks area used for vehicle storage while still able to stack heavy

container freight on the top decks.A RoLo vessel, is another hybrid vessel type which might have a ramp/ramps which servethe main internal decks but the cargo space on the upper decks are only accessible bycrane.

65

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

6/20

Environmental

Protection

Figure 8.18: An RO-LO Vessel

SAQ I

(a) What are Ro-Ro ships?

(b) How is cargo loaded into the ship?

(c) In what way is the Ro-Ro ship different from other vessels in terms of

construction"

(d) How are vehicles lashed on car decks?

(e) What all care should be taken of the cars while in transit?

(f) What are the precautions to be taken when moving vehicles on and off the ship?

(g) What precautions are to be taken during loading and discharging of cars?

(h) What are the main problems with the design of the Ro-Ro ship?

(i) With respect to the freeboard deck what are the requirements for a PCC?

0) What are the requirements for stowage space in PCC's?

8.9 SUMMARY

The pure car carrier of pure car/truck carrier is purpose built to cam large numbers of

cars, trucks and other vehicles. Ro-Ro vessels often have built-in ramps or land based

ramps, which allow the cargo to be "rolled on" and "rolled off' the vessel . When in port.

The big breakthrough came when classification societies and regulators agreed that it was

safe and feasible to cutan

opening in the stern of a ship, sufficiently large to roll vehicles

through it, and to design ships with long, flat decks, rather than to subdivide the vessel by

athwartships bulkheads. Watertight doors, angle ramps. hydraulic internal ramps and

elevators for movement between decks are just some of the equipment that is seenon

modern Ro-Ro vessels. Portable car decks which can be tucked up under the deck above

when not required give a flexible capability that can cope with seasonal demands for cars

or freight vehicle space. Damage often arises due to incorrect cargo handling during

loading and unloading of the means of transport and while the vehicles are being driven

on board the vessel i.e due to speeding

and collisions. Some concerns about Ro-Ro ships

from the safety point of view that still persist are lack of internal bulkheads, cargo poorly

maintained cargo access doors limited stability, fire control and launching of lifeboats due to freeboard.

Accidents in the very recent past reinforce the requirement of continually monitoring the

status of vessel's cargo equipment as well s equipment meant for contingencies.

Note: Some of the pictures,

images used in this Unit have been sourced from the internet. We wish 66 to thank the creatorspublishers for the usage of their material.

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

7/20

UNIT 9 CONTAINER HANDLING - I

Structure

9.1 Introduction

Objectives

9.2 Brief History

9.3 Part of a Container, Materials of Construction, Types and Size 9.4

Containers Loading Cranes and Handling Methods 9.5

Summary

9.1 INTRODUCTION

A container is an internationally standardized packing box for cargo in which goods can be

safely stowed away stored and transported. It is designed for the most efficient use of space

and for only

type of transportation, be it by road, rail or sea. Containerization is an

logistics revolution that changed freight handling in the 20thimportant element the logistics C, 9

century.

Figure 9.1: A Container Ship

However, few initially foresaw the extent of the influence containerization would bring

to shipping. A few people predicted that containerization would benefit New York by

allowing

it to ship industrial goods produced there more cheaply to the Southern United

States while others merely assumed that shipping companies would begin to replace older

forms of transportation with containerization, but no one could predict that containerization

itself would have such a great impact on cargo transport.

The widespread use of ISO standard containers influenced modifications in other freight

moving vehicles compelling them to change to the ISO standards.

Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not

visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the containers

are generally locked (or rather "sealed") so that tampering is more evident. This has

reduced the "falling off the truck" syndrome that plagues the shipping industry.

Nearly five decades later, the majority of dry cargo moves in containers. And customers

around the world are reaping the benefits of a groundbreaking advance that started with a

concept as simple as a steel box.

Objectives

After reading this unit you will able to

describe part of a container its types and size,

explain handling methods of containers,

provide repair instructions on a steel container and

know the loading methods of containers.67

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

8/20

Environmental

Protection9.2 BRIEF HISTORY

Before the Second World War Messrs. Van Gend en Loos already had standardized

crates/boxes for carrying cargo. Actually Van Gend en Loos was too early with this

development.

The containerisation actually starts in 1932. In this year the son of a butcher, Thoburn C.

Brown, designed and developed a aluminium box which can be placed on a truck. Brown

lived in the American city Spokane, Washington,

In Spokane the people did not understand the purpose of his new development. However.

there was a trucking company, Harry

Werner, who was quite serious about Brown's

development and used the boxes to transport his agriculture products to Chicago.

The use of containers started during the Second World War, but the history of container

ships began in 1956, when the first container service was opened between the USA and

Puerto Rico.

Malcolm McLean

Malcolm McLean claimed to have invented the shipping container in the 1930s in New

Jersey. Then a truck owner-operator, McLean explained that while sitting at a dock

waiting for cotton bales to be unloaded from his truck then reloaded onto a ship, he

realized that the truck itself (with some minor modifications) could be transferred much

more efficiently.

McLean felt that the loading and unloading of trucks and ships took a lot of time and

many people were needed to load and unload trucks and ships. He felt that there must be a

special box/unit which can contains goods from A to Z (From the shipper's house to the

receiving party) without unloading and loading again. This must resultin

fewer damages

and must avoid steeling by thieves. This concept also results in faster loading/unloading trucks

and ships and you do not need so much packing materials.

Malcom McLean, a t rucking entrepreneur from North Carolina, acquired a steamship

company in 1955 with the idea of using its ships to transport cargo-laden truck trailers.

McLean's experiment resulted in the world's first container ship, the Ideal-X, aconverted oil tanker whose deck had been strengthened to accommodate containers. It

made its inaugural voyage from New Jersey to Texas on 26 April 1956 with 58 trailers

(containers) on its deck. The pioneering container ships could carry only 59 containers

having a length of 35 feet and stacked two-high on deck. McLean's enterprise became

Sea-Land Services, an international shipping company. (Currently owned by the A. P.

Moller group, as Maersk Sealand).

Once this seemingly radical idea of carrying boxes by ship had been proven sufficiently inthe coastwise trade, the first true container ships, having cellular holds into which containers

were loaded by cranes came into being. Their capacity was around 200 TEU the

designation "TEU" (for twenty-foot equivalent units) being the standard measure of

capacity adopted by the industry. The first ship specifically designed for container transportation

appeared in 1960, viz. the Supanya, of 610 TEU.

68

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

9/20

Container Handling - IThe first generation of custom-built containerships appeared in the late 1960s. These

vessels had capacities of ar ound 1 100TEUs and were used predominantly on t he

Atlantic and Australian routes. They were typically less than 200m in length with beams

of around 25m and drafts of less than 9m. The second generation vessels rapidly

followed them in the 1970s and 1980s, with capacities of around 2700 TEUs, developed

for the Far East-Europe run. These vessels were typically 210-220m in l ength with

beams of 27m and drafts of 1 Om.

A major constraint on container vessel development in the early years was the need to

keep within Panamax limits, which effectively limited carrying capacity to less than4000 TEUs. This lasted until the advent of vessels of more than 4,000 TEUs, which were

introduced in the late 1980s. A higher carrying capacity was achieved by increasing the

cell width below deck from 10 containers wide to 11 wide, while still remaining within

the 294m Panamax length and 32m-beam requirement, but with increased drafts of

11.5m. In the 1990s, the Panamax limit was finally exceeded by the new generation

vessels, with capacities of over 6000 TEUs, typified by the Regina Maersk, delivered in

1996. This vessel has a cell width of 17 containers on deck and 14 containers below,

with a beam of 43m and draft of 14m. Its length of 318m makes it almost as long as a

250,000 UWT VLCC.

The reason for the success of the container ship is that containerised shipping is arational way of transporting most manufactured and semi-manufactured goods. This

rational way of handling the goods is one of the fundamental reasons for the globalisation of

production. Containerisation has therefore led to an increased demand for transportation.

A traditional /conventional vessel required between 8 to 10 days to load or unload 10,000

tons of general cargo. A containership can handle the same Volume in 2 days within

Europe and in 3 or 4 days on other continents.

9.3 PARTS OF A CONTAINER, MATERIALS OF

CONSTRUCTION, TYPES AND SIZES

ISO Codes

The International Standards Organisation (ISO) has recommended a series of

internal and external dimensions for containers together with gross maximum

which the container may carry. Not all containers, which are used by

transportcompanies, are ISO containers.

Container Parts

We will describe fundamental components and designs first of all with reference

to standard box containers. More detailed information is given under the heading

"Container-types".

Figure 9.2: Basic Container Frame

The load-carrying element of all box containers is a steel framework, consisting of

four corner posts and two bottom side rails, two top side rails, two bottom cross

members, a front top end rail and a door header.69

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

10/20

nvironmental

rotection

Figure 9.3 : Bottom Cross Members Serve as Supports for the Container Floor

Additional bottom cross members are fitted between the bottom side rails. to serve

as supports for the floor covering.

(a) Side Walls (b) End Walls

( c ) R o o f P a n e l

Figure 9.4: Walls & Roof Panels of a Container

The side and end walls and the roof are the components of a standard box

container which are capable of bearing the least load. To a certain degree, this

naturally also depends on the construction materials used for them.

This and the following two Figures illustrate the essential components of standardbox containers. Not included by name are. for example, the door bar handles, the

locking components required for sealing, etc.. Where necessary, descriptions of and

comments about these components are provided at other points in the Handbook.

70

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

11/20

Top and rail, Container Handling - Iin this casetop door railor door header

Figure 9.5: Essential Components of a Container

Figure 9.6: Part Names in the Area of the Container Floor

Upper corncas ngDoorgasket

Door lockin

Cornerpost,Door leaf

(Door)cam--

am keeper

[Bottom end rail or door sill ower cornercasting

71

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

12/20

Environmental

Protection

The main components of a container are described below with accompanying

diagram.

145*W wwwYR'"T-_.1 Ow is ta'aw-.

Figure 9.7: Components of a Container

Corner Post

Vertical frame components located at the corners of freight containers and into-gal

with the corner castings and floor structures.

Corner Castings

Fittings located at the corner of the freight container which provide means for

lifting, handling, stacking and securing the container.

Header and Sill

In way of door enhance with overhead horizontal header frame and similar floor

level threshold sill.

Front-End Frame

The structure at the front end of the container (opposite the door end) consisting of

top and bottom rails attached to the front corner posts and the corner castings.

Top Rail

Longitudinal structural members located at the top edge on either side of the

freight container.

Bottom Rail

Longitudinal structural members located at the bottom edge on either side of the

freight container.

Cross-Members

A series of transverse beams at approximately 12 inch centres attached to the

bottom side rail and an integral part of the floor frame support.

Floor

The floor may be hard or soft laminated wood, planks or plywood .

Roof

Roof bows are the under most structure of the roof and are usually placed at 18 or 24

inch centres. Modern steel GP containers (except open top containers Are not

fitted with roof bows but will have corrugated or flat steel sheet 4,5

-welded

to the

frame members.

72

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

13/20

Container Handling -Aluminium containers have aluminium sheathing, bonded with adhesive to the roof

bows and riveted to the top rails and headers. GRP containers have fibreglass reinforced

plywood panels fastened to the rail and headers. The roof is the part of the container

most vulnerable to damage.

Sides and Front

Modern steel GP containers will have corrugated steel pa nels. Aluminium

containers have aluminium sheathing on the sides and front of the c ontainer,

which are affixed to aluminium stringers which are in turn bolted to the top and

bottom rails and also to the front end frame. The stringers may be on the outsideor inside of the sheathing. GRP containers do not use stringers for supporting the

fibreglass reinforced plywood panels. The side and the front of steel containers are

made of corrugated steel sheets eliminating stringers.

Doors

Doors may be ply-metal (plywood core with steel or aluminium facings),

corrugated, or combinations with fibreglass. The hinged doors have plastic or

rubber lined door gaskets as seals against water ingress.

Security Seal

Used in conjunction with locking mechanism in order to seal the containers forsecurity purposes. These seals are numbered and often colour coded.

CONTAINER - MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Frame and bottom cross members are made of steel profiles, while three different

materials are used for the walls:

These are reflected in the conventional container names:

steel contained

aluminum container.

plywood container

,4'1fvQk-F

Figure 9.8: Variously Corrugated Steel Sheet

In steel sheet containers, a wide range of differently profiled corrugated steel sheet may beused for the outer walls. It is protected against corrosion by painting or similar processes.

73

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

14/20

Environmental

Protection

Figure 9.9 (a): Indication of Container Figure 9.9 (b): Repair Instructions on

wall material a steel Container

These containers are built either with a pure aluminum skin or with a plywood inner

lining; they may also either be riveted or with a smooth or lightly riveted finish.

(i) Steel Sheet, Corrugated

Characteristics:

low material costs

easy to repair

high tare weight

susceptible to corrosion

difficult to clean owing to corrugated walls

(ii) Aluminum Sheet in Conjunction with Stiffening Profiles

Characteristics:

low tare weight

high material costs

easily deformed, very quickly dented

(iii) Plywood with Glass Fiber-reinforced plastic coating (plywood + GRP)

Characteristics:

easy to clean owing to smooth surfaces

easy to repair

strong and resilient, does not dent

moderate material costs

moderate tare weight

The cost advantages have led to the predominant use of steel for container walls.The floor is generally made of wood, usually planking or plywood. Although wood is

relatively expensive, it has substantial advantages over other materials: it is strong and

resilient, does not dent, may be easily replaced during repairs and, when appropriately

finished, has an adequate coefficient of friction, which is important for cargo securing

CONTAINER TYPES AND SIZES

Most containers can be loosely described in terms of General Purpose

(GP) containers or specials.

The GP or general-purpose container accounts for the large majority of the fleet

and is used for most general cargo commodities. The containers are 20 ft or 40 ft in

length with some variants of 45 ft. The different sizes of container have been fixed

by the International Organization of Standardization (ISO). The twenty-foot container

is the basic unit, length 20 feet, width 8 feet, height 8 feet 6 inches. It can be

loaded with 15 to 20 tons of cargo.

74

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

15/20

Container Handling - IThe abbreviation TEU means Twenty-foot Equivalent Units. The other size is the

forty-foot container, Forty-foot Equivalent Unit (FEU) and can be loaded with up

to 30 tons of cargo. The width and height of the container is about 2.5 meters.

The standard external height of GP containers is 8 ft 6 inches although high cube

containers at 9 ft 6 inches in height are becoming common.

Special containers are provided for specific carriage requirements and examples

are listed below:

CONVENTIONAL DRY CARGO CONTAINERS

(a) 20/40 ft. Conventional End Open Containers

Standard containers are also known as general purpose containers. They are closed

containers, i.e. they are closed on all sides. A distinction may be drawn between the

following types of standard container: Fig 4 & 5

Standard containers with doors at one or both end(s)

Standard containers with doors at one or both end(s) and doors over

the entire length of one or both sides

Standard containers with doors at one or both end(s) and doors on one

or both sides

In addition, the various types of standard container also differ in dimensions and

weight, resulting in a wide range of standard containers.

Standard containers are mainly used as 20' and 40' containers. Containers with smaller

dimensions are very seldom used. Indeed, the trend is towards even longer dimensions,

e.g. 45'.

Standard containers may additionally be equipped with certain optional extras:

Forklift Pockets

These allow handling of empty containers with forklift trucks. Packed containers

must not be picked up in this way unless specifically permitted. Forklift pockets

are installed only in 20' containers and are arranged parallel to the center of

the container in the bottom side rails. 40' containers do not have forkli ft

pockets, since the pockets are relatively close together and such largecontainers would be difficult to balance. In addition, the forklift truck travel

paths are often not wide enough.

Gooseneck Tunnel

Many 40' containers have a recess in the floor at the front end which serves

to center the containers on so-called gooseneck chassis. These recesses allow

the containers to lie lower and therefore to be of taller construction.

Gooseneck tunnel

Figure 9.10: Gooseneck tunnel in standard container. The Figure shows the recess in the

floor of the container into which the gooseneck of the chassis is fitted

r

Figure 9.11: Gooseneck Tunnel

75

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

16/20

EnvironmentalProtection

Gooseneck tunnel in standard container. As a result of the recess in the floor of the

container (right), the latter lies lower than does a container without gooseneck

tunnel (left), so allowing the transport of containers up to 9'6" in height.

Grappler Pockets

In general, containers are handled by top spreaders using the corner fittings

or corner castings. However, some containers have grappler pockets for handling

by means of grapplers.

Figure 9.12: Grappler pockets on standard container: these allow handling of the container

using "grapplers"

Special fittings are available for transporting special cargoes:

Clothes Rails for Hanging Garments

Special lashing rings attached to the top side rail serve to accommodate

clothes rails on which textiles may be t ransported hanging on clothes-

hangers. These are often used in the East Asia import trade. Additional

lashing rings are installed on the bottom side rail and the corner posts.

Inlet (bulk bag or liquid bulk bag)

Plastic liners may be suspended in standard containers for transporting bulk

cargo or non-hazardous liquids.

Various lashing devices are incorporated on the top and bottom longitudinal

rails and the corner posts.

The wooden components of most containers are impregnated against insect

infestation, since, when lumber is used, it may, under certain circumstances.

be necessary to comply with the quarantine regulations of the country of

destination and a phytosanitary certificate may have to be enclosed with the

shipping documents. Information may be obtained from the phytosanitary

authorities of the countries concerned.

Standard containers are used for all types general cargo (dry cargo).

76

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

17/20

Container Handling - I

Figure 9.13: Standard 20' x 8' x 8'6" Container

Figure 9.14: 40' Slandered 40' x 8' x 8'6" Container

(b) 20/40 ft High Cube Containers

High-cube containers are similar in structure to standard containers. but taller. In

contrast to standard containers, which have a maximum height of 2591 min (8'6"). high-

cube containers are 2896 mm, or 9'6", tall. High-cube containers are for the most

part 40' long, but are sometimes made as 45' containers.

Many 40' containers have a recess in the floor at the front end which serves to

center the containers on so-called gooseneck chassis. These recesses allow the

containers to lie lower and therefore to be of taller construction. High-cube

containers are used for all types general cargo (dry cargo). However, they are

particularly suitable for transporting light, voluminous cargoes and over height

cargoes up to a maximum of 2.70 m tall.

Figure 9.15: 40 ' High Cube Container

77

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

18/20

Environmental

Protection

(c) 20 ft Side Access Containers

These containers are used when loading the container from the end is difficult and

the size

of the item loaded is compatible to the container size but not with the door

at the end, and this makes it convenient for use in locations where chassis stuffing

operations have to be used.

Figure 9.16: Standard 20' x 8' x 8'6" Container with Side Doors

Figure 9.17: Standard 20' x 8' x 8'6" Container with Side Doors Open

(d) 20 ft/40 ft/Refrigerated Containers and Insulated Containers

These are containers that can be used for the movement of refrigerated/perishable

cargo. Special facilities such as the availability of plug points, portable clip on generators

for trailer movements; power packs for train movements, etc. are required for moving

cargo in these containers. It must therefore be ascertained whether such facilities are

available at the handling terminals before planning such movements.

Refrigerated and insulated containers are mainly available as 20' and 40'

containers. A distinction may be drawn between two different systems:

Integral Unit (Integral Reefer Container, Integrated Unit)

This type of refrigerated container has an integral refrigeration unit for

controlling the temperature inside the container.

The refrigeration unit is arranged in such a way that the external dimensions

of the container meet ISO standards and thus fit into the container ship cell

guides.

78

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

19/20

Container Handling - 1,

Af

Figure 9.18: Cell Guides in a Container Ship

When being transported by ship, integral units have to be connected to the

on-board power supply system.

When at the terminal, the containers are connected to the terminal's power

supply system. For transport by road and rail, most integral unit refrigeration

units are operated by a generator set (genset).9 g

Figure 9.19: Refrigerated container (integral unit) being transported by truck: since the container does

not have an integral power source for operating the refrigeration unit, a diesel generator

has been attached to the unit.

To ensure adequate circulation of the cold air, the floor is provided with

gratings. Pallets form an additional space between container floor and

cargo.

Figure 9.20: Gratings in the floor of a refrigerated container, which ensure uniform distribution of the

refrigerated air.

In the upper area of the container, adequate space (at least 12 cm) must

likewise be provided for air flow. The maximum load height is marked on

the side walls.

79

8/6/2019 IMU 61-80

20/20

Environmental

Protection

Figure 9.21

Figure 9.22: Views of the Inside of an Integral Reefer Container

To ensure vertical air flow from bottom to top, packaging must also be

appropr ia te ly des igned and the cargo mus t be sens ib ly s towed.

Temperature measurement may be performed in various ways. The Partlow

recorder generally records return air temperature. Data loggers arelogger

used, which detect temperature digitally and indicate it on a

g

display. Once transferred to a PC, the data may then be evaluated.

The temperature display is attached to the outside ofthe refrigeration unit.

so that operation of the unit may be checked at any time.

Figure 9.23: Partlow recorder: the stflus (2) records temperature over a maximum period of30 days. The

temperature set for this cargo is -18C (1)

(ii) Porthole Containers or Insulated Containers

This type of container is often referred to asan

insulated container. as it

has no integral refrigeration unit.

The lack of a refrigeration unit allows , such containers to have a larger

internal volume and payload than integral units.