in the humid tropics volume i1 - world...

NDUD BANK

-4GR Technical Note No. 2

A STUDY OF TREE CROP F-42MING SYSTEM

IN THE L.C%ZAND HUMID TROPICS

VOLUME I1

June 1980

icul ture and Rural Development Department tral Projects S taf f

Thjs paper is one o f a se r i e s issued by the Agriculture and Rural Develop- ' meqt Department primarily for the information- and guidance of Bank s t a f f wo-bking i n the agriculture and rura l dewlogmat sectors . I t may not be pu4lished or quoted as representing the views of the h3rld Bank. The World B a i dces not accept responsibili ty for its accuracy o r completeness.

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A STUDY OF TREE CRL)F FARMING SYS'I'ENS I N 'IRE LOlVAhTD HrJbiID TRDPICS

A b s t r a c t

This Note presents a revizw of the c u r ~ n t technical s i tuat ion regarding tree crop farming systems of the hwnid tropics. Based on a tour of countries in Asia, \Vest Africa and Latin Amrica, the Note considers policies and trends in the cultivaticn of rubber, o i l palm, coconut, cocoa and coffee, together with subsidiary food crops, in the three main farming sub-sectors: the large industrial plantation, the land development schems with srnallho lder participation, and the individual smallholders.

The f i r s t is concerned almost exclusively with monoculture regims ; the development schemes may incorporate sme element of multiple cropping; while the smallholder sector exhibits a wide variety of cropping systems. There are major differences between the regions, with Latin America a t a much ear l i e r stage than Asia and West Africa. Productivity of the major commodity crops is being continually enhanced by adoption of new techniques and planting systems, and new emphasis is being given to indigenous food t ree species.

The Note is confined t o technical aspects and does not consider socio-economic factors in any deta i l , the priqaly ~ b j e c t i v e b e k g to establish a data base of technical inaterial for use during preparation of tree crop projects .

The Note presents a general Review and %comxzndations, supported by detailed reports on the countries v is i ted , suggestions on t ree crop system models, and by a 14anual givir?g basic characteristics of the various crop species.

Prepared by: Dr. G.A. Watson (Consultant) Agriculture and. Rural Development 3epartmnt, CPS

The views and interpretations in this d o m e n t are those of the author and should not be attributed t o the World Bank, to its a f f i l i a t ed organizations, o r t o any individual acting LI thei r behalf.

A STUDY OF TREE CROP FARMING SYSTEMS I N ?HE L€NLAND HUMID TROPICS

VOLUME I1

Table of Contents Page No .

VI . NOTESONAVISITTOTHAILAND(June4.10. 1979) ............. 1 . ...................................... A Rubber Monoculture 1 B . Rubber Multiple Cropping ................................ 1 C . Coconuts ................................................ 3 D . Coconuts and Intercropping (with inclusion of experience

from South India) ....................................... 4

VII . NOTESONAVISITTOWESTMALAYSIA(June11.15. 1979) ....... 7 A . Introduction ............................................ 7 B . Rubber Monoculture ...................................... 8 C . Rubber Multiple Cropping ................................ 8 D . O i l Palm ................................................ 10 E . Coconuts ................................................ 11 F . Coconuts and Multiple Cropping .......................... 1 2 G . Cocoa Mnoculture ....................................... 13 H . Discussion .............................................. 15

VIII . NOTES CPIJ A VISIT TO -IA (June 16.25. 1979) ........... 17 A . Introduction ........................................ 17 B . Rubber ................................................ 17 C . Coconuts ................................................ 20 D . Coconuts and Multiple Cropping .......................... 20 E . Cocoa ................................................... 2 1

....... IX . NOTES a AVISIT TO SRI LANKA (June 26-July 1. 1979) 2 1 ............................................ A . Introduction 2 1 B . Rubber .................................................. 22 C . The Kandy "Gardens" ..................................... 23 D . Cocoa ................................................... 24

..... X . NOTES CPIJ A VISIT TO IVORY CQAST (September 3.13. 1979) 25 ............................................ A . Introduction 25 .................................................. B . Coffee 25 C . Cocoa ................................................... 27 .................................................. D . Rubber 28 E . O i l Palm and Coconut ....................................

........ . XI NOTES ONAVISIT TO NIGERIA (September 13.26. 1979) 31 ............................................ A . Introduction 31 ............................. . B Taungya in Southern Nigeria 33

. ................ C Industrial Plantations and Food Cropping 38

. ............................................... D O i l Palm 39 E . Cocoa ................................................... 40

........................... F . Traditional Tree Crop Fanning 41 G . Integrated Faming Systems Including Mulching and Zero

Tillage Techniques ...................................... 42

Page No . NOTES ON A VISIT TO THE UNITED REPlIBLIC OF CAMEROON (September 27-October 2. 1979) .............................. A . Introduction ............................................. B . C A ? W ................................................... C . SOCAPALM ................................................. D . HEVECAM ..................................................

.... NOTES ON A VISIT TO BRAZIL (October 20-November 7. 1979) A . Introduction .............................................. B . Coffee and Cocoa ......................................... C . Rubber ................................................... D . O i l Palm ................................................. E . Indigenous Tree Crop Species ............................. F . Agro-Forestry ............................................ NOTES ON A VISIT TO COSTA RICA (November 8.13. 1979) ........ A . Introduction ............................................. B . CATIE .................................................... C . The Pejibaye Palm. Guilielma a s i aes (H.B.K.) L.H. Bailey

syn . Bact ris !gasipae- . %&a& Palm ............ D . Macadma Nuts (Macadamia integrifol ia and M - . tetraphylla) E . General ..................................................

XV . NOTES ONAVISIT TO G U A m (Xovember 13.16. 1979) ........ 62 A . Introduction ........................................ 62 B . I n A (Inst i tuto de Ciencia y Tecnolog.l'a Agricolas) ....... 62 ...... C . INTA (Institute Nacional de Transformacik Agraria) 63 D . AUACAFE (Asociacih Nacimal del CaG) ................... 63 E . General .................................................. 64

XVI . NOTES ON A VISIT TO 'IHE COCONUT INDUSrW BOARD. KINGTON. JAMAICA (November 19. 1979) .................................. 64 A . Introduction ........................................ 64 B . Planting Densities ....................................... 65 C . Intercropping ........................................ 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TABLE 2 . 43

BRAZ IL

CEPLAC mse CPATU m A S A EMB W A ENBRAER INCRA DiiA PROBOR S W I UEPAE

COSTA RIU

ASBAR! CAT IE I ICA UMJ

A N A m CIAT CDfilrT m IDA m

INDONESIA

~omiss20 Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira Centro Nacional de Pesquisa da Seringueira Centro cle Pesquisa Agropecuzria do ~ r 6 ~ i c o &nido Iknd; do Para S.A. Empresa Brasileira de pesquisa. ~ ~ r ~ e c d r i a Empresa Brasileira de Assistzncia Tecnica e ~ x t e n s k Rural Inst i tuto Nacional para ~01onizac;io e Reforma Agr'aria Inst i tuto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaz6nia Programa da Borracha SuperintenGncia do Desenvolvimnto da Amazznia Unidade de ~xecus> de Pesquisa de jtnbito Estadual

~soc iac i6n Bananera Nacional Centxu Amonomico Tropical de hvestigacizn y ~nsefianza 1nstitut6 Interamex-icano de Ciencias &r?colas University of the United Nations

Crrmeroon Development Corporation Soci'etg Gvea - Cameroun Ins t i t u t cmerounais de reche rches agronomiques e t fores t iEres Ins t i tu t francais de recherd~es sur les fruits e t ag-~mes ~oci 'e tg cameromaise de palmeraies ~oci 'e tg de &veloppement du cacao

Asociacih Nacional del CaG Centro Intemacional de Agricxltura Tmpical International Maize a d Wheat Impmvement Center Franca Transversal del Norte Ins t i tu to de Ciencia y Tecno:.ogTa Ag6colas Ins t i t u t o Nacional de Trans fomaci6n Agraria

NSSDP North Sumatra Smallholder Developmnt Project

IVOm COAST

IFCC I RAT IRCA IIWO SAPH SAmACI

MALAYSIA

NIGERIA

SRI LPllVKA

NAbSA

Ins t i tu t f r a n ~ a i s du cafg e t du cacao Ins t i tu t de recherches agronomiques tropicales Ins t i tu t de recherches sur l e caoutchouc Ins t i tu t de recherches pour les huiles e t olgagineux Socigtg africaine de plantations d'hgvea Socigtg d' assistance technique pow l a modernisation agricole

de l a CCte d' Ivoire Socie'te' de de'veloppement du palmier Z huile

Coconut Replanting and Rehabilitation Scheme Coconut Smallholders Development Scheme Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authorit.- Food Industry Manufacturers ' Association Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authorit-- Rubber Research Ins t i tu t e of bhlaysia

Cross River Estates Ltd. International Ins ti tute of Tropical Agriculture Nigerian Ins t i tu te for O i l Palm Research Nation21 Science and Technical Development Agency

National Agricultural Diversification and Settlement Authority

G n t r a l Plantation Crops Research Ins t i tu te (India) Office of the Ihrbber Replanting Aid Fund

VI. NOTES ON A VISIT TO 'l'HAILAND (June 4-10, 1979) . -

Rubber rvbnocul ture

6.01 Thailand i s the world's third largest rubber producer and its production is increasing faster than elsewhere. The industry is dominated by the smallholder and small farm sector, with no significant estate sector. Rubber yields in the past have been very low, below 300 kg per hectare, but under the ORRAF program the rate of replanting has been stepped up to 50,000 hectares per annum and yields are increasing. In 1977, rubber exports were over 400,000 tons for the f i r s t time and it is hoped they w i l l r ise to exceed 500,000 tons in 1979 and reach one million tons by 1990. An interesting re- flection of all th is development activity i s that since 1969 sume 29,500 people have received training in activities related to rubber replanting (3) 1/ and, indicative of a developing sophistication, some 15 training centers c e n t l y are being established to train fanners in chemical weed-control techniques.

6.02 Encouraged by a favorable taxation system, interest in replanting and even new planting is spreading. The Development Division of the Rubber Research Center a t Hat Yai, together with the Extension S e ~ c e s of the Department of Agriculture, are establishing demonstration units of approximately 3 hectares each in the northern centers of Buriram, Prasart, Nong Khay, Nan, Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai, to determine by how far the northern l i m i t of rubber cultivation can be extended. So far in these units tree growth i s good, and i f eventual yields prove satisfactory the implications for rubber cultivation in the poorer areas north of Chanthaburi, currently devoted t o cassava production, could be very important.

B. Rubber - Multiple Cropping

6.03 I)ue to the composition of the Thai rubber industry, greater attention is being paid to intercropping in that country than in Malaysia. In a souo- economic survey of 131 holdings in 1973/74 (a time of low rubber prices), Speirs f.9) reported that a majority of smallholders grew some cash crops in the f i r s t two to three years af ter planting. Because of the nature of the terrain in his sample, this was often wet paddy grown in areas apart from the rubber, but intercropped upland rice was also cornmanly grown in the f i r s t two years. Bananas were c o m n , together with smaller areas of water melons, cucumbers, pineapples and mung beans. Only a proportion of these crops were sold off the farm, the majority being used for home consunption. rvbst smallholders had access to coconuts and vegetables grown around the home, a l l for home consumption.

6.04 In a mre detailed economic s u m y of actual intercropping on 324 holdings (2), the Rubber Research Center in 1974 found that crop yields were in general low and exhibited a wide range in performance (Table 2). These low yields were attributed to low plant densities, the use of low yielding varieties, high pest and disease incidence and an almost complete lack of fer t i l izer use.

1/ Figures in brackets refer to the bibliography. -

6.05 The 1974 survey emphasized the need for returns from intercropping to a t least compensate for the loss of income during the unproductive establishment years of a replanting. It concluded that yields of a l l crops would need to be improved, and that alternate more profitable crops should be considered; also that labor requirements and the necessity for satisfactory marketing ar - rangements for production surplus to family requirements might present con- s t r a in t s .

6.06 In concurrent f i e ld studies, over a number of s i t e s (6, 7, 8) , the Rubber Research Center showed that satisfactory yields of maize, soya bean, mung beans and sorghum could be obtained (Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) and proposed intercropping systems for an accelerated program of rubber replanting (10).

6.07 This proposal took into account topography, drainage, climate, s o i l su i t ab i l i ty and ra infa l l , and suggested crops included upland r ice , sweet and glutinous maize, groundnut, mmg bean, soya bean, water melon, sweet po ta t0 , sunflower, dwarf castor and bananas. Planting times, seeding rates and spacings were specified, and the following support inputs were recomnded in order to ensure satisfactory yields :

i. Standard fe r t i l i ze r s for the different crops.

ii. bchanical cultivation through contractor services, in order t o amid the limitations imposed by manual cultivation.

iii. Provision of planting material, including good quality seed, dressed with Rhizobim in the case of soya bean and m g bean.

iv . Pre-emergence herbicides, with alachlor particularly recommended for soya bean, groundnuts and maize.

v. Insecticides to control stem and cob borers of maize, and fungicides to control Cercospora leaf spot i n groundnuts.

vi. Marketing assistance, part icular ly for those crops needing a national rather than a local out let -- soya bean, m g bean, sunflower, castor and possibly groundnut.

6.08 This list of inputs, necessary to achieve satisfactory crop yields, is a l i t t l e forbidding when considering f r a p n t e d areas of smallholdings. Taken together with the requiremnts for successful establishment of the main t ree crop i t s e l f , it helps to highlight the problems associated with smallholding intercropping, and explains the reservations of plantation managers in th i s f ie ld .

6.09 Another problem of intercropping systems such as those proposed above is the diff icul ty of reconciling agronomic with economic factors. The Economics Division of the Rubber Research Center a t Hat Yai, for instance, has published a paper detail ing optimum intercropping patterns established by the use of l inear programming (11) . The paper concludes that farmers should

be discouraged from g m i n g upland rice as an intercrop, in contradiction to the technical recammendations for such cropping supporting r ice as being out- standingly suited to the local environment (10) ; m r e profitable crops would be preferred, but the d i f f icu l ty of opposing deep-rooted preferences is ahowledged.

6.10 Perhaps the most important item of information coming from Thai- land is a demonstration that intercropping need not harm the growth of the replanted rubber (8). Various crop rotations were practised in comparison with standard legume covers, and also with natural covers (not quoted but probably grasses and small shrubs) with and without ploughing -- a comon practice in Thailand. Results are given in Tables 8 and 9 and demonstrate that growing of intercrops has not led t o any important reduction i n the growth of the rubber t r ee , and that i n some instances growth has actually been improved.

6 .ll The principle demonstrated in t h i s l a t t e r experiment is tha t legume and non-legume crops can both be included in the rotation, preferably alternating, and that there should not be m r e than two non-legume crops consecutively during the f i r s t two years of intercropping. While interim results only are so f a r available, it seems unlikely tha t intercropping supported by proper use of f e r t i l i ze r s and good maintenance wi l l adversely affect the eventual tree growth and yield. This finding is confirmed by work of the Rubber Research Ins t i tu te of Malaysia, comparing leguminous with non- leguminous covers in the presence of varying levels of f e r t i l i ze r s (43 ) .

C. Coconuts

6.12 Of al l plantation crops, coconuts possibly present the best opportunity fo r an early and significant increase in the smallholding economy of Southeast Asia, for the following reasons:

i. The crop is well hown and grows over a wide range of s o i l and climatic conditions.

ii. Improved upkeep of a large proportion of existing holdings, aided particularly by the introduction of intercropping, and associated use of f e r t i l i ze r s and weed control, can be expected to raise production by anything up t o 100%.

iii. The recent development of new hybrid variet ies , typified by the k lays ian Dwarf 0) and West African T a l l (WAT) hybrids (MAWA hybrids) shows promise of t r ip l ing production as compared with existing material, and bringing o i l production to a level approaching that of o i l palm.

iv. Because of the l igh t shade cast by palms in the i r early and l a t e r years, coconuts can be intercropped successfully with a wide variety of annual and perennial crops . This diver- s i f i e s the smallholder1 s income, and increases productivity per unit area, of major consequence considering the small area available to many farmers.

v. Processing of the coconut by-products, i .e . wood, she l l and f iber components, is only practised extensively in the Philippines, India and Sr i Lanka, but i f developed elsewhere would materially improve profi t and employment possibi l i t ies in the smallholding communities.

D. Coconuts and Intercropping (with inclusion of experience from S . India)

6.13 'Ihe concept of multicropping in association with coconuts has received a stimulus from the work of Nair and h is colleagues of the Central Plantation Crops Research Ins t i tu te , Kerala, India. 'Ihe subject is thought of sufficient importance t o just i fy inclusion of the i r analysis of the biological situation, summarized in the following excerpt from a paper by Nair, Bavappa and Nelliat (4) :

6.14 G r o w t h habits and crown shape of native, t a l l coconut palms necessitate a spacing of 7.5 x 7.5 meters, giving about 175 palms per hectare . However, studies conducted a t the BCRI , have shown that the two basic resources of crop production, s o i l and solar energy, are not being u t i l ized t o the fu l l e s t extent possible in a pure stand of coconut palms.

Soil . The effective m o t zone of an adult coconut palm under Kerala conditions is confined la tera l ly within a radius of 2 meters around the base of the palm and vert ical ly within 30 to 120 centimeters depth from the s o i l surface. This mans that a t a planting distance of 7.5 x 7.5 meters, about 77% of the to ta l s o i l area is not effectively u t i l ized by the coconut roots (work elsewhere suggests th i s may not be generally applicable (142)) .

ii. Solar ener . Studies on the l ight profi le w i t h i n coconut p * antations and changes in the apparent coverage of ground by coconut canopy with increase in age of the palms, have shown that during the early years of p w t h the percentage of sunlight transmitted through the coconut leaves decreases gradually with increase in age unt i l about eight years a f t e r planting, when the palm at tains steady bearing. A t t h i s stage, the percentage transmission of l ight decreases t o about 20% of the incident l ight and th i s remains almost constant up unt i l about 25 years of age. The profitable cultivation of long-lived, perennial crops becorns possible in mature coconuts of m r e than about 25 years old.

iii. Water use. The to ta l imigat ion requirement of any crop a t potential production level is decided primarily by the evap- orative demand of the local climate. In other words, ir- respective of the number of crops grown in an area, the water requirement of the area depends primarily on the potential evapo- transpiration and the water use efficiency of a mixed

community of crops is superior t o that of a pure plantation occupying only a proportion of the available space.

iv. The balanced plant/animal/human eco-system. This proposes an integrated system of husbandry suited to the special conditions of small farm size. A fanner with a smllholding of around half a hectare of coconut can maintain one o r two milk animals, grazing on pasture legumes and grasses grown within the coconuts. The coconuts benefit from the return of dung, urine, e tc . Gn the other hand, gas plant working with cow dung w i l l meet the energy requiremnt of the farmer's family, and an ef f ic ient organic recycling involving the whole eco-system is possible.

6.15 With the above principles in view a few cropping systems have been evolved and put to t r i a l a t the CPCRI.

. Short-term crops tested included tuber crops, izome spices, upland r ice, cucumbers, bananas, pineapples, v

e t c . bbst promisiig among them were tubers and rhizom spices, with yield and economic conclusions given in Table 10. Other crops t r i ed included green gram, black gram, horse gram as well as soya bean. However, the performance of these pulses was not s a t i s factory, probably because of inadequate l ight conditions.

ii. Mixed cropping. Perennial crops t r i e d have been cocoa, cinnamon, nutmg, clove and black pepper. A l l grew well but - - - cocoa showed the greatest promise. In one experiment, intercropping coconut with cocoa gave a considerable increase in coconut yield over the pre-treabnent yields. Details are given in Table 11 and the increase i n productivity has been at t r ibuted to a synergistic e f fec t between the two crops with some of the biological components identified by Nair e t a l . (5). A t the same time, these resul ts must be interp- with caution, for the coconuts where high yielding genotypes, 16 years old, and were receiving i rr igat ion as well as regular f e r t i l i z e r applications.

iii . blul ti -s torey cropping. Multi -storey crop comb inations cons is t of crops of varying canopy orientations and rooting habits. Such combinations enable interception and u t i l iza t ion of l ight a t different vert ical intervals and fac i l i t a t e "soil harvesting" by the root system in dis t inc t layers and columns. Cne such combination is coconut with black pepper, cocoa and pineapple. In a coconut plantation of 175 palms per hectare, 800 cocoa plants and 3,500 pineapple plants can be accommodated, in addition to black pepper vines trained on to each coconut palm. Table 1 2 gives the yield of some of these crops in an observa- t ion t r i a l carried out i n 1970.

Mixed fannin . An experiment on mixed farming was in i t ia ted mm?d the main objective of determining the optimum size of a variable family farm. A dairy unit of a few milk animals was maintained with the animals fed on Napier grass and St losanthes grac i l i s cultivated i n the interspaces. Bla * pepper vlnes were trained on to the coconut trunk. Results over two years have indicated tha t yield of coconut palms in the experimental plot increased by 29%.

6.16 The CPCRI experiments were only on a s m a l l scale, and gave no economic assessment of intercropping, but the general concepts are now finding wide acceptance, and examples of successful multi-crop associations with coconuts have been seen i n most countries vis i ted.

6.17 In 1967, i n South Thailand, there were some 111,840 hectares of coconuts (40% of the Thai to t a l ) . Plantings were in scattered smallholdings , generally on poor s o i l s , and the South Thailand Regional Planning Study (Sector Studies 2 . Coconuts) recomnded that there should be no replanting with existing varlet les . Rather it w a s recomnded that new material should f i r s t be introduced, and subsequently developed in association with intercropping.

6.18 A t the Sawi Coconut Experiment Station plans are in hand for establishing seed gardens of dwarf palms for crossing with imported pollen. Reservations exis t concerning the possibi l i ty of introducing disease through imported pollen, however, and this problem is s t i l l to be resolved.

6.19 A t Sawi Coconut Experimnt Station there are three mixed cropping t r i a l s :

Plot 1, with coffee under mature coconuts.

Plot 3, an observation plot of cocoa and pepper grown under mature coconuts.

Plot 7, involving cropping with limes, bananas, upland r ice and cucumbers in mature coconuts.

W i t h reports in the Thai language ( I ) , these trials are not easy to assess, but the f i r s t appears to give the best data.

6.20 From Table 13 it seems that coconut yields have been adversely af - fected by the coffee intercropping, and that even a f t e r four years the coffee has not been in cropping long enough to recoup the costs of establishment, a s i tuat ion that would not m e t the needs of a smallholder seeking a rapid sup- plement to his income.

6.21 Plot 7 involves intercropping of mature coconuts with Tahitian lime, Gros Michel bananas, pineapples, cucumbers and upland r ice. Respective plant stands for the f i r s t five crops are 22, 44, 350, 2500 and 30,000 per rai (0.16 ha). Yield data are not available, but it was said that nut production had increased following the introduction of intercropping -- possibly as a

resul t of weed control. Alternatively, as the Sawi so i l s are poorly drained and of poor structure, the cultivation involved in intercropping may have been beneficial in improvement of physical conditions.

6.22 In Plot 3 there i s a planting of hybrid F1 cocoa seedlings. Growth and production is very variable between trees and concern w a s ex- pressed a t the sa le of seed from th i s garden. This is a subject that deserves close consideration, for while F2 seed w i l l s t i l l give reasonable yields under good so i l conditions, plant populations w i l l be variable and it would be preferable to establish proper seed gardens for the production of F1 seed.

6.23 The South Thailand Regional Planning Study concluded that fer- t i l i z e r use and weed control would increase coconut production, but not profitably so. Rather the study reconmended the integration of pasture and livestock with the coconuts, and intercmpping where appropriate.

6.24 Coffee might be well suited fo r mixed cropping in the western regions of South Thailand, where a well-defined alternation of wet and dry periods would favor flowering. Ginger, vanilla, durian, mango and mango- steen would be suitable for growing together with coconut, but cocoa i s not reconnnended except on the islands, because of generally unsuitable s o i l conditions.

6.25 In view of the prof i tab i l i ty of the cocoa/coconut combination, a second opinion on th i s l a t t e r point would be appropriate.

VII. NOTES ON A VISIT TO WEST MALAYSIA (June 11-15, 1979)

A. Introduction

7.01 In West k l a y s i a , attention is concentrated on optimizing production of the main crops, rubber, o i l palm, coconut and cocoa, with l i t t l e regard paid to interplanting with food cmps, except in the individual smallholder sector. I t is thought be t t e r to maximize the productivity and wages of the estate worker (or smallholder in developmnt schemes) so that he may be able t o buy his fwd , rather than dissipate h is and management's e f for t on food cropping. Exceptions to th i s practice are l ikely t o develop in certain FELCRA schemes, where food crops may be grown by individual s e t t l e r s in areas adjacent to the main plantation crop, with the l a t t e r being managed cooperatively on an estate basis.

7.02 An important aspect of th is Malaysian scene i s the shortage of labor in both the es ta te and smallholding sector. Rubber and o i l palm estates are experiencing a grave shortage of experienced workers and i n the rural areas the average age of the smallholder is r is ing as young people leave the land for urban centers. Increasingly the trend is tuwards specialization, fo r instance with FIMA and RXSDA planning the production of cashew and f ru i t crops on a plantation basis, rather. than relying on any increase i n the production of f ru i t s by the home-plot owner.

7.03 As a consequence of the above and other historical factors, M a y s i a n rubber production m y now be reaching a plateau, but o i l palm, coconut and particularly cocoa production is increas ing . Food imports are r is ing, but th is is not of great concern while the economy, supported by the plantation industry, mining, o i l extraction and developing indus- t r ial izat ion, remains healthy.

7.04 In Malaysia, rubber i s sti l l looked on by the G o m m n t as a good long-term inmstmnt , but a f t e r cocoa/coconuts and o i l palm in order of profi tabi l i ty (34, 53) and preferably restr icted to the poorer class of so i l s (17). Attention in the estate sector has been focussed on the use of advanced planting material such as polybag buddings and large stumped buddings t o shorten the time of immaturity, and also on the use of clones, such as PR 255, PR 261, PB 235, RIUM 614 and 703, which w i l l give high yields a t an early age of tapping. Used together, these two factors can help shorten the period of e q l o i t a t i o n t o twenty years (35), giving an ea r l i e r return on capital investmnt, permitting the ea r l i e r introduction of improved planting material and lending f lexib i l i ty to the cropping pattern.

7.05 In the smallholding sector, increases in prof i tabi l i ty are being sought by the use in low-yielding rubber of intensive tapping system., including stirmilation; replanting of old stands by high-yielding cultivars; the use of advanced planting material t o shorten the time to commencement of tapping; a higher density of planting to increase yields per unit area (600 trees per hectare as compared with an estate average of 400-450 trees per hectare) ; and during maturity the use of f e r t i l i ze r s and optimum tapping systems, including stimulation, to maximize yields. W i t h this combination of techniques it is hoped to improve smallholder yields from the present national average of 800 kg dry rubber per hectare to over 1,500 kg (14, 42).

7.06 Labor costs in Malaysia are relatively high and, in view of the increasing costs of establishment, FELCRA has recently recormnded that in the i r schemes an a l lo tmnt of 10 acres of rubber per s e t t l e r w i l l be necessary to achieve a satisfactory level of incane. Ten acres of rubber is more than can be handled properly by available family labor, a t leas t i n the establishment phase, and accordingly it is being recomnded that th is rubber be managed on a share system basis, with the family ef fec t imly receiving a wage for the i r labor rather than a land entitlement (40). This concept is being tested experimentally on a f ie ld scale by the RRIM (48) and ref lects Malaysian confidence in centralized managemnt of its plantation crops.

C. W b e r Mdtiple Cropping

7.07 When f i r s t cultivated in Malaysia, rubber was grown under bare s o i l conditions, but s o i l deterioration was such that for a time planters reverted t o growing the crop under "forestry" conditions, with rubber seedlings selectively retained to ensure continuation of the plantation.

However, the system proved impractical and eventually the best practice came to depend upon the cultivation of mixed creeping legumes, Pueraria haseoloides, Centrosema ubescens and Calo o onium mucunoides between ea ?4-gT as a ground cover uring e years o imnaturity. A . the

t ree canopies close over, from the third year onwards, these legumes are shaded out t o leave only a thin scattering of mixed, shade-tolerant, grasses and ferns to protect the ground (52).

7.08 In the major planting programs of the ' 50's and ' 60's, estates concentrated on rubber production and grew nothing between the tree rows other than leguminous creeping covers. Practice in the government FELDA schemes has been similar, with management concentrating on the establishment of well-grown rubber for handing over to s e t t l e r s a t two years a f t e r planting rather than on any more diversified system. However, in the individual smallholding sector not dependent on any single administrative authority, multiple cropping in the early years with pineapples and bananas has been comnon and is currently reconnnended by the RRIM and the Departmnt of Agriculture. Other crops include maize, groundnuts and soya beans, but cassava is not a permitted crop under assisted replanting schemes.

7 -09 Guha and Soong (25) have published a review of s o i l su i tab i l - i t y for intercropping in rubber, and a number of papers have appeared quoting results of f i e ld t r i a l s (13, 16, 2 2 , 50) . Of part icular in teres t , Pushparaj ah and Tan (44) have suggested that cassava may not have as ham- fu l an ef fec t on rubber as was feared, a t leas t i n the presence of heavy f e r t i l i z e r dressings. b s t recently, Abraham (14) and Wan and Chee (50) confirmed that maize, groundnut and soya bean can be successfully grown in rotation in the inter-rows of rubber on gently undulating land. The economic returns from these three crops are given i n Table 14. In more d i f - f i c u l t terrain, banana i s a suitable mixed crop for small fanners, and yields and net family income from four varieties grown over two seasons are given in Table 15. A l l information from this work confirms the Thai work, in that satisfactory yields from these crops can only be obtained following the proper use of f e r t i l i ze r s , herbicides and insect i - cides. Skilled attention from the smallholders i s required, and i f this is not available, then both the main and subsidiary crops may suffer.

7.10 After the rubber t ree canopy has closed over, a t between three and four years from planting, intercropping is no longer p s s i b l e , and some workers have considered the possibili ty of rearing livestock as a more pennanent venture. b s t recently, the RRIM have concluded that poultry produced under rubber can be economically viable and technically feasible, provided that satisfactory bulk prices can be obtained for the produce (50). Despite quoted advantages in terms of weed control by the freely ranging birds, and nutrient supply via the droppings, it is doubt - ful whether such units could compete w i t h large-scale specialized poultry - units.

7 .11 The RRIM is conducting studies with sheep under rubber, grazing on the permanent vegetation af te r canopy closure (51). A grazing intensity

of 1-1% sheep per hectare is intended, but again the competitiveness of such projects compared with specialized ranching operations in open country or under mature coconuts, with purpose-grmn forage, must be open to doubt.

D. O i l Palm

7.12 In Malaysia, o i l palm, because of its general agronomy and need for heavy c q i t a l investment, is a l m s t completely grown under mno- cul ture plantation conditions. Even smallholder settlement schemes run by FELRA, for instance, are managed on very similar l ines to those in the commercial sector. A l l effor ts are concentrated on optimizing o i l production and this factor, together with the short period of two to three yearst immaturity, in which conditions might permit some degree of intercropping, resul ts in a complete absence of intercropping on any significant scale.

7.13 One development taking place in Malaysia is the establishment of small f a m r areas of o i l palm, sel l ing f r u i t to ei ther independent mills or to estate mills. The practice seems profitable t o both part ies , but time did not pennit inspection of such areas to determine att i tudes towards intercropping. There would seem to be no reason why such cropping should not be done, as o i l palms are generally gmwn on the be t te r class of so i l s , and everything w i l l depend upon the circumstances and the needs of the individual grower.

7 .14 From the private sector, Chandapillai and Yeow (21) report yields of 1,717-3,400 lb fresh groundnuts per acre af te r intercropping a young o i l palm area, but give no comment on in terac t im between the main and subsidiary crops.

7.15 Of probably greater significance is a report from FELRA by Lee and Hanafi (33) on a feas ib i l i ty study for mixed cropping, o i l palm with cocoa. Five-month old hybrid cocoa seedlings were transplanted with a one-year old o i l palm planting, in plots comparing monocmp cocoa (1,111 plants/hectare) with cocoa stands of 400, 667 and 761 per hectare i n single and double row plantings of palms. I n i t i a l shade was provided by a combination of Gliricidia, Mghania and Parkia, with normal leguminous creeping covers planted in the control p l o n i s shade was thinned out progressively over succeeding years and eventually kept under control by ~rlmiJv2

7.16 The most promising t reatrent appeared to be one with single row o i l palm a t 10 m x 7 m (143 palrns/hectare) interplanted with a single row of cocoa a t 10 m x 2.5 m (400 trees/hectare). The hedge planting of o i l palm gave no depression in yield, but the yield of cocoa corresponded almost proportionally to its planting density. A simple cost-benefit analysis in the 7th year indicated that monocropping of cocoa gave a be t te r return than monoculture o i l palm, but that returns could be comparable when the l a t t e r is suitably intercropped with cocoa [at ex farm prices of $1.50/kg raw cocoa bean ; $333/ ton palm o i l ; and $319/ ton kernel, see Table 16) . - 1/

1/ Currency - Mdaysian $. -

Progress with th i s t r i a l wil l be watched with interest , to see whether cocoa yields can be maintained as the o i l palms grow and develop the i r shade.

7 . 1 7 Thailand and S r i Lanka have only small interests in o i l palm, while in Indonesia o i l palm cultivation practice follows that in Mdlaysia although i n a smaller scale.

E. Coconuts

7.18 In Peninsular Malaysia, coconut is predominantly a smallholder's crop, but yields are generally low and there is much scope for improverent through bet ter husbandry, drainage improverent and replanting. There is great variation i n yields, not only between estates and smallholdings , but also between States and even Districts. Overall yields of smallholdings average l e s s than 0.3 tons of copra per acre, with an average estate yield of 0.5 tons per acre. In a 1963 survey,. the highest smallholder yields were recorded in Selangor, with 0.5 tons of copra per acre, while in Johore and Kelantan the average was 0.2 tons.

7.19 In 1963, a Coconut Replanting and Rehabilitation Scheme (CWRS) was established and i n the subsequent fourteen years more than 120,000 acres of coconut were rehabili tated and replanted. An evaluation survey carried out in 1971 found tha t yields from rehabili tated holdings averaged 0.6 tons of copra per acre.

7.20 This CWRS program has been renamd the Coconut Smallholders Development Schere (CSE, see Appraisal Report No. 1906-M) and has the following basic objectives :

i. Replanting and/or rehabili tation of coconut palms.

ii. Crop diversification.

iii . Improvement of extens ion services . 7 . 2 1 Coconut varieties grown belong to two main types - - the Talls W s ) and the b a r f s @IDS) . The majority of nuts and copra i s derived pre - dminantly from the MTs, which grow and produce bet ter than the MDs under a wide range of s o i l conditions. Almst a l l smallholdings are s t i l l planted with unselected MTs averaging a yearly yield of 1,150 nuts per acre or 20 nuts per tree. Better yielding t a l l var iet ies , producing up to 1 ton of copra per acre per annum, selected from the estates sector, becarne available to the smallholders with the introduction of the CWRS in 1963. The introduction of MAW hybrids, however, would fac i l i t a t e production of up to 2 tons of copra an acre (under estate conditions), a production potential in terms of o i l equivalent approaching commercial levels of palm o i l production and offering new poss ib i l i t ies for the coconut industry.

7.22 To obtain the f u l l economic benefit of MAYA hybrids, f i e l d planting and management have t o be supenrised t o ensure tha t the following practices a re implemented:

i. Old palms must be completely disposed of by burning (a d i f f i cu l t task), as a basic pest control measure.

ii. Drains must be imp roved and maintained.

iii. Noxious weeds must be completely eradicated.

iv . Triangular spacing of polybagged palms, with an optirnum 65 palms t o the acre (160/ha), is necessary.

v. Fer t i l izers must be regularly applied.

v i . Phytosanitary control is essent ia l .

v i i . Intercrops must care fu l ly managed.

7.23 With improved f i e ld management, MAWA hybrids introduced under the scheme are assumed t o come in to bearing i n year f ive and reach an average yield of 6,525 nuts (3,000 lb copra) per acre, i .e. 3 tons of copra per hectare (see Table 17) .

Coconuts and Multiple Cropping

7.24 Malaysia has taken a very posit ive approach t o the poss ib i l i t i es of coconut multiple cropping, notably in the area of cocoa/coconut cornbi- nations. After ear ly disappointments, when planting cocoa under par t ia l ly cleared jungle, success was achieved when planting cocoa under mature coconuts in the Telok Anson area on marine and riverine a l luv ia l clays. Early performance was impressive and the private sector has since accepted that the MAWA coconut hybrid/cocoa combination promises t o be the most profitable Malaysian cropping system for the future (53) . 7.25 In the smallholding sector there has always been an element of multiple cropping, particularly on the coastal a l luvial clays of Selangor and Perak, and of livestock husbandry under coconuts i n the longer dry season areas of the eastern s t a t e s . Since the inception of CSE, records show that the most popular perennial crops cult ivated under MTs are cocoa, coffee, bananas and f r u i t . Under the Scheme, cocoa is planted as a mixed crop in a l l west coast areas where s o i l s are suitable. Coffee can be planted as an al ternat ive on less f e r t i l e s o i l s , and cashew and f r u i t s would be the main mixed crops on the east coast so i l s . Progress t o date is given in Table 18 , showing the growing importance of cocoa since 1969.

7 . 2 0 In the Staff Appraisal Report No. 1906-MA, Upper Amazon hybrid cocoa i s expected t o be yielding about 100 lb per acre of dry beans in year four, reaching 600 lb dry beans an acre in year ten. In general, smallholder yields are expected to be lower than those of es ta tes , mainly because of

inadequate fer t i l iza t ion , non-optimal shade regirnes and poorer management. Yields could be greatly improved by eliminating these deficiencies as well as by exploiting clonal plantings, and K a m i l and Ahmad (28) recommended that the level of both financial subsidy and of technical extension should be raised i n order to optimize the yield and income.

7 .27 Further information on coconut multiple cropping w i l l be found in papers by Denamany e t a l . (23) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia (37)

Cocoa bbnoculture

7.28 Cocoa has been g m in Malaysia for many years, but has received much greater attention over the l a s t 15 years. Four aspects have been of particular importance: the type of planting material used; the type and degree of shade needed, particularly during the early years of establishmnt; nutrit ional requirements of the t ree; and pest and disease incidence. Because of the importance of the crop t o other regions, th i s subject w i l l be dealt with in some deta i l .

7.29 In early work, Blencowe and Templeton (19) reported on the p s - s i b i l i t y of interplanting cocoa in the shade of a rubber planting. With seedlings of Fl Upper Amazon hybrid progenies, they obtained good early growth when planting in a clean-weeded old rubber stand of 90 trees per acre, intended to be thinned out progressively over a period of four years. This work has not been followed up, but related studies by Black and Hubbard (18) show great promise in the replacement of old rubber with monoculture cocoa.

7.30 Black and Hubbard compared two plantings, one in an area clean- fe l led from old rubber (Field A), and the other in a planting with originally 135 trees per acre in which alternate t ree rows were poisoned and fel led, giving the equivalent of approximately 81 t rees per acre (Field B ) . In Field A bananas and Gliricidia maculata were planted as shade species, and grew sufficiently to permit cocoa planting a t 1 5 months a f t e r the or i - ginal fel l ing. subsequent damage to the bananas by leaf-eating caterpi l lars , hawever, reduced the shade so much as to check the growth of the cocoa.

7.31 In Field B, the shade of the rubber trees permitted immediate planting of the cocoa seedlings. Subsequent poisoning of the old rubber reduced its stand to 35-40 t rees per acre, but supplementary shade was introduced by planting Indi ofera t e smanii and Parkia javanica. In those early years the rubber +-k- contmue to e tapped, p-g an mcome, until i n i t i a l harvesting of the cocoa began a t 22 mnths a f t e r f i e ld planting and 25 mnths a f t e r f i r s t thinning the rubber. In Field A, on the other hand, it was estimated that cropping could only comnce a t 24 months a f t e r f i e ld planting and 38 months a f t e r clearing was completed.

7.32 This technique of replacing old rubber with another highly profitable crop, while s t i l l taking a crop from the rubber, is an example of the f l ex ib i l i ty of cropping that can be developed using good management, to be taken into account when considering recomndations on maximizing prof i tab i l i ty (35).

7.33 In Malaysia, the most successful cocoa plantings have been on the riverine and marine alluvium so i l s of the west coast d i s t r i c t , but future plans ca l l for larger-scale planting on inland soi ls . In order t o determine the areas most suited to such s o i l s , several progeny t r i a l s were la id down i n 1970.

7.34 In one t r i a l , l a t e e s t a b l i s h n t of the shade plants provided an opportunity to t e s t under exposed conditions (32) . Twenty-three hybrid progenies were tested against the common Sabah seed garden hybrids, a l l a t a $acing of 4 m x 3 m.- Gliricidia maculata cuttings were planted a t 8 m x 6 m rectangular spacing, and P k ' e c i o s a a t 16 m x 1 2 m; in addition, hb ania macro h l l a seeds were sown a t 4 g/hectare in d r i l l s ++ ar la =-k between t e cocoa rows: a a t 1-3 months a f t e r cocoa ~ l a n t i n n . A l l these shade plants, except for som sparsely established ~a<kia t rees , were - gradually eliminated a t 2-3 years a f t e r planting, leavlng only border rows of Gliricidia.

7.35 Under these relat ively exposed conditions, the cocoa developed a bushy growth habit with short internodes, numerous la tera l branches and small leaves, a l l helping to provide some degree of self-shading and tolerance t o exposure. A l l Upper Amazon crosses involving Nanay-Parinari and mst of the Trinitario -- Upper Amazon hybrids - - showed good establish- m n t abi l i ty . Two Amelcnado-Trinitario hybrids, and one of the h l o n a d o - Upper Amazon crosses involving PA35, established and yielded very poorly under the same conditions. In view of the climate and s o i l conditions of the trial, the yields were regarded as fa i r ly satisfactory, with Trinitario- Parinari crosses outstanding in t e r n of yield, bean s ize and pod conversion index (Table 19) . 7.36 b r e extensive work on cocoa breeding and selection when in ter - planted i n coconuts on riverine and marine alluvium i s reported by Ang and Shepherd (15) . Yields from one of these t r i a l s are quoted in Table 20, being significantly higher than those obtained on inland so i l s . Of inte res t , i n view of the c o m n t s reported from Thailand, is that F2 progenies derived from outstanding seedlings in c m e r c i a l plantings generally yielded some 20% less than F l hybrids with which they were compared. How- ever, it was thought that some of the clones made from outstanding F l seedlings may be worth testing as parents, because the best F2 progeny one trial produced &st 25% more crop than a Sabah hybrid control.

7 . 3 7 With regard to nutr i t ional requirements, data from a t r i a l interplanted in coconut on coastal alluvium (35) showed that the cocoa responded t o applications of N , K and Ca but not P. However, on an inland sandy clay loam, monocrop cocoa shaded principally with Albizzia chinensis and Gliricidia maculata showed response to N, P and K , w m r t i c u l a r l y important ( ~ a b l e Z 1 ) . ~ h e need for magnesium was not established, but in - dications were that on in lmd soi l s cocoa w i l l require a l l four nutrients (36).

7.38 . The above reports give useful de ta i l on gmwth aspects of cocoa as affected by nutrient supply, and are complemented by a detailed study, using destructive analysis, of the growth and nutrient composition of monocrop cocoa on inland Malaysian so i l s , by Thong and Ng (47) . This study confirmed the importance of N and K i n cocoa nutr i t ion: for instance, the amount of nutrient required t o sustain growth and yield of mature cocoa yielding 1,000 kg dry beans/hectare/per year includes 687 kg/hectare of K (Table 22).

7.39 As cocoa plantings extend in Malaysia and Indonesia, diseases are l ikely to become of greater significance. The s i tuat ion has been summarized by Turner and Shepherd (49). Root disease incidence is presently

Phellinus noxius - been locally senous , distribution of

almivora. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor is sometimes important =ere P. % ram a l l is high. Various thread r , including Marasmiellius scandens and Marasmius e uicr inis , but are of minor sfgnificance. Th + e most 'hportant disease i n same p antlngs is vascular streak dieback (hcobasidium theobromae , necessitating use of planting material which has been selected + r resistance o r tolerance t o the disease.

7.40 Insect pests can be a problem, not only on the cocoa but also on the associated shade crops (18). Blencowe and Templeton (19) found leaf-eaters (specially cater- p i l la rs ) and the coffee Capsid darnage by an unidentified proper use of insecticides these problems could be contained.

H . Discuss ion

7 . 4 1 On the tour of S.E. Asia examples of a l l types of t ree crop fanning systems were seen: from the backward rubber smallholdings of Sri Lanka to the highly motivated and specialized plantations of Malaysia; from neglected coconut to the richly diverse t ree gardens of W d y and Java.

7.42 The over-riding impression gained in Malaysia w a s one of a process of intensification, affecting both es ta te and smallholder sectors. Despite local successes in early intercropping, monoculture has become the norm for both rubber and o i l palm, with generalized schemes for intercropping i n the early years being swept aside because of the need to concentrate upon good crop establishment and early maturity.

7.43 Even smallholder development schemes cannot withstand the pressure. b r instance, up unt i l 1970 the average time from planting to commencement of tapping i n Malaysian smllholder developmnt schemes was 7.5 years (Table 23). With costs of replanting increasing a t up to 50% per annum, th is delay would now be quite unacceptable, and i n consequence RISDA has adopted a "Dynamic Production Policyll with which advanced planting material w i l l be supplied to smallholders and best es ta te practice used i n

order to optimize growth and production. This w i l l include centralized management, the offering of shares instead of land t i t l e s , and in ter - cropping with food crops only where a market opportunity has been iden- t i f i ed (38).

7.44 This l a t t e r point highlights a great deficiency in work on intercropping to date. Much of the data quoted in t h i s report are of a technical nature, emanating from research organizations; there is com- paratively l i t t l e information on the labor available for intercropping and even less on the marketing of what crops are produced. There are no reports on competition between food marketed as the resul t of in ter - cropping with that produced by small o r large special is t cmp f a m r s in the private sector , nor on the respective social va lws of the two systems.

7.45 In addition, much of what data are available must be redundant in the face of changes taking place. There is a clear need to update views on intercropping, taking into account the impact of improved planting material, shorter times of immaturity, more productive tapping systems and shorter, more intensive crop replanting schedules, not to mention the increasing labor and machinery costs involved in intercropping.

7.46 A t the i r present levels of sophistication, the more advanced rubber and o i l palm sectors can well be called high technology industries. Coconut so f a r can hardly have claimed such a position, but with the development of the newer hybrids the crop is entering a more dynamic phase.

7.47 As a high-yielding mnoculture, coconut is l ike ly to become comparable with o i l palm in prof i tab i l i ty . A t the same time, i ts shade characteristics permit coconuts to be grown as possibly the most highly profitable crop combination in association with cocoa, coffee and others. This l a t t e r fact is now being exploited commercially by both estate and smallholder sectors in Malaysia and Indonesia.

7.48 From the socio-economic view, coconut is also the backbone of that other crop combination tha t , because of its high productivity per unit area, is of part icular value to the very small f a m r and the upland f a m r - - the forest o r home gardens as seen in S r i Lanka and Java. These gardens are now becoming the focus of major developmnt schemes, and w i l l need the same input as the more developed o i l palm and rubber industries -- improved planting material; greater use of f e r t i - l izers and agrichemicals in general ; an understanding of the interaction between the different crop species concerned; organized storage, processing and marketing of the produce.

7.49 I t is often assumed that the multi-species fanning system w i l l be largely self-perpetuating, with i ts own integrated pest control and "life-support" systems. This may have been generally true of those systems in the past (with the exception of disasters such as coffee rust disease which wiped coffee out in S r i Lanka), but it is unlikely t o be

true of the more intensive cropping patterns now being developed for the future. . Experience teaches us that as input and crop production r i s e so do agronomic problems, and these gardens w i l l be no exception. Agro- nomists concerned with these schemes w i l l need to be no less sk i l led than those associated w i t h the specialized plantation crops.

VIII. NOTES ON A VISIT TO INDONESIA (June 16-25, 1979)

A. Introduction

8.01 In Indonesia, there is a diverse s i tuat ion compounded of a l l aspects of t r ee crop fanning. The es ta te sector, mainly in Smatra, i s engaged on a large-scale rubber replanting program and i ts production of rubber is increasing sharply. Much of the best practice in rubber, o i l palm, coconuts and cocoa is being aggressively adopted by the be t te r units. On the other hand, growth of production of the smallholder sector has been small and more e f fo r t is needed to get the replanting program under way. Even now, however, it might be speculated that once the extensive rubber industry of Indonesia real ly takes off , backed by the land and labor resources available, it could yet provide the th i rd major surge of production of cheap natural rubber, a f t e r Malaysia and Thailand -- by the year 2010, th i r ty years hence? Useful work on intercropping of rubber in the early years a f t e r the planting has been done by the Government- owned es ta tes and this might find application in the transmigration schemes and other Government -aided plant ings . 8.02 In Java, there is great scope for rehabili tation of the coconut industry. Here, the t radi t ional multiple cropping practised by the Javanese smallholder w i l l f ind expression, t o the benefit of both coconuts and associated food crops. Prompted by population pressure on the land, the Javanese smallholder has become highly sk i l led and intensively crops upland r ice, maize, groundnuts, beans, cassava, bananas, coffee, spices and f r u i t s under coconuts. Extension of t h i s practice, aided by the supply of improved planting material, should not be d i f f i cu l t , provided that food surplus to the smallholder's need can be sa t i s fac tor i ly marketed.

8.03 Practice in Indonesia follows that in Malaysia. The be t t e r es tates are working with the newer clonal materials and also improved tapping systems. Limited work is in hand with advanced planting material (58) and with puncture tapping systems, but so f a r no large-scale commercial application is reported.

8.04 As in bialaysia, the Indonesian es ta te sector displays l i t t l e in te res t in the cultivation of intercrops during the ear ly years of rubber planting. Some years ago, under Government edict , es tates proved the

feas ib i l i ty of intercropping with upland r ice, but as thef t deprived them of any production, they are now concentrating on growing the, main crop using mixed leguminous covers to maintain ground conditions.

8.05 In the smallholding sector, however, there is keen interest . A t Aek Nebara, in the North Sumatra Smallholder Develoument Proiect (NSSDP), large-scale intercropping of upland r ice in &ber durhg the first two to three years a f t e r planting has been successfully accomplished (57) . Over the years 1974/77 the area of main crop intercropped annually w i t h r i ce increased from 447 to 8,133 hectares for a t o t a l production of 25,555 tons, and w i t h an. average yield of about 1,500 kg/ha in the l a t e r years. I t was concluded tha t the f u l l r ice requirements of smallholders involved in future replanting programs could be met by intercropping.

8 .0:6 I t must not be assumed from the foregoing that intercropping with r ice is trouble free. In the f i r s t place, the inter-row areas were mechanically cultivated prior t o sowing in October of the year of planting. The f i r s t crop w a s harvested in Februaxy/?&rch and followed with second and th i rd c r o ~ s a t the a ~ ~ r o ~ r i a t e times. Mechanical cultivation was necessary betwee; crops, b i t* at* the cessation of cropping in the th i rd year of planting,. invasion by "lalangtl (I erata 1indrica)presented a major problem (54). The cost of eradication y =d?+z- e m c s 1s estimated a t ~$63/ -ha , and t o avoid th is in the future some- method of establishing a beneficial ground cover that w i l l compete with the lalang must be developed.

8.07 In s m a l l - scale experimental work by Sunarwidi and Hutagalung (61), intercrops of r ice and maize were grown in the f i r s t year a f te r planting rubber, with NPK and Mg f e r t i l i z e r s each a t f ive levels. Rice yields benefited from the f e r t i l i z e r and manuring of the intercrops had a favorable effect on rubber gmrth.

8.08 Reed and Sumana (59) have studied the subject fully, and give data on possible cropping sys terns taking into account local and export markets. 'Ihey consider tha t continuous intercropping presents the following disadvantages :

i. I f only one cash crop is planted each year there is a problem of what t o do w i t h the land in the off-season. Should it be planted t o leguminous cover plants o r l e f t fallow? I f the land is l e f t fallow, there is a danger of lalang becoming established, which would be d i f f i c u l t and costly to eradicate. On the other hand, the planting and maintenance of a leguminous ground cover is hardly worthwhile in the limited time available.

ii. I f m r e than one crop is grown per year, the choice of crops is more d i f f i cu l t , for pressure on the land is intensified and in unsuitable locations this could lead to a decline in s o i l f e r t i l i t y and possibly a build-up of pest and disease.

iii. The greater nunber of crops there are in a rotation the more d i f f i cu l t it is t o market them and/or use them for family consumption. .Also, a much larger research e f fo r t must be mounted to determine the ~ m s t sui table crops and cultural practices.

iv . The only way t o maintain intercropping over a nunber of years is to minimize shading by phase planting, so that pa r t of the fann is planted e i the r annually o r every second year u n t i l the f i r s t year 's planting is tapped. Annual o r bi-annual phasing w i l l , however, not eliminate shading in an individual small farm replant or new planting, and the only solution is t o encourage group replanting so tha t adjacent faxms are planted i n blocks.

8.09 Reed and Sumana also quote the resu l t s of a survey o f 100 fanners i n NSSDP (not Aek Nebara) and a further 20 in the same area, in the vi l lage of Babussalam. A l l fanners in NSSDP had one hectare of rubber planted a t a density of 500 t rees per hectare, and in the wet season in te r - cropped the whole area, but in the dry season only a proportion. Yields and net income are given in Table 24.

8.10 Yields of wet season r i ce and r ice interplanted with maize were sat isfactory but there was a great deal o f variation between f a m . Yields and net income fo r both r i ce alone, and the rice/maize combination, were higher a t Babussalam than in the NSSDP holdings.

8.11 Yields for dry season crops were i n general poor. The average y ie ld of maize i n 45 NSSDP blocks w a s only 462 kg/ha of rubber planted, whereas yields of 1.5-2.0 tons should be possible. The average yield of green gram (mung bean) was 261 kg/ha of rubber planted on the NSSDP blocks and only 114 kg/ha on the farms a t Babussalam; yields of 400-600 kg should be possible. The fac t that local, unimproved var ie t ies of green gram were used, and tha t only a low proportion of fanners used s ignif icant quant i t ies of f e r t i l i z e r , could par t ly account for the low yields. Reed and S m a calculate tha t for costs and income t o break even yields of maize would have t o r i s e t o 942 kg/ha of rubber planted (1,077 kg/ha of intercrops) and of green gram, in Babussalam t o 449 kg/ha of rubber, and in NSSDP t o 342 kg/ha of rubber; these levels should be achievable using good qual i ty seed and adequate quantit ies of f e r t i l i z e r .

8.12 In a further development of the multicrop concept, Suryatna and McIntosh (62) propose systems of cropping rubber with coffee, pepper, cassava and upland r ice . The combination proposed offers a useful income, while a t the same t i m e supressing the growth of lalang. Coupled with the use of adequate levels of f e r t i l i z e r , growth of the t r ee crop should not be affected. Brandt e t al. (55) have suggested the use of Pueraria thung- bergiana as a fodder 'intercrop, but no application i s yet reported.

C. Coconuts

8.13 According to the l a t e s t figures the t o t a l area under coconuts in Indonesia is 2,203,900 hectares yielding an average of only 685 kg copra per hectare. In 1970, the country was the world's second major ex- porter of copra and coconut o i l with a 13.6% share of the market: in succeeding yea& the s i tuat ion changed sharply so that by 1975 it s h r e d only 2.7% of the external market, with a decline in volume from 193,100 metric tons to 53,000 tons, due t o increased domestic consumption.

8.14 In an e f fo r t to reverse the decline in the coconut industry, the W/FAO Pro j ec t , Coconut Research Improvement (INS/72/007) has been introduced and Breeding and Agronomy Programs are now in being (INS/72/007, I b c m n t s 3 and 4 respectively).

8.15 The breeding program is to concentrate on production of seed- l ings derived from high yielding Talls planted a t Kima Atas in North Sulawesi. Mean production of a population of 986 palms in 1975/77 was 123 nuts or 32.29 kg copra per palm per year, equivalent to 15,000 nuts/ 4,000 kg copra per hectare a t a low density of 123 palms per hectare.

8.16 Paral le l work to the above, although with a greater emphasis on MAWA type hybrids, is being carried out by Government-owned and private sector estates in North Sumatra. Seed-nuts w i l l become available from PNPX of South Sumatra in 1979, from Bone Bone in South Sulawesi in 1980/81, and from Government Estate Group PTP VI of North Sumatra in 1981.

D. Coconuts and Multiple Cropping

8.17 In the Transmigration Planning Manual, Vol. 7, for the Planning and Development of Transmigration Schemes, UNDP/FAO Project INS/72/005, the value of intercropping in coconuts is questioned (p. 46) , yet Indonesia is the scene of both a long-established t radi t ion of intercropping in i t s home-gardens and a vigorous, developing es ta te industry, establishing coconuts/cocoa plantings from scratch using Glir ic idia and Leucaena spp. as temporary shade trees.

8.18 In the smallholding sector, fanners, partly because of be t te r s o i l and climatic factors and part ly because of pressure on the land, appear t o generally cul t ivate more intensively than in Malaysia. In the horn gardens seen around &clan i n North Sumatra, and Semarang and Bogor in Java, a wide variety of crops is grown. With mature coconuts as the main crop, intercrops include well -cultivated upland r ice , maize, cassava, groundnuts, beans, ginger, patchouli and c h i l l i e , with coffee and bananas as a mid- storey crop and cloves (60), cinnamon, jak and other f r u i t trees a t the higher level , a l l with pepper t r a i l i ng up the coconut stems.

8.19 In the Coconut Agronomy Program (Cocument No. 4) of Project INS/72/007, detailed information is given on the different crops, and plans outlined fo r a study of the i r characteristics whm grown together. One

experiment aims to study the e f f ec t on root systems of intercropping cocoa and cloves a t different age levels of coconut while another is t o study the physiological interaction between coconut, cloves, coffee, pineapple and pepper.

8.20 Eventually, data from these and other trials w i l l help the extension services to of fe r the smallholders greater support than is presently possible. In the meantime, help consists principally of the provision of improved planting material t o the smallholders (see Working Paper C-4A of the Yogyakarta hral Development Project).

E. Cocoa

8.21 Full descriptions of cocoa production and plans for development i n Indonesia are given in reports by Wessel (65) and by Toxopeus and Hutomo C64). Cocoa is grown both in monoculture and also as an interplant in coconut, and the country has ambitious plans* t o increase production. For the present, research is concentrating on the propagation of high-yielding and pest-resistant material. The cocoa m t h , Acrocerco s cramerella, is Identified as the major pest. This pest has ---F certaln y l imited cocoa production in Java in the past , and whether the recomended periodic removal of all pods ("rampassen") can o f fe r a practicable method of control in smallholder areas, by preventing population build-up, must be open t o doubt .

IX. NCTES ON A VISIT TO SRI L A M (June 26-July 1, 1979)

A. Introduction

9.01 In Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia rehabili tation and extension of the smallholding and es ta tes sectors generally is well under way, but a different s i tuat ion pertains in S r i Lanka. Here, the fragmented rubber, t e a and coconut plantations pose major problems; a study of the rubber industry is in hand, while in the tea industry two approaches currently are being developed. The be t te r areas are t o be rehabili tated on t radi t ional l ines , but the poorer areas are t o be diversified, progressively replacing old tea with new multi-species crop associations based on the t radi t ional Kandy gardens and on South Indian experience. These w i l l not only be suitable environmentally, but it is hoped w i l l also produce a diverse and adequate income f o r the smallholders concerned.

9.02 The S r i Lanka coconut industry w i l l not be easy to rehabi l i ta te . However, plans are being developed and f i r s t steps w i l l include the establishment of diversification schemes involving cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, pepper, bananas, coffee, cocoa and f r u i t t rees m n g the coconuts, on the l ines of the Kandy gardens, but probably with the inclusion of lowland food crops.

9.03 There are both s imilar i t ies and distinctions between the Kandy garden tree-crop association, the Javanese hme-lot and the typical home- l o t of a Malaysian k q o n g dweller. In the l a t t e r case, the smallholder generally is not dependent on his home-lot; he has an alternative income off the holding, often on a nearby plantation, and regards it as an amnity providing only a portion of his food requirements. The Javanese grows a wide variety of annual and perennial food crops and re l i e s very much upon them for both food and income. In the Kandy si tuat ion, the fanner is again largely dependent on h is holding for f w d and income, but re l ies more completely on perennial t ree crops as being be t te r suited to his upland situation; he is also fortunate in that the terrain and climate permit supplementary paddy cropping in many loca l i t ies .

B. Rubber

9.04 Fonnerly of mixed es ta te and smallholding composition, the S r i Lankan rubber industry is now dominated by smallholdings and small f a m , many of which are in urgent need of rehabili tation. This is the subject of a FAOmorld Bank Smallholder Rubber Replanting Project and the following excerpts are taken f m m the Project Preparation Report:

i. Since 1973 the Department of Rubber Control has permitted the interplanting of f w d crops under young rubber for the f i r s t three years. RRISL experiments have since shown that coffee, cocoa, banana, ch i l l i e , vegetables, passion f r u i t , upland rice, soya bean and cowpea can be successful ly interplanted with rubber a t a spacing of 30 ft x 8 f t on f l a t land. Of these, banana, cocoa, coffee, passion f r u i t and pineapple have been found particularly suitable as they do not require overall t i l l age , but only weeding round each plant, and hence have less erosion r i sk and can be planted on somewhat steeper slopes.

ii. Although intercropping has been allowed, response has been poor. Main constraints appear to have been lack of capi tal , prevention of theft and uncertainty of market for some of the crops.

iii. Experiments suggest that g m t h of rubber w i l l not be adversely affected i f :

- only one row of perennial intercrop is grown between the m s of rubber;

- annual cmps are not planted closer than 4 f t t o the rubber row in the f i r s t year, 6 ft in the second and 10 f t in the th i rd ;

- the intercrops receive f e r t i l i z e r a t recornended doses.

iv . While experimental work with intercrops has so f a r concentrated on a rubber spacing of 30 x 8 f t , with the agreement of the extension of f icer fo r the area inter- ckpping of pineapples and annual crops would be permitted in rubber replanted a t 20 x 1 2 f t .

v. On almst f l a t t o gently sloping land, vegetables, upland rice and pulses and c h i l l i e would be permitted, but no cash support would be given. Larger areas of annual crops would not be allowed, l e s t t h e i r demand for family labor interfered with proper care of the young rubber.

v i . Due t o t he i r lower labor requirements and s u i t a b i l i t y t o a wider range of slopes, support under the project would be given only for the interplanting of coffee, bananas and pineapples. Passion f r u i t is excluded because the cost of supporting wires and stakes is considered too great .

vii. The most important extension message from the point of view of the rubber crop i s tha t the intercrops should be adequately manured. Bananas and pineapples would be up- rooted before the rubber comes in to tapping, but coffee would be allowed t o remain.

viii. Few data are available on yields tha t w i l l be obtained from these crops interplanted in rubber, but yields obtainable under rmnocrop conditions are hown and estimated costs , yields and return per acre of land are given in the Report.

The Kandy "Gardens1'

9.05 I t is possible in S r i Lanka tha t t ree crop fanning systems f ind t h e i r f u l l e s t expression in the multi-species "forest gardens" of Kandy. Evolved over many generations, these gardens include a wide variety of ground, creeping, middle and upper storey crops growing gener- a l l y in association with coconuts. They produce a large proportion of the farmers ' dai ly needs and income.

9.06 McConnell and Dhaxmapala (69) have described the gardens in de t a i l , emphasizing the i r value as a s tab le eco-system, in the erosion- susceptible uplands of Kandy, t ha t offers a diverse and steady income t o the fanners. The system is a t t rac t ive and has proved i t s great value in the past , s o is being adopted as a model for the Tree Crop Diversification Project (Tea) I , now established around Kandy . 9.07 With the guidance of the Minor Exports Research Station, Matale, plans are being implemented for the replanting of old , abandoned and sub- standard t e a under the auspices of NADSA. Following the schemes drawn up

i n Chapter 111, multicrop plantings of coconut, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, j ak, bananas, mango, bread f r u i t , amcado, c i t rus , durian, rambutan and pepper are being established i n farms of about 2.5 acres each. Also, a d l area is being s e t aside round the home fo r vegetables and other food crops, and the maintenance of one milk cow per family.

9.08 One feature not brought out i n the McConnell report is that , because of the var iab i l i ty in planting materials within any one garden, most of the present incom mafbe derived from only a relatively-few high- yielding individuals (Private Conmnmication, Bavappa) . The breeding program of the Mbor Export Crops Research Station aims a t a significant raising of yield i n most crops: for example, the introduced Panniyur-1 hybrid pepper variety is three t o four times more productive than other comercia1 var ie t ies in India; the yield potential of 11,500 hectares new- l y diversified gardens sc!eduled i n t h i s project w i l l be s ignif icant ly greater than a similar area of t radi t ional gardens.

9.09 This NAEA scheme represents an imaginative e f f o r t t o r e se t t l e the old areas and diversify production. The authority 's next challenge is to bring diversity to the coconut t r iangle of West-Central S r i Lanka. Here, the old coconuts a re i n a very neglected condition and the open and rela- t ively f l a t , lowland conditions present a different s i tua t ion t o the Kandy highlands. E x p e r i m t s on intercropping of coconuts w i t h cocoa, coffee, bananas, pepper, cassava, vegetables and pasture with c a t t l e were seen a t the Coconut Research Ins t i tu te , Lunwila, and the Ins t i tu te has detailed recomndations for crop mixes w i t h coconut i n its publications (67).

D. Cocoa

9.10 The s i tuat ion in the S r i Lankan cocoa industry has been summarized recently by Ariyaratnam (68). In b r i e f , the cocoa plantings are neglected, seni le and unproductive. A project has been outlined t o replant 18,000 acres of cocoa and t o es tabl ish 2,000 acres of new plantings with coconut on a p i lo t scale.

9.11 The project is located i n the Mta le , Kandy and Kurunegala upland d i s t r i c t s . Of the 10,000 acres of cocoa i n these areas almost half is in smallholdings averaging 3.5 acres and the other half in es ta tes averaging 200 acres. In smallholdings, cocoa is grown mixed with other perennial crops (Table 25), but in the plantations it is mostly under old rubber retained mainly as a shade a t about 50-150 trees per acre.

9.12 I t is planned tha t the cocoa w i l l be underplanted in old stands, that w i l l be progressively thinned out as the young cocoa develops. Obvious- l y this project w i l l benefit greatly from the experience being gained by NADSA, and also by the work under way i n Malaysia, where old rubber is being replaced with cocoa.

X. NOTES ON A VISIT TO IVORY COAST (September 9-13, 1979)

A. Introduction

10.01 The present and future wealth of Ivory Coast depends primarily on agriculture, of which the t ree and bush crops are an important component. There are large rubber and o i l palm plantations, operated by development corporations, but the majority of the areas involved are cultivated by s m a l l fanners. Development plans make provision for small fann schemes grouped around nucleus estates m in association with the private sector.

10.02 The plantation industry enjoys the support of strong, technical inst i tut ions, primarily IFCC, IRHO, IRCA with extension work being carried out by SA'IMACI, SODEPALM and SAPH. The work of the l a t t e r is made d i f f i cu l t by several constraints. All work in a s i tuat ion where much of the labor is innnigrant from the Upper Volta, Guinea and Mi, and is l i t t l e concerned with the long-term management of agricultural land. In addition, in the smallholding sector there i s no local t radi t ion of rubber cultivation. Over the country as a whole there i s ample land available for cultivation, a l - though so i l s a re only of moderate f e r t i l i t y .

B. Coffee

10.03 The Ivory Coast crop is composed ent i rely of RDbusta coffee and plans are t o s tab i l ize production a t the present level of 300,000 tons per annum dry berries, with only a moderate expansion of up t o 20,000 tons of Arabusta hybrid coffee when approved material becomes available. I t is of in te res t that, while the average level of coffee production in Ivory Coast is between 250-350 kg per hectare per annum, in experimental plantings with f e r t i l i zed , clonal material the IFCC has achieved levels of 1,800-2,800 kg per hectare, so that there is ample potential for increasing production should it ever be necessary.

10.04 Maintenance a t present production levels can be done in two ways. By the establishment of a smaller area of new plantations using selected clonal material, o r by the regeneration (Scepage) of existing old stands with declining yields. The fonner would involve smaller areas and lower maintenance costs, and f a c i l i t a t e the diffusion of improved cultural techniques, while the l a t t e r has the advantage of being possible a t a lower cost and with a rapid increase in yields within two t o three years. How- ever, regeneration is only recanmended for coffee of between 8-20 years old in reasonably good condition and with a stand of a t leas t 1,000 plants per hectare.

10.05 In the establishment of new coffee stands, upland r ice and maize are recommended as intercrops in the f i r s t year a f t e r planting; they can also be grown as a pre-crop before establishment of the coffee with

advantages i n terms of land clearing, weed control and subsequent ease of establishment of the coffee. Yams can also be grown among the t rees , provided tha t care is taken with spacing and tha t recumbent var ie t ies are used ra ther than climbing var ie t ies . Upland r i ce and maize a r e recomnded for the second year of planting, with groundnuts for the t h i rd and f ina l year of intercropping. After this period the coffee must be grown as a monoculture.

10.06 Bananas are an important t rad i t iona l crop i n the coffee areas, but are l i ab l e t o be planted too densely and so shade the coffee t o an excessive degree. Where fanners demand to grow bananas, SATMACI recomnend tha t the coffee be i n i t i a l l y planted a t 5.5 m t e r s hedge spacing, with the banana planted midway i n the inter-rows, a t 2.75 meters from the coffee. After harvest the bananas must be cut out and replaced with new coffee plants , so tha t the f i na l coffee stand is i n l i nes spaced a t 2.75 m t e r s . Cocoyams and cassava are proscribed crops i n these develo~anent areas because of the competition they may of fe r .

10.07 When carrying out the a l ternat ive policy of regeneration of an old coffee planting, a careful procedure m ~ ~ t be followed. In the f i r s t place, a l l stems are remved except one o r two tha t can provide a small crop during the f i r s t year a f t e r cut t ing back. Young shoots spring from the base of t h i s stem, with f ive o r six of the most vigorous being retained to form the new bush. A l l other shade t rees a re removed and weed growth developing i n the cleared conditions, par t icular ly grasses, nut be regularly controlled o r othelwise t h i s would check the new coffee growth. To a s s i s t i n t h i s process, fanners are encouraged t o grow one crop of maize o r r ice in the inter-row areas, and to apply f e r t i l i z e r t o the coffee.

10.08 In the f i r s t year of regeneration, a small crop of coffee can be taken from the parent stem, and i n the following year an i n i t i a l y ie ld of 300-500 kg/ha of beans can be expected from the new shoots, production doubling i n the following year. In order t o lessen the ef- f ec t on the fanner's income, it is recomnded that t h i s process of regeneration be carr ied out in two stages, with only half h i s farm being out of production a t any one time.

lO.09 Systems of planting for the different crops have been detai led (74). Unfortunately, none were seen in the f i e l d , but it is believed tha t i n implementing t h e i r pol ic ies SA'IMACI found the t radi t ional dual respon- s i b i l i t y for work between man and woman an obstacle. One further point of in te res t is tha t SA'IMACI has no hand i n marketing of any surplus food crops, this a l l being l e f t t o t radi t ional channels ; these may need support if ever food cropping becomes important.

C. Cocoa

10.10 Ivory Coast has been a producer of cocoa since the early 19001s, and current plans aim a t an increase from present production of 300,000 tons per mum t o 500,000 tons. To assist in the program the IFCC is establishing 165 hectares of cocoa seed gardens around the country, using rooted cuttings of selected clones for the purpose.

10 .ll Traditi,onally, cocoa has been grown together with cocoyams and bananas on a permanent basis, but the ideal conditions as la id down by IFCC define the following pr ior i t ies :

i. Clean clearing of forest (to eliminate t a l l , persistent shade) .

ii. Allow natural regeneration of secondary growth (1-2 years).

iii. Plant cocoa.

iv . A t two years a f t e r planting comnce selectively to thin out the shade plants.

v. Maintain control of Earias, mirids and capsids using insecticides.

v i . Maintain good ground conditions.

v i i . As a l a s t pr ior i ty , apply f e r t i l i ze r s .

10.12 The low prior i ty given to f e r t i l i ze r s may seem surprising in view of the fact that increases in yield of over 100% due to f e r t i l i ze r s have been recorded (71). However, such responses are keyed to the degree of shade present, and with the average level of smallholder maintenance shade is l ikely to be too dense for economic responses to f e r t i l i ze r s to appear. Currently the average level of smallholder yields is around 600 kg/ha; i f ever yields were t o approach 1,500 kg/ha due to good management, including the remval of shade, then the use of f e r t i l i ze r s would be reconsidered.

10.13 SATMACI, the extension body, has taken an in i t i a t ive in trying to introduce cash cropping in cocoa, planting a pre-crop of r ice, maize or yams a f t e r clearing, then establishing plantains a t 3 x 5 m spacing. As these become established (with plantings scheduled according to the seasonal rains), the cocoa is planted as polybag seedlings along the plantain rows, together with yams planted a t approximately 8 m spacing on the in te r l ine. By the second and third years, the bananas w i l l have been harvested and are cut out to leave monoculture cocoa. Systems of planting are given in Chapter 111.

D. Rubber

10.14 Ivory Coast has only a short history of rubber planting. Firs t plantings were in 1954 and presently som 30,000 hectares exis t , practically a l l es tate planting, with half in tapping. There are only 100 hectares of smallholding plantings , the e a r l i e s t established in 1968/70, so there is no rea l tradition of rubber cultivation within the small farmer sector.

10.15 The scene is dominated by three big corporations:

SAPH - 65% G o v e m t , 35% private, that controls more than half the acreage.

CCP - a private company with som 4,000 hectares in tapping.

SOGB - with a to ta l area of 13,500 hectares, managed by Miche1i.n.

R e IBRD is supporting a new development a t Be' t ie ' under the SAPH group, in which 200 hectares are to be planted in 1980, rising to a to t a l of 1,500 hectares of smallholdings and 1,500 hectares of nucleus estates by 1983. This ref lects Government policy i n encouraging smallholder production of rubber by associating plantings with nucleus estates .

10.16 General policy i n the smallholding sector is to clean clear forests by hand, then plant budded s tmps of GT1, PB5/51 and A m s 2037. Fert i l izer is used and, on the estates , a policy of using pure leguminous ground covers is followed. R i ido orus li osus root disease i s an important problem, and IRCA have found -3- a t certain c ones, PR261, PR251 and PR255 cannot be grown because of heavy attack by Gloeos rim and Helminthosporium leaf diseases. They have also found that d s are enhanced when cassava is grown as an intercrop between the rubber.

10 .17 In the estate sector, IRCA has encouraged the use of S/2.d/4.d/3 tapping systems with three applications of 2.5% Ethrel in the f i r s t year. With th i s system GTl is giving 600 kg per hectare in the f i r s t year of tapping. After five to s i x years, four applications of Ethrel are given, the object being to save labor by making tapping more effective rather than to maximize yields. Polybag latex collection is being experimented with, again in order to save labor, but there is a problem in t e r n of rubber qua1 i ty . 10.18 In the smallholding sector, SAPH have experienced great trouble in implementing the policy of innoculture with pure leguminous ~ creeping covers. Around Anguededou the farmers, who may come from a diversity of background, prefer-to plant a variety of food crops in the inter-row areas, including yarns, tomatoes, aubergines , sugar cane, maize and cassava. This resul ts in a variety of problems. In one holding, for instance, Pueraria has been smn in a t ieh t c i rc le round the rubber stum~s. with the inter- rows den ted to cash ;rops. Eventually the Pueraria k i i l have to be cut out or it w i l l smother the rubber.

10.19 These holdings are s i ted on a very sandy loam, prone to drought, and s o i l had been munded up round the young plants in an ef for t to enhance water catchment. In one or two places the necessary work had caused root

damage, and it may be preferable instead to leave the s o i l undisturbed but mulched around the young plants with material from the inter-rows. Pos- s ibly because of the dry weather the young rubber showed signs of severe nitrogen deficiency, but it seemed l ikely that plants w i l l recover with the onset of the rains, as adjacent plantings some eighteen months of age showed good growth and healthy leaf color.

10.20 In these holdings leaf disease w a s common and in m y cases the buddings had fai led and seedling root stock shoots allowed to develop.

10.21 Obviously, under such circumstances, the extension s t a f f of SAPH have a d i f f i cu l t task, and it would seem advisable fo r them to concentrate on the following pr ior i ty items:

i . Establish good nurseries.

ii. Ensure that only stumps from well -grown and vigorous plants are issued to the smallholders and that these are planted a t the commencement of a rainy period.

iii. Mulch these plants as soon as possible.

iv . lk not insist on pure leguminous creeping covers, but maintain good weed control (E atorium odoratum and I e ra ta cylindrica are prob-if the i a m r L Insists on lntercropping make sure tha t competition w i t h the rubber is minimized by keeping crops to the center of the inter-row areas. I f possible, f e r t i l i z e r s should be applied to both rubber and intercrops.

v. Maintain frequent rounds of root disease inspection, so as to minimize losses.

10.22 There appeared t o be a need for more infoxmation on f e r t i l i z e r require~nents in the sandy s o i l areas. On the one hand, f e r t i l i ze r s were not being applied in the early stages of the stump plantings, for fear of leaching before root development had occurred. On the other hand, in a mature planting of perhaps nine years old, f e r t i l i ze r s were not to be applied unt i l , it was said, a fo l i a r diagnosis had been carried out. A clar if icat ion of these issules by IRCA would seem necessary, but in view of the poor s o i l conditions, and competition from cash crops, a regular f e r t i l i z e r program would seem essential .

10.23 Some limited work has been commenced on intercropping by IRCA over the l a s t five years (73) and this i s summarized in Table 26. The object of th i s work was to throw l ight on problems concerned w i t h intercropping, rather than resolve those problems, and general conclusions were as follows:

Yams, cassava and bananas can give satisfactory yields but the time and s i t e of planting r ~ t be adjusted carefully to minimize competition with the mbber. bbreover, cassava may present a hazard by favoring Helminthosporium and Gloeos o r i m leaf diseases and by acting as a host fo r Rigi&osus root disease.

ii. Maize, r ice and groundnuts proved less robust than the '

former crops, with yields being variable and particularly low when grown in a second season. Insects and fungal attacks were serious and IRCA recognize the need to use crop varieties according to a particular season.

10.24 IRCA hope to continue w i t h this work, and in particular to carry out trials on f a m r s i t e s .

10.25 I t would seem a t this stage in rubber that a simple but f i n extension message should be given to the small farmer, permitting food cropping on traditional lines, but ensuring the satisfactory establishrrrent of good planting material. As this material comes into bearing, it can be hoped that the resulting cash incomes w i l l encourage the farmers to maintain the i r plantings in good conditions, and also encourage other f a m r s to take up the crop as a more specialized operation.

E. O i l Palm and Coconut

i0.26 Li t t le was seen of the o i l palm and coconut industries in Ivory Coast, but it seems they are largely grown in mcmoculture, with 100,000 ha and 30,000 ha of plantations respectively. Technical support for the crops comes from IRHO with SOIJEPALM acting as the extension agent and PALMINWSTRIE (a public company) buying, collecting and processing the cmp.

10.27 The policy of monoculture has been supported strongly in the past by IRHO, with particular respect to Ivory Coast, in that the country had no shortage of land and hence no need to maximize production per unit area. Consequently, o f f i c i a l policy has been to demonstrate the value of monoculture cropping to the small f a m r and th is has been achieved. Never- theless, t r i a l s by IRHO in Ivory Coast, Zaire, Benin and Nigeria have a l l demnstrated that , when properly carried out, intercropping can be done safely in both o i l palm and coconut. Perhaps this may yet be achieved by SODEPALM in cooperation with the small planters who would l ike to intercrop.

10.28 One warning note is, however, stressed by the fact that in the central areas of Ivory Coast a coconut v i r u s disease is said t o be transmitted by a vector with grass as an alternative host -- a warning t h a t weed control w i l l be important when intercropping is carried out.

10.29 In the coconut area around Port Bouet, one coconut planting was seen on poor sandy so i l that supports a thin stand of indigenous grasses. A flock of close-haired sheep was being successfully grazed in this

planting, using e l ec t r i c fencing to rotate ten sheep per hectare daily in a six-week cycle. The sheep looked well, but it was not possible to obtain detai ls on the economics of the system. PMNDUSTFUE are doing similar work with c a t t l e under o i l palm, but general experience indicates that a t normal planting density grass production wil l be low, incapable of supporting more than 0.3 head/ha, and that prof i tab i l i ty w i l l be low.

10.30 IRHO a t Port Bouet were, of course, responsible for the i n i t i a l production of the Malaysian Dwarf x West African Tall hybrids M A ) . These variet ies were f i r s t produced in 1962 and the f i r s t commercial plantings were in 1969, since when they have been planted i n many countries.

10.31. Present considerations are that these hybrid coconuts are optimally spaced a t 8.5 meters triangular, as compared with 9 meters triangular for the local palms, and w i l l normally yield around three t o four tons per hectare of copra per annum, or up to four to s i x tons per hectare under very good conditions, compared with the two to three tons maximum that can be expected with local t a l l coconuts under best conditions.

10.32 The new hybrids come into yieldinn a t five years a f t e r planting compared with sevkn years for locai talls; and in the opinion 0% IRHO w i l l have an economic l i f e of th i r tv vears com~ared with the f i f t v to s ixty years for the older material.' k with high-yielding rubbe;, t h i s should lend a long-term f l ex ib i l i ty to plantation cropping patterns.

10.33 Spacing trials have commenced with the W A hybrids but it is too early to quote yields.

10 .34 The IRHO is now comencing f i e ld trials in coconuts interplanted with cocoa, and in one ser ies is growing the coconut in double rows with three rows of cocoa planted between, the object being to develop eventually a labor-saving method of nut harvesting by running a t ractor and t r a i l e r between the two rows of coconuts.

10.35 In the o i l palm industry, theoretical yields range from 12 tons ffb/ha in the Anguededou area to 18 tonslha in the South-West, where there is no ra infa l l def ic i t . However, current estimates for the estate sector are for yields of 11 tonslha and for the smallholder sector not more than 7 tons/ha.

X I . NOTES ON A VISIT TO NIGERIA (September 13-26, 1979)

Introduction

11.01 Of Nigeria's 90,000,000 population, some 80% depend for the i r l iving on the land. There is, however, a movement of ~ e o p l e from the land to the c i ty , prompted both by employmnt opportunities offered particularly

by the construction industries, and by the low level of rural amenities such as education, l ight and water. This is leading to a steady r i s e in the age of the Nigerian fanner.

11.02 In the southern t ree cropping bel t of the humid tropics, attention was f o m r l y concentrated on the export crops of coffee, cocoa and o i l palm, but the Sahel drought of the early 1970's checked the production of groundnuts, and resulted in cessation of o i l palm exports, with production being taken up entirely for local use as food. Additionally, experience in the Nigerian c i v i l war highlighted the need for local se l f - sufficiency, and while developments are i n hand to restore the traditional role of the north as food exporters to the south, increased attention is being paid to the traditional tree, bush and annual food crops of the Nigerian "compound farmt'.

11.03 On th i s tour most time was taken up with visits t o research inst i tutes and other organizations, but when driving from Lagos to Ibadan, then on t o Benin City and the Calabar, a good cross-section of agriculture was seen. (31 the Lagos to Ibadan stretch, the scene is typified by extensively famed areas of secondary bush associated with low grade mixed farms dominated by old, native o i l palm, kola, plantains and a scattering of cocoyams, yams and cassava, with cocoa becomg important towards Ibadan.

11.04 From Ibadan to Benin City the agriculture consists of compound f a m with cocoa a dominant element, supplemented by o i l palm, kola, c i t rus , plantain, cassava, yams, cocoyams and maize. From Benin City onwards, as the road passes through progressively poorer and more sandy so i l s , pa r t i - cularly a f t e r Onitsha and Mrri, the agriculture becomes very degraded. High forest is almost completely cleared and replaced by an impoverished association of o i l palm with an under-storey of cassava o r bush fallow, with Raphia palm conspicuous in the lower lying areas, all of low produc- t iv i ty . Towards Calabar the so i l becomes richer and supports good forest and plantings of Gnelina arborea and rubber.

11.05 In v i s i t s to o f f i c i a l bodies, a remarkable convergence of thought towards the value of multiple cropping became apparent. Faced by shortages of land, food and labor, Forestry Departments and c o m r c i a l commodity plantation companies are thinking towards tree and food crop integration, e i ther in mixed o r side-by-side association. Those concerned with cocoa and o i l palm are accepting the need for intercropping, in the early years a t leas t , while Research Inst i tutes , the Universities and Departments of Agriculture are working t o restore interest in the traditional food tree crops of Nigeria. In background support work, minimum t i l l age techniques suitable for the small fanner are being developed that w i l l eliminate the danger of s o i l erosion inherent in multiple cropping.

11.06 One of the most formative contributions to t h i s debate can be found in a paper by J . B . Ball of the W / F M Forest Development Project, Ibadan (76).

B. Taungya in Southern Nigeria

11.07 Taungya is the system employed in many tropical countries where labor employed in forestation is permitted t o cul t ivate food crops in between the t r ee crop rows, during the ea r ly years of establishment. In return for t h i s f a c i l i t y , the labor keep the plantation c lear of weeds and tend the young trees. In h i s paper describing the system in Nigeria, Ball co l la tes a great deal of useful information of general reference t o the Nigerian agricul tural scene.

11 .08 For instance, the age structure of the fanning community is unbalanced and reflects the lack of in te res t in farming by young people (Table 27) .

Table 2 7 : ESTIMATE OF THE AGE S T R U m OF NIGERIA'S FARMERS

& Under 20 21-30 31-40 Over 40

1. Taungya farmers % 1 15 2 3 61

A g e 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 Over 55 2 . Fanners in

Western State % 2 17 29 2 2 3 0

Age Under 25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 Over 65 - - ---- 3. Farmers in E a s t ~

Central State % 3 2 0 2 7 2 3 19 8

Sources: 1. FA0 Forestry Development Project questionnaire.

2 . Report of an Agricultural Survey in Western State of Nigeria, Ministry of Economic Planning and Reconstruction, Ibadan.

3. Cassava Benchmark Survey, East-Central State , 1975, Economics Section, IITA, Ibadan.

11.09 Food crops in taungya. The main crops in order of importance in each Sta te are sham in Table 28 below.

Table 2 8 : CROPS I N ORIER OF MAGVITUDE BY AREA, GROW IN PRIVATE TAUNGYA I N SOUTHERN NIGERIA

State Crops

hamb ra Yams, cassava, maize, rice.

Bendel Yams, maize, cassava, rice, plantains, vegetables, cocoyams , beans.

Cross River Cassava, maize, yams, cocoyams, plantains, vegetables, guinea corn, groundnuts.

Imo Yams, cassava, maize, rice.

Kwara Yams, maize, cassava, rice, vegetables, guinea corn.

OW Cassava, yams, maize, vegetables, rice.

Ondo Yams, cassava, maize, plantains, vegetables.

Oy0 Maize, yams, vegetables, cassava.

11.10 Yams, maize and vegetables, which make the greatest demands on soi l fe r t i l i ty , are grown f i r s t , followed by cassava. A second crop of maize may be grown, but it is low-yielding and is generally used for seed the following year.

11.11 In Deparlmental taungya (where any food crops produced are the property of the Forest Department, with se t t lers being paid for their work), the only two crops grown are maize and cassava. In Cross River State, two crops of maize may be grown, the second being for seed.

1 1 . 1 2 In the past it was forbidden to grow certain crops, such as cocoa, rubber, plantains, etc. because they were permanent and semi- permanent crops which competed with the forestcrop and could lead to the alienation of the forest reserve i f they grew for long enough to establish some sort of rights. Crops such as rice or guinea corn were banned because they are aggressive root competitors and tobacco was banned probably because of root eelwonn. Cassava could only be grown i f it was the erect and not the spreading variety, but when taungya started in Bendel State forty years ago it w a s banned completely. These rules have now been considerably relaxed. Plantains may be grown in Ogun, Ondo and Oyo States as boundary markers and in Bendel State throughout the plot. Rice and guinea corn are raised in Bendel, Kwara and the Eastern States.

11.13 The estimated yields of three crops under the two different systems are given in Table 29.

Table 29: ESTIMATED YIELDS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FROM TRADITIONAL AND DEPARTMENIAL TAUNGYA I N SOU?HERN NIGERIA (kg/ha crop) L/

Traditional D e p a m n t a l -------------- ng/ha)-------------

Maize (shelled and dried) 1,200

Cassava (wet) 15,000

Yams (fresh, net of seed yams) 8,000

1/ These figures refer t o well-tended crops, planted and harvested a t the - optimum tim, and grown &ring a year in which there are no clirnatic extremes.

11.14 B a l l quoted the ne t establishment costs of plantations to the Forest Departments as follows:

i. "Departmntal taungya" costs the Department N117per hectare over the two-year establishment period of the t ree crop.

ii. "Traditional taungya" (where the food crop belongs to the fanner) costs N212.5 per hectare.

iii. Direct planting (where no food crops are grown) costs N525 per hectare.

11.15 The system is, therefore, beneficial to the Department, and also to the fanner, judging by the demand for taungya licenses. However, with r is ing costs there is a need to improve the efficiency of food production, and one serious problem to be overcome is the lack of recruitment of young people. Taungya f a m r s were asked in a suvey why they thought th is was. The most frequent reason given was that too much hard, physical work w a s involved, 75% of the respondents giving th i s as the most important reason, followed by too l i t t l e cash reward (16%), tha t y m g people are unsuited to taungya fanning because of t h e i r education (7%), and that there are no amenities in the villages (2%).

11.16 The f a m r s were, therefore, also asked what the i r State Forest Department could do for them to improve the i r l o t . The answers were ranked as follows, in order of pr ior i ty:

i. Credit f ac i l i t i e s .

ii. Fell large trees on fann.

iii. Do a l l of the land clearing.

iv. Provide amenities such as piped water in the i r villages.

v. Improve rural mads.

v i . Assist with storage of crops.

vii. Assist with marketing of crops.

viii . Provide agricultural extension fac i l i t i e s .

The order of highest and lowest pr ior i t ies was clear cut -- 84% of the farmers gave ( i ) as the i r f i r s t pr iori ty and 78% gave ( i i ) or ( i i i ) as the i r second. A t the other end of the scale, 40% gave (v i i i ) as their lowest pr iori ty and 31% gave (vii) . Between the extremes the pr ior i t ies were less dis t inct .

11 .17 B a l l suggests ways in which these requests can be m t with mutual benefit, but in the face of increasing pressure on the land can only see a more ful ly integrated agri-silviculture as providing a satisfactory system for the future.

11.18 He envisages a system that w i l l provide high and sustained yields of forest and agricultural products, a satisfactory standard of l iving from permanent employment for people in rural areas, and which w i l l ful ly u t i l ize a l l categories of land, both inside and outside Reserves. A t first, such a sys tern would have to be introduced within Forest Reserves because of problems of land tenure elsewhere and also to be able to enforce the new methods proposed. h c e the farmers were convinced, however, it might be expected that the new nrethods would quickly spread outside the Reserves.

11.19 The proposed system would be based on villages providing amenities such as piped water, e lec t r ic i ty , a dispensary, a school ,good access roads, e t c . Existing villages on the edge of the Reserves could be @roved, and this method would resul t in fewer social problems. Where new villages were planned within the Reserves, then the selection of the i r inhabitants might have to take account of place of origin and age. The diagram in Figure 1 shows the way in which land around a forest village might be allocated between small farmers and the Forest Authority. Small plots for the villagers would be clustered w i t h i n walking distance of the village. The produce f r o m these would be minly to supply the family, although the more hard-working farmers would naturally raise some crops for sale . These smallholdings would be farmed intensively for two years, followed by an eight-year pulpwood tree rotation. The tree crop would, on present knowledge, be Clrnelina arborea, but alternative species w i l l amost certainly be developed--g would have t o be practised to conserve organic mtter, because the t ree

~ u l p v o o d rotation Vi l lage

Tha &wan represents a forest viIbga wit)l private agcicultual plots nearby, which are subsequently plantad with an 8 year pulpwood crop ond large scalr agrictrlturo unkr the c d r o \ of t k forest Oapartrnant furthu away from the village, foHowrd by a 15 year aawtimber crop

rotation is probably rather short to restore f e r t i l i t y fully. Beyond the smallholdings , large- scale agriculture would be practised by the controlling authority or even by licensed agricultural companies. Some mechanization would be necessary.

11.20 The land around the village would be classif ied on the basis of i ts abi l i ty t o sustain yields of agricultural or forestry crops or both. The wetter so i l s of valley bottoms could be under permanent agricultural crops of r ice o r vegetables. Steep slopes and catchment areas would be retained under natural forest which would serve also as a source of t radi- t ional products, including m a t . Land on s l ight ly sloping sites with deep so i l s could be cultivated by mechanical means with short fallow periods. Shallow so i l s on mderate slopes, the bulk of the s i t e s derived f m Base- ment Complex rocks in the high forest zone, would have forest plantation crops with short rotations. Soils derived from sedimentary rocks tend to be on level s i t e s , but are unsuitable for mechanized agriculture; they are sandy, in fe r t i l e and of low mis tu re holding capacity, and would be suitable for forest plantations with short agricultural cropping periods.

C. Industrial Plantations and Food C r o ~ ~ i n e

11 .21 Ball 's suggestions in respect of forestry are similar i n some respects to development being considered a t Cross River Estates Ltd. (CREL), Calabar. CREL is a rubber estate with 6,000 planted hectares tha t i s con- templating a large development program, but is hampered by a shortage of labor. Labor is not readily available from local villages, but must be hired from mainland Cross River State, where there is over-population and a shortage of land.

1 1 . 2 2 To a t t r ac t this labor, and hold it in the face of urban attractions in Calabar City, it has been suggested that the es ta te should s e t aside suitable land in its reserve areas for the establishment of villages patterned on the traditional compound fann. These villages would have the i r own integrated perennial and m a ' food cropping areas s e t alongside the rubber that would be grown in monoculture. It is hoped that in this way a mutudlly beneficial s i tuat ion would be created; the es ta te would have labor for its plantation operations; the labor force would have a s teady cash income, supplemented by the i r own food supply plus a local stake in the land (subject to satisfactory performance on the estate) ; and the State would benefit by a redistribution of population (some 30,000 people would be involved) and enhanced food production.

11.23 It is expected that the presence of the es ta te organization would encourage the development of improved cropping practices on the fanns, including ~e supply of selected planting material, and that th is would eventually s p i l l over into the outlying villages. In due course these villages might be drawn in as outgrowers, supplying rubber and o i l palm produce t o the es ta te .

11.24 This situation has close s imilar i t ies to the FELCRA schem in Malaysia, the estate/smallholder association in North Sumatra, and the outgrower projects in Camemon. I t i s particularly appropriate to Nigeria,

in that with land acquired by estates or forest authorities from local clans f o r t ree crop production, the allocation of small plots for food cropping by outsiders may be the means of overcoming traditional land tenure rights problems that have so f a r obstructed development and population movement. Annual food cropping by estate labor is already well established, but permission to extend th is cropping to f w d trees such as o i l palm, kola, c i t rus , breadfruit and others would be evidence t o the farmer of a long-term commitmnt on the par t of the estate to h i s wel- fare (75) .

D. O i l Palm

11.25 The bulk of plantation o i l palm is grown in monoculture, yet in Africa the native o i l palm is an important constituent of the "compoundt1 farm. I t provides a basic foodstuff for the population, and w i l l need to be incorporated in any mixed cropping development in the area.

11.26 I t was not possible in the t i m e available to see any f i e ld work, but early trials carried out a t the Nigerian Ins t i tu te for O i l Palm Research (NIFOR) have shown tha t , on the be t te r s o i l s , intercropping of o i l palm with food crops may be possible, and even advantageous, and have given an insight into the agronomic complexities that can be involved.

1 1 . 2 7 Sparnaaij (89) has described how in one major experiment intercropping for as long as possible with mixed yams, maize and cassava followed by cocoyams as the palm shade developed (similar conditions to the "compound f a n t t ) gave a net increase in yield of palm f r u i t , as well as significant production of the food crops (Tables 30 and 31). Intercropping stimulated growth in the early years a f t e r planting, and thereafter gave increased f r u i t bunch production over a period of 1 2 years of harvesting.

U.28 Sparnaaij concluded that intercropping may have a lastingly favorable effect on yield through a s l ight reduction in s o i l f e r t i l i t y , which increases the percentage of female inflorescences, particularly during the wet season, when assimilation is a limiting factor. He also suggested that the duration of th is favorable effect w i l l depend on the i n i t i a l f e r t i l i t y of the s i t e .

11.29 This fac t has been demonstrated very clearly by another experiment carried out on a degraded s o i l a t Nkwele in Eastern Nigeria. Here again, continuous intercmpping with yams and cocoyams was included as one t rea tmnt , with household waste and other f e r t i l i z e r material including incinerator ash, applied in the second, f i f t h and seventh years a f t e r planting. In the f i r s t three years of production (1948/50), the continuously intercropped plots yielded twice as much as the control plots , but the effect was not last ing (Table 32). While the yield of the control plots continued t o r i se slowly, that for the intercropped treatment declined. In the years 1951/53, the yields of the continuously cropped p lo ts were no longer above those of the control and in the l a t e r years they dropped even further. I t would seem that the small nutrient reserves in the s o i l and the original vegetation, which were released by the clearing and cultivation

for arable cropping, were quickly exhausted. As a resul t , s o i l f e r t i l i t y dropped t o such a low level that the intercropped pdlms, although much t a l l e r and bet ter developed than the controlled palms, could not maintain the i r yields.

11.30 Since these experiments were carried out, work has revealed a major requirement for potash on the so i l s concerned, and the effects described above may have been magnified by a particularly adverse N/K ra t io in the control plots with inter-row areas covered by leguminous creepers that would depress yields. However, further work in Nigeria has confirmd the stimulating effect of intercropping on yield, with some indication that it may be the result of the cultivation involved (89). Most recently, intercropping has been noted as giving much bet ter palm growth than when the l a t t e r is subject to competition by the invasive Eupatorium odoratum. The general conclusion m u s t be that under smallholding development conditions a t l eas t the practice of intercropping with food crops in the early years of establishment is beneficial. On the poorer so i l s , however, particular care w i l l need to be taken t o maintain adequate f e r t i l i ze r schedules, and there is a need for more study of the nutr i t ional interaction between main and subsidiary crops.

U.31 NIFOR has carried out work on the mixed planting of coffee and cocoa with o i l palm (83). Experiment 910-4 in Sierra Leone indicates that both crops yielded best when grown in pure stand, but the highest yield of total produce, derived from the combined mean yield per acre for both crops, came from interplanted treatments (Table 33). Obviously, decisions on such mixes must be based on economic as well as technical grounds, but it i s worth noting Egger's (91) comnent that the wide front spread of o i l palm concentrates rain water on luwer trees, making them more susceptible to fimgal attack.

E. Cocoa

11.32 In discussion with the Cocoa Research Ins t i tu te , Gambari, it was agreed tha t local requirements for food, and the traditional part played by women on the farm, make multiple cropping an essent ial feature of Nigerian agriculture. Som 1,000,000 hectares of the existing cocoa are grown on what effectively are "compound farms", with o i l paln, f ru i t trees and cocoyams scattered through the cocoa area, and other food plants concentrated around the house lo t . In rehabilitation of a cocoa area not judged suff icient ly poor to be replanted, the planting is cleared of excess shade, sprayed against insect pests and manured. After ten years it is then scheduled for replanting.

11.33 A t replanting, the area is clean cleared and planted w i t h cocoa a t 10' x 10' giving 1,100 plants/ha, with shading provided by 1,000 plantains per hectare. Similar conditions apply when new planting in cleared forest; in partly cleared forest only 200 plantains per hectare may be required to provide supplementary shade. Yams , cocoyams , maize and cassava are l ikely to be planted a t the same time, independently, by the smallholder, but these w i l l be shaded out as the cocoa canopy closes over.

11 .34 B a l l (76) quotes experiences in Cross River and Bendel State growing cocoa under a variety of plantation t rees . Experience indicates that with good management satisfactory cocoa yields can be obtained and a variety of timber products obtained for market. I t i s estimated t h a t if Terminalia ivorensis were g m for l ight shade on the present area of cocoa and on a 2s-year rotation, the cocoa fanns could produce 1.3 million cubic meters of peelers and saw logs per year.

F. Traditional Tree Crop Farming

11.35 The cultivation of cocoa and other bush c r o ~ s in association with traditional t ree crops is the core of Nigerian agriculture in the tropical t ree bel t zone. The subject is one of great complexity, involving many score t r ee , bush and ground storey species, eachwith its own ecological, economic and dietary contribution, often coupled with aesthetic, social and religious significance (see Qlapter IV) . 11.36 The subject has become prominent since the Nigerian c i v i l war, when t ree crops were abandoned and destroyed on a large scale, and when it became apparent that the i r replacement relying on natural regeneration would be slow and uncertain. The situation has been compounded by post-war rural development, where road construction, new industries and the establishment of mono-specific plantations has led to the destruction of natural forests together with the f r u i t species contained therein.

11.37 Today, the Indigenous Fruit Trees Project of the Forestry Com- mission, Anambra State, is one of the o f f i c i a l projects under the current Third National Developmnt Plan, 1975-1980. A number of bodies are con- tributing to the program, among them the NSTIIA, the Department of Forest Resources Management, lhiversi ty of Ibadan and the Forestry Commission of Enugu, Anambra State . In support of th is applied work, IITA is establishing a t r i a l studying t ree , shrub and foodcrop intercropping systems together with evaluation nurseries involving the more important and useful t ree species.

11.38 The Fanning Systems Program of IITA also involves work on the subject, and one important contribution has been a paper by Lagemann e t a l . (81) on "Root Crop/Oil Palm Farming Systems: A Case Study from Eastem- Nigeria". This gives considerable detai l on the background t o the t radi- tional farm, and is essential reading to an understanding of the subject. Further important papers are those by Johnson and Johnson (70) and Okigbo (88) . 11.39 In particular, Okafor (84,85,86) has a f ru i t t ree propagation program in hand a t Enugu, and has developed sui table budding techniqws for some important indigenous f r u i t trees including 1n-h i a abonensis (African man o , Treculia africana (African b r e a d f m & t b a c r o h l l a

-3YZ- * &?xn 011 b e a n m o h llm albidum (s tar apple) . Budde trees o the f i r s t two have pro uce n l e f r u i t s in three and a half and four years respectively, and there is an upward trend i n demand for these plants.

In the case of the f o m r , demand in 1977 f a r outstripped supplies -- another example of the response that f a m r s can show towards anything of significant advantage to them.

11.40 The author did not have time to consider this program in any depth. However, in view of its direct application to the traditional farming systems of Nigeria, and i ts importance both economically and ecologically, hg feels that it deserves major support. A t present, fmds for research come from a number of bodies, but to achieve a major impact in the shorter term, increased support w i l l be required.

G. Integrated Farming Systems Involving Mulching and Zero Tillage Techniques

11.41' I f we consider the increasing shortages of labor on the land, and the fact that many developmnt schemes must be s i t ed on marginal s o i l areas, the small fanner involved i n comnodity plantation or forestry operations w i l l need to use eff icient and s o i l conserving methods for production of h is food crops. In this respect, the zero t i l lage and hit ~ a f i work being carried out a t IITA wi l l repay attention.

11.42 The work of Wijewardene and h is c o l l e a p s on mulch t i l l age and zero t i l l age systems (90) has demonstrated clearly the great advantage of these techniques for food production in the humid tropics. Properly used, they can eliminate s o i l erosion, increase crop yields and also the area a man can cultivate and his income. More work is required t o develop methods of weed control that the small f a m r can use without sk i l led advice, and a detailed assessment of the econcnnics of the new systems is required in order to determine how quickly they are l ike ly to move into f i e ld practice.

11.43 The Unit Farm that the Ins t i tu te is studvinn can be direct ly related t o the integrated farm/plantation operation.' 1; the l a t t e r , the farm optimally w i l l be s i t ed in an area that offers opportunity for culti- vat ion of hydromrphic valley bottoms with r ice and G h i a p a l . , e t c . , together with uplands where yams, cocoyams, plantains, malze and other crops can be grown, with t ree crops s i t ed on the highest slopes (akin to the model proposed by Ball). Work by IITA shows an almost doubling of income under these conditions using improved practices and zero t i l lage techniques (78).

11.44 Whether the zero t i l lage techniques can be u t i l ized for intercropping between the rows of a t ree crop has not yet been tested, but th is is certainly an opportunity that should be explored. Both small and large- scale equipment is available, and well-proven techniques exis t for maize and soya bean. Further work on minimum t i l l age techniques for food crops is being carried out a t CATIE in Costa Rica, and the whole subject is reviewed currently in a monograph being published by the Weed Science Society of America.

XII. NDES ON A VISIT TO ?HE UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON (Se~tember 2 7-October 2 . 19791

A. Introduction

12.01 This visit provided an opportunity to see three large State-owned plantation developmnt agencies, and compare the i r situations and policies. CAMDEV, with 14,000 hectares of rubber and 16,000 hectares of o i l palm, and SOCAPALM, with some 9,000 hectares of o i l palm, are s i t ed in a developed and well-populated area i n the west, around Victoria and Douala. HEVECAM, with 4,200 hectares of imnature rubber, is located near Kribi, in the undeveloped south-westem region of Cameroon.

12 .02 Both CAMaEV and SOCAPAM are developing outgmwers' programs, but HEVECAM is stil l in the establishment phase and so not involved in such activity. All face problems of local shortages of labor and food, and the i r different responses to th is situation are relevant to rural development problems i n general.

12 .03 C A W is an estate complex run on traditional l ines. Both rubber and o i l palm are grown in monoculture w i t h leguminous creeping covers in the inter-row areas. Similar policies w i l l be conducted in the outgmwer program when th is becomes established.

12.04 With the attractions of Douala a t near hand, the Corporation has diff icul ty in maintaining a satisfactory labor force, and to improve th is situation estate accomodation is being upgraded and land s e t aside o I provide fwd, o r "chop" farms for the labor. Each plot w i l l be 25 m and labor w i l l be supplied w i t h planting material. An additional area is also being s e t aside for production by the estate of yams, cocoyams and plantains for sale t o the labor, on credit .

12.05 Some traditional f w d f a m in the Victoria area were inspected. The soi l s were of volcanic origin, deep and f e r t i l e , and were supporting a diversity of crops : groundnuts, maize, cassava, yams, cocoyams and plantains, w i t h a minor t ree component.

12.06 Ch the estate i t s e l f , 80 ha of pepper have been established, in monoculture, taking advantage of the good s o i l conditions. In Asia, pepper would form a valued i t e m in the smallholder's cropping pattern, and although there appeared to be no tradition of such cultivation in the f a m that were seen, th is could be a useful innovation for the area.

12.07 SOCAPALM produces only o i l palm. It maintains a policy of monoculture using leguminous creeping ground cover plants.

12.08 SOGWALM has had an outgrower program for two years now, but with a target area of 1,200 ha by 1980, progress has been somewhat slow (Table 34) .

Table 34: SOCAPALM OUTGROWER PWGRAM, 1977/79

Location Year No. of outgrowers Area planted enrolled (hectares)

Dibombari 1977/78 36 (financed by FED) 1978/79 71

Ese ka

Edea 1978/79 4 8

Total

12.09 In developing this outgrowerst program, the smallholder section of SOCAPALM is meeting a number of problems. They are finding d i f f icu l ty in enrolling adequate numbers of outgrowers to meet the i r schedule within the designated 25 km of the palm factory; potential outgrowers are wary of growing cultivated, as compared with wild, palm and would l i k e to wait on the results obtained by neighbors before committing themselves; cultivation by villages of other cash crops such as cocoa reduces the i r enthusiasm for the o i l palm. h reover , the average age of local smallholders is increasing, and this is a disincentive t o the adoption of new ideas as well as of additional areas to be cultivated.

12.10 A further major problem has been the policy of proscribing in ter - cropping with food crops in the early years of o i l palm establishment. This policy has two main adverse effects: the outgrower must cultivate a greater t o t a l area t o support both mnoculture o i l palm and h is traditional food crops, and t h i s can exceed his physical resources. Also, the policy dis- places his wife from her accustomed role of food cropping in between the main crop; cases were quoted of groundnuts and cassava planted by the wife having to be destroyed in order to gain approval by the Scheme's inspectors.

12 .ll Fur themre , in those smallholdings inspected the sown legminous covers have not succeeded, but have becom dominated by aggressive stands of grass and other weeds as in SOCP9ALM's main plantings. Villagers have queried

the value of sowing Pueraria seed a t 350 CFAF per kilogram and 2,100-3,500 CFAF per hectare in place of established food cmps. A compromise solution has been offered by the smallholder section of SOCAPALM, t o the ef fec t that c u l t i - vation of Bambara gromdnuts, groundnuts, cowpea, yams, pineapple and maize, but not cassava, plantains or cocoyams, should be permitted in the inter-row areas, provided tha t they are res t r ic ted to a three meter wide band between the palm rows, and tha t f e r t i l i z e r is applied to both o i l palm and food crop.

12.12 I t is unfortunate that in the Edea area a t l eas t the problem is compounded by the fact that many of the village outgrowers are s i t ed on very sandy and erosion-susceptible so i l s . The poverty of these so i l s is confirmed by the presence of L co d ium fern and other species indicative of low f e r t i - l i t y , and one cannot e optimistic over the production potential of these P*.

+ 12.13 ?he Nigerian work and eqer ience would suggest that on the bet ter so i l s outgrowers could be permitted t o intercrop with cassava, mize , yams, cocoyams and other traditional food cmps for a s long as the shade permits. Cn the poorer so i l s , a suitable policy would be t o encourage the development of mixed species farms, possibly involving selected o i l palm, but avoiding the wholesale destruction of existing vegetation. Traditional farms in the area were seen to be cultivating cassava, cocoyams, maize, groundnuts, Bambara groundnuts and melons (the l a t t e r for t h e i r seed and also their weed-smothering effect) under thin stands of o i l palm, mango, cocoa, c i t rus , bamboo and other species. Professor Egger, of Heidelberg, has carried out a detailed study of improved cultivation techniques and erosion control in respect of the Lekie-Mbam Agricultural Development Project (91). His report, with Annexes on the work of SODECAO on ecofarming, is very relevant to th i s s i tuat ion, giving valuable c o m n t on t r ee farming systems in West Africa, and also useful data on small f a m r cocoa production.

12.14 HEVECAM provides a rare example of a large monoculture develop- m n t scherne s i t ed in virgin forest and remte from food-producing areas. I t rmt a t t r ac t and sat isfy a large and stable labor force and develop the mans to become self-suff icient in food.

12 -15 HEVECAM1s planting program s tar ted in 1975 with 18 hectares, and with progressively increasing annual programs has now reached a to t a l of 4,200 hectares, with a current labor force of 2,200, 80% of whom are bachelors and less than 25 years old. By 1985, it is eqec ted that a f ina l planted to ta l of 15,000 hectares w i l l have been achieved, involving a p e m e n t labor force of 7,000 paid s ta f f . Together w i t h immediate dependents, some 20,000 people w i l l be resident on the estate , and with peripheral village communities a grand t o t a l of around 30,000/40,000 people could be involved.

12 .16 A t present, some 5% of the labor force corns from the local i ty , 50% comes from west and north-west Cwroon, and 45% from the central area around Yaounde' and places t o its south. The local food supply is inadequate. Instead, food is brought in from areas 200 lan to the north and west of the

estate . ?he labor receives 500 g of r ice per person per day (this being easier to prepare than yams o r cassava) and some corned beef and r ice, together w i t h soya bean o i l , being provided by the UNDP World Food Program during the three t o four years it w i l l take for es ta te food production to be established.

12.17 HEVECAM is preparing to meet t h i s s i tuat ion in a number of ways. In (the f i r s t place, land is being se t aside for food production in the vicini ty of s t a f f quarters. Staff over 25 years old. as being those most l ikely stay on &e es ta te , are each being given parcels oflone-tenth hectare of land on which ta graw food. Cocoyarn planting material is being distributed, m n g other crop species, and a major nursery has been established for the production of selected plantain se ts . This l a t t e r program is under the supenrision of an agronomist from IFRA in France, attached to IRAF in Cameroon.

12.18 HEVECAM is also establishing a 40 hectare t r ia l area in the 1978 clearing, in which to t e s t the possibi l i ty of interplanting food crops in the f i r s t four years a f t e r establishing rubber, then converting to a rubber/cocoa mixed planting. Coconuts are also being experimnted with, but the presence of 'Xribi disease" is necessitating a preliminary testing program with hybrid and dwarf species in an e f fo r t t o identify tolerant material.

12.19 ' The estate is then developing a very positive policy in relation t o the problem it faces. The task w i l l not be easy, for the area eqeriences a ra infa l l of 3,000 mrn per annum and the so i l s are poor, stony and susceptible to erosion. In some areas where there has been severe s o i l disturbance during roading operations, magnesium deficiency symptoms were apparent in the young rubber; there w i l l be a requirement for generous and long-continued f e r t i l i z e r programs for both the rubber and any food crops tha t may be grown. h d e r these conditions one cannot be optimistic over the possibi l i ty of large- scale intercropping. The present policy of mnoculture with leguminous creeping covers g m in the inter-row areas is appropriate, and areas a l - located t o food crops w i l l need careful attention t o produce satisfactory crops over the longer tern.

XIII. NOTES ON A VISIT TO BRAZIL (October 20-November 7, 1979)

A. Introduction

13.01 This v i s i t had two objectives: to participate in the Bank's economic mission t o the Northwest, bndonia (reported on separately), and also more generally to study tree crop systems in the humid tropical zone of Brazil as a h o l e . Because of the distances involved, and because of los t time due t o holidays, only brief visits could be paid to the main research stations involved, and very l i t t l e time was spent on studying local

fanning patterns. Nevertheless, certain points stand out as being particular to Brazil.

13.02 Over the great bulk of its humid tropical zone, Brazilian tree crop agriculture i s a t a very early stage of development. Around the smaller hamesteads one sees a haphazard planting of f ru i t trees and palms, but th i s is nowhere so developed nor as general as the "compound fann" of Asia and Africa. The commodity tree crop situation is dominated by coffee and cocoa, with rubber collected from the wild, supplemented by commercial plantations totalling some 6,000 hectares. There is only one o i l palm plantation of any significance, and the only other important t ree crops are monoculture plantings of eucalyptus and pine species. Coconuts are a subsistence crop in the eastern states, with intercropping generally practised, including pasture with ca t t le in the older plantings.

13.03 The great zone of opportunity in the humid tropical zone is thought to l i e in the Amazonian high forest. Attempts to exploit its potential have led to imnense controversy. Ecologists have stressed the need to protect the forest unti l sufficient knowledge has been gained to permit its rational harvesting on a self-sustaining basis (94, 103). Others have gone ahead and cleared large areas of forest with exploitation concentrating on rice and pasturelcattle production. Expansion of the pastures i s now recognized to have been overdone, with 500,000 hectares of the 2,500,000 hectares to ta l cleared being in an advanced s ta te of degradation and requiring rehabilitation (93) . 13.04 There are suggestions that , instead of exploiting the fragile and little-known Amazonia bel t , development should be concentrated on the 50,000,000 hectares of "cerrado" available in Mato Grosso State and related areas (Goodland, Private Comica t i on ) . This would seem to have considerable merit, for conditions in these areas are bet ter understood and less fragile than in the Amazonian region, and could support very large tree and annual crop production.

13.05 While these arguments continue, colonization schemes are under way in Rondonia and elsewhere, clearing forest and planting coffee, cocoa, rubber and associated crops. In the eastern states there are suggestions for mre extensive planting of o i l palm and the introduction of hybrid coconut plantations.

13.06 This overall situation highlights several weaknesses in Brazilian agriculture. There i s l i t t l e detailed knowledge of the vast botanical resources of the Amazonian region and of how the different species involved may be exploited. In the comdi ty cropping f ie ld there is ample local knowledge on production of coffee and cocoa, but there is as yet insufficient local tradition and technical knowledge on which to base a rapid expansion of the rubber and o i l palm industries.

13.07 In marked contrast to S.E. Asia, there has been no significant contribution by the private sector t o tree crops research. DENPASA, in o i l palm, and the few rubber plantation companies have been able to solve their own local, technical problems, but there has been no opportunity for

this t o have an impact on a national scale. There is no s ignif icant E!NBRAPA program on o i l palm, but fonnal t r i a l s on rubber are being i n i t i a t e d a t Manaus and elsewhere. EMBRAPA work on perennial crop systems a t capit& POCO and other s ta t ions w i l l have l i t t l e pract ical e f fec t in the f ie ld , being designed t o study e n v i r o m n t a l e f fec t s ra ther than actual crop production, and presently is under reirision.

13.08 In regard to the rehabi l i ta t ion of degraded pastures, the subject has not been researched for a lang period, but the Propasto program has produced some i n i t i a l l y promising results. Adilson suggests the use of phosphatic f e r t i l i z e r s , together with less demanding pasture species and be t t e r grazing management (93). Alternatively, he proposes the planting of black pepper, rubber o r cocoa, but on the poorer s o i l s a more l ike ly system of rehabi l i ta t ion might involve the extensive planting of local leguminous t rees and INPA a t Manaus is working in t h i s area.

13.09 As f a r as t r ee crops are concerned, the whole problem is ccm- pounded by a severe shortage Of labor on the land and by the great distances involved, attenuating what technical support may be available fmm O S e a t Mmaus for rubber, from EPLAC a t Itabuna f o r cocoa, and from the different regional EMBRAPA s ta t ions .

B. Coffee and Cocoa

13.10 Both coffee and cocoa are in general planted in monoculture, with ear ly shade provided e i the r by bananas o r young, regenerating forest t rees . Mango, cashew, avocado and c i t ru s are planted as occasional t rees .

13.11 All financing bodies are presently against the interplanting of coffee and cocoa within other perennial crops, fo r instance, rubber. Never- theless, because of twin motivations towards planting rubber and also t o obtaining an ear ly income, some 300 hectares of young rubber have been in te r - p l a t e d with coffee and cocoa a t the INCRA projects a t Ouro Preto and Guajar5 btirim.

13.12 Attempts by EMBRAP.4 t o investigate cropping are under way a t Ouro Preto, with two cocoa under rubber, and the other coffee under

the agmnomy of such mixed f i e l d trials, one involving rubber.

13.13 In the f i r s t experiment, the rubber, clone IAN 873, was planted as budded stumps in February 1977, wfiile the cocoa, clone IMC 67, w a s planted only in January/February 1979, in association with cassava as temporary shade. No legcnninous ground covers were sown, and the area is now covered with a variety of mixed grasses and broad-leaved weeds, i n t e r - spersed with the cassava shade plants . The s o i l , a la tassolo roxo of ba- s i ca l ly reasonable f e r t i l i t y , displays a harsh, compact nature, and growth of both rubber and cocoa is very poor.

13.14 In th i s t r i a l rubber is grown in double rows a t 6 m x 3 m spacing, with cocoa planted a t di f ferent spacings in three and four mws. This trial could have given useful information, but a f t e r its poor start it must be doubted whether any sat isfactory resu l t s can be expected.

13.15 The rubber/coffee t r i a l presents a different picture. Here, the rubber, IAN 717, is gram in double or single rows a t 4 m x 3 m o r 7 m x 3 rn respectively. The coffee, Robusta, Mundo Novo and Catuai Amarelo variet ies , is planted in 2 , 3 and 4 l ines between the double rows of rubber, a t various spaces between the coffee bushes, and between the outside coffee l ine and the rubber l ine. Maintenance is good and both rubber and coffee are growing satisfactorily. Both crops were planted in February/March 1978, and a f i r s t coffee harvest of 40-50 sacks per hectare (40 kg sacks a t 1,000 cruzeiros per sack) is expected in 1980. A great deal of valuable information w i l l be obtained from this experiment.

13.16 In Brazil, rubber presents a disappointing picture. Three factors have perhaps combined to inhibit the development of a vigorous natural rubber industry as has happened elsewhere. The traditional supply of cheap "jungle" rubber; the ravages of Micro clus ulei suffered by the few commercial plan- + tations in the eastern s ta tes ; an theunattractiveness of long-term investment i n rubber plantations compared with investment in other sectors.

13.17 This combination has led to a situation where Brazil 's to ta l production of 120,000 tons f a l l s short of self-sufficiency by som 150,000 tons, and to the establishment of a Government PROBOR I program calling for 21,000 hectares of rubber planting, and PflL>BOR I1 program for 50,000 hectares, revis- ed dmnwards from an original goal of 200,000 hectares.

13.18 Plantings are t o be in mnoculture, and EMBRAPA is laying dcwn nurseries a t several centers for the production of approved clonal materials. In some areas recomndations w i l l , howver, have to be speculative for many years yet , as local clone comparison t r i a l s have only recently been l a i d down (e . g . a t Porto Velho and Ouro Preto in Rondonia) . 13.19 Fert i l izer trials in nurseries are under way, but there is a need for f ie ld t r i a l s with young rubber t o determine local f e r t i l i ze r requirements, and these have not yet reached the planning stage. Such trials preferably should be supported by s o i l and leaf analysis survey work, so that the i r results may be extrapolated more easily t o f ie ld conditions.

13.20 Problems an which the gmwers w i l l need technical support include the control of Microcyclus u le i leaf disease (104), and that of the insect pest E-yis - el10 (92) . %, as the trees approach the time of opening for tappmg, growers wi l l require advice on tapping systems, the use of latex yield stimulants, and on the processing and marketing of his rubber.

13.21 To meet this challenge, a central research station for rubber, CNPSe, has been established a t M a u s , supported by the extension work of EMBRATER. Their f ie ld programs involve t r i a l s on associations of rubber with pepper, guaranz and pasture, with the pepper combination looking promising. The overall act ivi t ies of OPSe have been well chronicled by Templeton (111) and Paardekmper (110) and will not be reiterated here. Rather, attention w i l l be concentrated on how best th is e f for t may be applied.

13.22 To take RDndonia as an example, this s t a t e has been allocated some 12,000 hectares of rubber plantings under PROBOR I1 program, divided among some 1,000 cultivators. For each of these cultivators to receive one extension v i s i t per annum, EMBRATER w i l l have to maintain two to three f u l l time extension s t a f f in Rondonia, and these w i l l need occasional support from W S e a t Manaus. I f , in addition, local clone camparison, husbandry, f e r t i l i z e r and disease control t r i a l s also need t o established, it might well be wondered whether such a relatively small area of rubber can just i fy the level of technical e f for t that wi l l be required, bearing in mind the distances involved.

13.23 This query faces all the smaller areas of rubber in Brazil and indeed a l l crops grown on a small scale, and must eventually influence planning authorit ies towards the adoption of appropriate solutions for the problem.

13.24 In the case of rubber, the s i tuat ion is dominated by three factors. One is the existence i n the country of llescapell areas that , because of climatic factors, are free fmm Micmorclus disease. In these areas, it seems possible that higher-yielding clones can be used than those bred for Micro clus tolerance; costs w i l l be less and one need for technical support is + remove The second factor is the need to use modern methods for tapping the t ree , particularly to save labor, and the th i rd t o adopt processing methods that wil l supply good quality rubber and latex to .indus t ry.

13.25 In the case of the areas, there appear to be two main zones. One is the s t r i p of land bordering Amazon r ivers , the l1vSrzeas", where within 600 m of the r iver the air movement is such tha t sporulation of Micro clus is minimized. I t has been shown that a variety of high yie 3zii?+ g c ones (including RRIM and PB clones) can be grown in this s t r i p free from the disease (102). These areas t o t a l up t o som 2,000,000 hectares and would be suitable for smallholder development, with easy access t o markets via the rivers.

13.26 The other "escape" areas are those such as Rondonia, parts of Mato Grosso and Sgo Paulo s t a t e s , among others, where the presence of a significant dry season breaks the disease cycle and permits normal growth of the rubber. There would seem to be a strong case for concentration of rubber i n these areas, and indeed it is understood that Michelin propose to establish a 10,000 hectare plantation in Mato Gmsso, with plans to extend to 30,000 hectares i f the "escape" proves to be real i ty .

13.27 In this l a t t e r context, there is a need t o consider whether national production targets are to be met by a continuation of smallholder production plus that from major industrial plantations, o r whether there is any case for the establishment by them of nucleus plantations associated with smallholder outgrowers. In such associations, the nucleus plantation would act as a base from which EMBRAFA and EMBRATER could conduct the i r technical assistance programs, while the outgrowers could s e l l the i r rubber, e i ther as latex o r as coagulum, to the estate for central processing. Such associations would seem particularly appropriate to the Brazilian scene, where the problem of distance emphasizes the need for concentration of e f for t .

13.28 To complete the picture with regard to Micro clus disease, it & is now accepted that control w i t h chemical fungici , app l e e i ther from the a i r or by fogging machines, is practicable (106) . A number of estates in Salvador are using the techniques with success, bringing the yield of the i r plantings up t o over 1,000 kg per hectare. Another technique used to minimize the ravages of Microcyclus is t o top bud a high-yielding trunk w i t h a disease-resistant canopy, say of Hevea auciflora. This is being done on a limited scale, but the c o n s e q u e Z e h p w t h is limiting use of the technique. On many grounds it would seem preferable to plant rubber in the "escape" areas, rather than plant in the existing areas and necessarily adopt the routine use of these techniques.

13.29 With regard to the exploitation of the rubber t ree, traditionally this has been done by tapping native t rees and producing bolachas of crude rubber. There has been s m work done on yield stimulation on native trees (107) and on the production of pressed sheet rubber (108) ; but to develop an industry capable of producing the quality of rubber required for modem industries, a t a cost that competes with synthetic rubber, w i l l require much more ef for t .

D. O i l Palm

U .30 Only one significant o i l palm planting exists in Brazil, that of DENPASA just outside ~elgm. This originally was established by SUDATVI in association with IRHO as advisers, with f i r s t plantings i n 1968. By 1974, when DENPAS4 was formed following agreement between SUDAM and HVA Ltd., plantings had gxwwn t o 1,500 ha and current plans are t o expand this area to 5,000 ha by 1982.

13.31 The plantation is on a poor, sandy s o i l with low nutrient s tatus but good drainage characteris t i c s . The average annual ra infa l l over 1968/78 was 3,400 mn, evenly distributed through the year (Table 35). This factor, coupled with regular NPWg and B f e r t i l i z e r application gives good growth and yields. , In the fourth year a f t e r planting, estimates are for 3 tons ffb/ha, r is ing to 1 2 , 16 and 20 tonsha in the following three years. Some pollination problems are encountered, because of the ex- cessively wet conditions a t some times of the year, and some f r u i t abortion has been noticed, possibly because of nutrient s t ress . These problems are expected to be overcome.

13.32 DENPASA is a productive plantation, which suggests tha t in the Belgm area a t leas t , o i l palm could offer an opportunity fo r large-scale diversification. Plans have indeed been formulated from time t o time for very ambitious schemes, but several points w i l l need to be taken into account before any could be undertaken with confidence.

13.33 In the f i r s t place, there is no tradition of o i l palm c u l t i - vation, and any development of the crop w i l l require the diffusion of technical "how-how", and an expensive training program for the labor force. This need is highlighted by DENPASA's experience with a group of smallholder o u t p w e r s established a t the time of the original plantings.

13.34 These outgrower plantings total led several hundred hectares, yet pract.ically no f r u i t is being obtained from them. They are s i t ed some 25-50 la away from the plantation, on poor s o i l , and apparently are neglected. The growers themselves are highly independent, and have l i t t l e interchange with the plantation.

13.35 O i l palm has recently been declared suitable as a crop for re- afforestation, but in the absence of any stipulation regarding the establishment of satisfactory processing f a c i l i t i e s t h i s could give r i s e to more problems than profi ts .

13.36 Ch DENPASA, the palm is grown in monoculture, together with ground cover of Pueraria gbaseoloides. In view of the poor s o i l conditions this appears the mst satisfactory system, from both the management and agroncmic points of view.

13.37 While o i l palm certainly presents a possible major opportunity for those areas in Brazil with a well-distributed ra infa l l , care would be needed in its development. Planting would have t o be done in association with a central , nuclear plantation, with a firm agreement between outgrowers and the plantation, covering technical assistance, the supply of good planting material, and sale of f r u i t t o the central factory. Such systems are working in Africa and S.E. Asia, and with proper and detailed preparation could play a par t in Brazil.

13.38 One crucially important point in the establishment of any o i l palm industry w i l l be the supply of satisfactory planting material. A t present, much of the existing plaiitings are based on IRHO material from West Africa, but new plantings now also include selected material from S .E. Asia. The continued supply of such material would have to be guaranteed for any project to be successful. A recent newspaper a r t i c l e , suggesting on very slim grounds that local supplies of inproved material already exis t and can eliminate the need for importations, may be symptom- a t i c of the problems that could ar ise i n th i s direction (99).

E. Indigenous Tree C r o ~ S ~ e c i e s

13.39 In general, in Brazil there is l i t t l e detailed howledge of the indigenous tree species that may be of economic value. Loureiro e t al. (105), for example, quote that in a l l of Hileia there are some 4,000 tree species, with only 1,674 catalogued, representing 642 genuses and 1 1 4 families. Of the 1,674 hown species, only about 30 are exploited commercially for timber, with 20 dominating the market. Goodland e t a l . (103) quote some of the species thought to be important economically,andArkcoll (Private Communication) c i t e s smallholders as glawing pupunha, ingz, mango, guava, banana, quaqu, tqereb5, jenipapo and mari around the i r houses, and collecting fruits of tucuma, sorva, castanha, b u r i t i and inga' from the wild. Native p a t a 6 was exploited for o i l in Terra Santa in the past, while andi- roma and cumaru are also used for o i l (some of these local nams are identified in Goodland e t a l . (103) and also in a l is t of species being tested for seed germina-y EhiBRAPA. There is , however,

an awareness that the botanical richness of the forests demand and among candidates for early commercialization are the Brazil nut ( ~ e r t h o l e t t i a excelsa) , the yaran6 (Paullinia c ana -mica and P. 5 -- var. sorbilis),aba~u palm (Altalia s eciosa, O r 1 a martiana Ba b d r . , and 0. Oleifera Barrett) an-pup palm Bactris as1 aes o r Guilelma gasipaes) . * 7-7 13.40 The Brazil nut. Traditionally collected wild from the forest, with an annual harvest of some 20,000 tons, the Brazil nut is a valued product. However, clearing of the forest i n locations rich in the species is producing a decline in the crop, and attempts are under way to establish commercial plantings. Work by EMBRAPA has shown that bud-grafted trees can come into flowering a t four and a half years a f t e r planting, with harvesting of nuts a t s i x years, compared with perhaps fifteen to sixteen years for native, seedling trees. Some small plantings of these trees nuw ex i s t , and in its CPATU-1 experiment a t Belgm, EMBRAPA is studying its association with cocoa, pepper and guaranz. A l v i m (94) comments that a t 15 m x 15 m, the t ree gives excessive shade for cocoa, but i n due course a satisfactory method of growing these two crops together is l ikely to be achieved.

13.41 Guarana'. This is a scandent shrub that may reach some 4 m in height and bears quantities of f r u i t used in the preparation of sof t drinks. The f ru i t contains caffeine, and expression of its juices produces a re- freshing drink. Dried products are also available for reconstitution as a soft drink.

13.42 Normally, the cmp is planted a t about 400 plants per hectare, and yield estimates vary from 350 kg of fruits per hectare in the fourth year of planting, r is ing to 700 kg per hectare in the f i f t h year, for e f - f icient f a m r s , to a maximum of 150 kg per hectare for a poorer f a m r with limited resources (97) . 13.43 In 1972, there was a to ta l production of guarana' f r u i t of about 137 tons, equivalent to perhaps 350 to 400 hectares of the cwp. Further to the introduction of a law governing the level of natural guaran: in f r u i t juices, it is estimated that by 1980 th is area may grow to between 1,000 to 3,200 hectares, depending q o n the yield level assumed (100). There is also optimism that export markets for the drink may be generated, and fo r the Japanese market alone it is estimated that some 6,500 t o 7,000 hectares of the crop will be required (98).

13.44 While these estimates for future production should only be regarded as speculative, they do indicate that a specialized, small market exists for the crop. EMBRAPA has demonstrated that intercropping w i t h r ice and cassava is possible (101) and currently a t the CPATU stat ion a t Belgm there are further experiments under way with guaranz in association with both annual and perennial crops. A t the UEPAE station a t Manaus, there is a large program of work under way, testing methods of intercropping and also of association with passion fruit on an espaliar system.

13.45 The guaranii finds a local market in the preparation of fresh f ru i t drinks, but it is noteworthy that for the big Brazilian bottled drinks market the brewing companies, Brahrna and Antarctica, are developing the i r own plantations. These markets are now out of reach of the smallholder.

13.46 The baba~u palm. ?his palm is a prominent feature in Amazonia, wherever forest has been cleared. The f r u i t i s hard and resis tant to f i r e , and palm seedlings spring up in a l l cleared areas. l'hey produce heavy racems of large nuts with kernels producing o i l of commercial value, while the husk can be processed to give a high quality charcoal.

13.47 l'he palm is exploited commercially in Cearg and in Go&, but it i s not an easy undertaking. The nut is extremely hard and d i f f icu l t t o open, and a t present this is done largely by hand. Moreover, collection on an industrial basis from the present wild stands w i l l not be easy, and there are doubts whether it can ever be exploited on the large scale.

13.48 However, the baba~u palm i s only one of many palms of the Amazon forest (109) of which some are already exploited loCally. The most important of these, and one with possibly a major future, is the pupunha palm ( G u i l i e h a s i aes (H. B.K.) L.H. Bailey, syn., Bactris gasipaes ,(H.B .K.) , peach palm or pe %+ j i aye palm) . 13.49 l'he pupunha palm. The pupunha palm occurs naturally over a very large area o t the American tropics. I t is exploited for its f ru i t s , and also for i ts growing shoot for "palmitost', for use in salads. In Brazil this crop is receiving a t ten t io~l from the INPA stat ion a t bianaus.

13.50 The crop has been e q l o i t e d for many years, particularly by the small f a m r s along the tfviirzeas" o r r iver banks of the Amazonian region. Here it has been found tha t near Manaus selection has been for an o i ly f r u i t , while further up the r iver the dr ie r , m r e starchy f ru i t s have been preferred. l'his resul ts in an enomus variation of selected types; palms have been found with over 70 bunches per palm, and f r u i t with 50% o i l content and 14% protein (96), giving the possibi l i ty of c o m r c i a l o i l extraction t o leave a starchy flour with over 20% protein.

13.51 INPA a t h a u s now has a number of emeriments under way with th is crop, Incidental up t o one pay a v is i

in particular i n association with bregd f r u i t (~rtocarpus incisa . 4 ly , it is worth noting that the l a s t mentioned species can yie ton of f r u i t per t ree per annum; s t a f f a t the s tat ion hope t o t to S.E. Asia i n 1980, to collect gennplasm material for study.

F. Agro-Forestry

13.52 Some experience has been gained i n agro-forestry a t the J a r i developmnt schem (J. Palmer, Private Communication) . In p1.antation of Pinus caribea var. hondurensis, the pine w a s planted a t 4 x 2.5 m to allow Wg-f grass between the rows, and adequate space for ca t t l e to graze. L i t t l e damage occurred when c a t t l e were put in as early as s ix

months a f t e r planting, but unfortunately the habit of the local ca t t le mn to use "stampede techniques" leads to considerable damage by trampling.

13.53 I t is evidently not possible t o graze ca t t l e in plantations of Gmelina arborea because they ea t the bark. However, this may be turned to advantag-e informal t r i a l s have shown that bullocks in s t a l l s can gain as much weight from a diet composed largely of fresh-milled h e l i n a bark as i n pasture under pine. This is a further indication of the potential for growing cat t le in association with perennial crops: feeding them off grass and vegetable wastes such as Gwlina bark, banana stems, waste cassava and cocoa pods for example.

13.54 Indigenous tree species t r i a l s have existed a t Cur&-Una (near Santare'm) and a t Reserva IXldte for many years, and a t Km 60 since 1973. INPA a t Manaus currently is working with the leguminous, closed forest

Pithecolobium racernosum, Dinizia excelsa, and are slow gmwers. Dipteryx odoratais

with the pronuslng tlmber species Cedrelinga catenaefonnis , and others.

13.55 In any attempt to establish timber species on the degraded pastures of the Amazon, the tmpica l pines and eucalyptus would be prominent, and the following indigenous species should be tested: Cecropia sp., Didpopanax morotofxi, Jacaranda copaia and Schizolobium amazonlcum. Other potentially useful legume species are Acacia sp. , specially A. man i u m from Queensland, Calliandra spp. from Central America, Cassia %T%ii-India and Sesbania grandiflora from S. and S.E. Asia (J.=r, Private Communication) . 13.56 IBDF's regulations permit intercropping, but it is believed that very few of the re-afforestation companies a t present take advantage of the possibili ty.

m. NOTES CN A VISIT TO COSTA RICA (November 8-13, 1979)

A. Introduction . -

14.01 Costa Rica is a country of small fanners, and of the perennial tree crops coffee is the most important, with some 80,000 hectares planted on 32,000 "fincas", the majority being of less than 10 hectares in size. Cocoa is also imporant, and CATIE maintains large germplasm collections of both crops, together with active breeding programs.

14.02 There are plans to establish 2,500 hectares of hybrid and dwarf coconuts i n addition to the existing area of local variet ies , and also of 40,000 hectares of o i l palm. There i s interest in the peach o r pejibaye palm, and a national plan to increase vegetable o i l pmduction includes, in addition to the o i l palm, development of the castor o i l , sunflower, gmund- nut and soya bean crops.

14.03 01 t h i s short visit it w a s only possible to v i s i t CATIE a t Turrialba, and the Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Costa Rica in S& Jose'. Useful information was gained on work concerned with t ree crop systems that is of general application t o the humid tropics.

B. CATIE

14 .04 CATIE is a non-profit making ins t i tu t ion having a special relationship with IICA of San JOG, of which it was formerly a part . In October 1977, CATIE b e a m the first "Associated Insti tute ' ' in the "Program on the Use and Management of Natural Resources", one of the three main subject areas of the UNU of Tokyo (112). As par t of the agreement then signed, UMJ pledged funding fo r the development of a multi-purpose research and demonstration area where t radi t ional agro - fores t r y systems could be qual i ta t ively and quantitatively studied (115).

14.05 lko i t e m from the longer t e n o f work o f CATIE are of in te res t t o the present study -- the "taungyatt t r i a l s and the La hbntana experiment on multiple crop associations.

14 .06 Taun a trials. Since 1962, CATIE (119) has studied the management and economcs + o taungya establishment of forest species. Their work shows that production of a-food crop during the first &e o r two years of t r ee establishment can offset substantially the costs of re-afforestation, par t icular ly i f f e r t i l i z e r s are not used and i f high value annual crops are grown (Tables 36, 37 and 38).

14.07 These exqerirnents have been carefully carr ied out and give much useful data concerning tree/crop/soil inter-relationships, but because of the scale of operation there must be doubt on the extent t o which the economic data can be of pract ical application t o the f ie ld . In this respect, the paper by Vega (130) on taungya in Surinam is possibly of more value. He concludes tha t , indeed, the growing of food crops i n the ear ly years of establishment is of real value, but distinguishes between schems run t o improve the l iving standards of the rura l fanner, w i t h the l a t t e r owning the food crops, and those run under the close control of a s t a t e service with the family acting purely as paid workers; the l a t t e r being the more economically sat isfactory al ternat ive.

14.08 La Mmtana experiment. This is a m j o r and complex experiment, very reminiscent o t CPATU-1 and 2 experiments i n Be&, Brazil. I t aims t o compare agricultural system commonly used in Costa Rica, involving both perennial and annual crops, and using both sc i en t i f i c and economic studies t o determine how systems m y be optimized.

14 .09 Cropping systems compared are :

1. Maize followed by maize and beans. 2 . Maize followed by maize and sweet potato. 3. Maize and sweet potato followed by beans and sweet potato. 4. Plantains w i t h cassava and maize.

5. Sugar cane. 6. Pasture with laurel (Cordia alliodora) . 7. Pasture with poro (E-a poeppigiana) . 8. Pasture. 9. Coffee with laurel, plantains and poro.

10. Coffee with poro and beans. 11. Cocoa with laurel, plantains, gandul (Cajanus cajan] and maize. 1 2 . Cocoa with poro, plantains, gandul and maize. 13. Cassava followed by cassava with maize. 14 . Laurel with maize and beans. 15. Maize, hand weeded. 16. Maize, chemically weeded. 17. Natural regeneration. 18. k i z e followed by no- t i l l maize.

Plot sizes range from 8 x 1 0 m for the smaller crops to 18 x 20 m for the perennials.

14.10 Thb experiment is s i ted on a level patch of uniform s o i l , and w i l l give good indications of the effect of the different cropping systems on s o i l conditions. Whether i t w i l l give real ly useful economic data nuit be seriously questioned. I t is extremely d i f f icul t to produce f i e ld conditions in small plots: edge effects are large, and while grclwth habits of the plants may not be much affected, microclimatic effects due t o wind and insolation w i l l d iffer appreciably; it is vir tual ly impossible t o extra- polate the costs of weeding, pruning, harvesting and other operations in small plots to f ie ld conditions; the pasture plots will have no animal interaction, so important in determining productivity; and so on.

14.11 This experiment should be complemented with production -oriented, large-scale f ie ld studies of the more promising systems, on a rider of s o i l types, for it t o become meaningful t o the f a m r and t o the planner.

1 4 . 1 2 The La Ebntana experiment is , however, being supported indirectly by the "La Suizal' project being developed in CATIE1s Program of Natural Renewable Resources under the UNU agreement. This project involves a study of traditional agro-forestry practices in the La Suiza d i s t r i c t , near Turri- alba, and aims to improve land use by encouraging tree planting with and without crops or pasture (115, 1 2 7) . 14.13 Prominent among the systems being studied is the traditional practice of growing cocoa and particularly coffee in association with the legminous tree 'poro" (Ji hrina oe i iana as a law storey shade and mulch-providing tree, toge %-w?-) e r mt t e naturally regenerating timber species laurel (Cordia alliodora) . 14 .14 Caturra, and other short-growing varieties of coffee, are normally planted a t around 7,000 to 8,000 plants per hectare, with t a l l e r growing variet ies , such as &do NOW, a t between 3,000 and 4,000 plants per hectare. The "porn" shade trees are planted a t about 200 trees per hectare with "laurel" occurring as self-sown trees a t densities of up to 300 trees per hectare. This combination proves highly compatible : the "poro" is

pruned twice a year, a t the time of flowering and a t coffee maturation, with the slashed branches and leaves returning up to 80 kg nitrogen per hectare per pruning (125). The "laurel" is a fast-growing species, s e l f pruning and naturally forms a s t ra ight t d with a n a m w , open crown. I t is thus not heavily shading, but w i l l offer strong root competition t o the coffee; on the other hand, it is a valuable timber species, and e s t i - mates of the value of production in typical stands range from $654 per hectare per mum in coffee (119) to $1,000 per hectare per mum in cocoa grown on the Atlantic Coast (122). The t rees are generally cut in small numbers as the farmer requires, e i ther for sa le , or for construction purposes on h is CIWI-I property.

14.15 Early data from the La Suiza program show that the "pro" trees can greatly reduce s o i l erosion in coffee plantations, but that the "laurelfl a t densities of above 100 mature t rees per hectare can depress significantly coffee yields. I t is suggested tha t the high value of the "laurel" offsets th i s loss, but some longer-tern data are needed before defini te conclusions can be drawn (112).

14.16 CATIEts Program of Natural Renewable Resources is also looking a t other t ree crops. The guava (Psidium ava i s found to be of value in pasture situations, offering vaZi iZZ v irewood as well as shade for ca t t l e and food for animal, poultry or hman consumtion. The rmitite (Acris tus arborescens itab; vucca e l e hanti es) ,* madero neg-& (Gliricidia s'- - 4 r i n ; p r o be r tG&iTj%Zdkas living fence posts, and can be useful in checking the s o i l s l q i n g connnon on the unstable slopes of the La Suiza area (12 7) . 14.17 Among other items of in teres t in CATIEts work are observations on the value of Alnus acuminata as a firewood and timber-pmducing species in pastures of -gh=country (118). This is complemnted by Fournier 's study (121) showing tha t Alnus 'orullensis could be a valuable t ree crop when grown alongside tracks -h m co ee p antations , of part icular applicabili ty to monoculture coffee where objections might be raised t o planting within the coffee i t s e l f .

14.18 The Spanish Cedar (Cedrela sp.) is a valued timber species in Costa Rica, and Ford (120) r e c m s occurrence and growth from two s i t e s , one planted and one of natural regeneration. He estimated that the trees gave gross incoms of $358-$581 per hectare per mum, and although no data are available on their effect on coffee yield, he concludes that the i r cultivation represents a valuable diversification of land use.

14.19 Another point of particular interest is the recording of pejibaye palm a . of c o m n occurrence in coffee/Erythrina associations (124). Like the laurel , t h i s palm grows t a l l and throws a limited shade, and might be considered as more appropriate to multiple crop associations as is the coconut. Interest in the plant, however, is beginning to extend f a r beyond the coffee plantation.

14.20 I:: an a r t i c l e by D. Stone (126) it is said tha t there are two d is t inc t Amerindian cultures: one dependent on maize for i ts staple food, and the other on the pejibaye palm. The l a t t e r group l ive in the humid tropics, and workers in Costa Rica seem well on the way to confirming the importance of this crop.

14.21 The pejibaye palm is indigenous to the ent i re humid tropical zone of Central and Latin America. A great range of genotypes exis t , producing f r u i t with varying levels of starch, protein, o i l and vitamins, while from basal side shoots can be obtained the '~a lmi tos" o r palm heart used principally in salads. The wood i s of value for parquet work and the production of canes, fishing rods, e tc .

14.22 Work on the pejibaye palm is being financed from the diver- s i f ica t ion funds of ASBANA. the banana comerative. sustaining D r . J. Mora Urpi and a d l team a t t& University o f * C ~ s t a g c a , San JO;~, together w i t h off icers from the Ministry of Agriculture working a t the Los Diamantes Research Station, Cuapiles.

14.23 An experimental s tat ion exclusively for work with the palm has been established a t Los Diamantes, and over the l a s t three years a germplasm collection has been established involving more than 250 selections -- mustly from Costa Rica, but some from P a n h , Peru, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador . 14.24 Work is stil l a t the early development stage, but a knowledge of the mechanism of pollination is n w available (128) and breeding work for selected qualit ies is being ini t ia ted. Already, however, it i s apparent tha t the crop has major commercial possibi l i t ies , with local and export markets for both main and by-products:

i. Fruit

Starch, high in protein (more than 20% in some selections) and vitamins, for both human and animal foodstuffs.

Production of cocktail '%ocasl' and sweets.

O i l (up t o 50% in some selections has been noted in Brazil).

Pollen, apiculture.

ii. Palmitos

Salads, fresh and canned.

Soups, mayonnaise.

Dried and flaked for breakfast food, cocktail, snacks, e tc .

iii. Wood - Parquet, fishing rods, canes, perhaps pulp and paper production.

14.25 There are some 300 hectares of small plantations in commercial production, with 200 hectares more being planted. There are plans to establish 1,000-2,000 hectares of the crop with small fanners, and finance has been provided for two processing plants canning palmitos for export.

14.26 The husbandry of the crop is being studied a t Los Diamantes. Spacing distances when planting for f r u i t are 5 x 5 m (460 palms per hectare) and for palmitos 1.5 x 1.5 m (5,130 palms per hectare) . The small f a m r can go for both by planting a t 1.5 x 1.5 m, and thinning down t o 4.5 x 4.5 m a t two to three years a f t e r planting, a f t e r taking one or two crops of palmitos. High nitrogen fe r t i l i ze r s are used for palmito production, and nitrogen and potassium for f r u i t .

14.27 A t the CATIE research s tat ion, palms of 15 years old were seen. These were approximately 20 m tall, and harvesting of the f ru i t s using long-handled knives was an arduous task. However, trials a t Los Diamantes show that when palms have become too t a l l for easy harvesting, the main s t e m can be fel led and a small crop taken from the f i r s t year's regeneration, with a f u l l crop in the second. Obviously, with staggered fel l ing a plantation can be kept in continuous cropping for many years.

14.28 This highlights a major advantage of the pejibaye palm, when considered as a potential staple food and commodity crop for the tropics. I t can be sown direct ly into uncultivated ground, i f necessary, and can be kept in continuous production without any cultivation a t a l l . This is of major importance when compared with maize, for example, particularly t o the small fanners; i f the early results on production by this palm can be confirmd, and enhanced by selection of high yielding material, then a major s tep forward in food production in the tropics wi l l have been achieved.

14.29 Z m r a (132) quotes conservative costs of production, as follows :

i. Production of pejibaye for f r u i t :

n 4,613.40 colons Y 2 1,684.35 Y3 1,940.50 Y4 3,040.50

Yield in Y4 of 13.67 tons/ha a t 1,102.5 colons/ton = 15,000 colons/ha. . (Urpi reports 35 tons/ha f r u i t from unselected material in the seventh year a f t e r planting).

ii. Production of pejibaye for palmitos:

12,502 .50 colons (cost of plants) (43.6% of total)

9,213.30

Yield in Y2 of 3,300 palmitos/ha a t 6 colonslunit = 19,800 colons/ha.

I f the f a rmr buys seed and prepares the young plants himself, the above figures would be considerably improved.

14.30 Of course, cultivation of th i s crop w i l l present problems as with a l l others. Vargas and Vi lq lana (129) quote the presence of MDnilia, Gra h i m and-~eratoc stis diseases- on the f ru i t s , with Pesta-

A t r i c h * and Ph t hthora species on the l o t i o i s , cos aere a, & A s m the hmt showed * e presence of a toxin that appears to stunt the gmwth of swine, but it is believed that a l l these problems w i l l be amenable to proper husbandry and managerent.

14.31 Mixed plantings of pej ibaye palm with coffee and bananas were seen around Turrialba, but the feeling a t the University is that monoculture w i l l become the preferred practice.

D. bcadamia Nuts (hkcadamia integrifol ia and - M. tetraphylla) .- . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .

14.32 The Macadamia nut is of Australian origin and has found its major exploitation in Hawai i , and to a lesser extent in California. It requires good s o i l conditions, a minimum rainfal l of around 1,150 m per annm and temperatures ranging between 18" and 2g°C -- somewhat similar t o conditions required for Arab ica coffee . 14.33 There is a growing interest in the crop i n Costa Rica, and near Turrialba one plantation of pung plants spaced a t about 1 0 x 6 m, and interplanted w i t h coffee, was inspected. Growth seemed good, but as there is l i t t l e local experience with the crop it must be regarded with caution a t th is stage. With the wide spacing required for the crop, and f i r s t harvestings only a t six to seven years a f t e r planting, interplanting with a food crop is indicated. Whether the interplanting of coffee with the nuts w i l l provide a satisfactory permanent association remains to be seen.

14.34 Further details of this crop in Costa Rica can be found in a paper by Carnacho (116) and in the Crop Manual.

E. General

14 .35 In addition to those crops mentioned in the Introduction, there are two other crops of minor interest . Achiote , Anatto or Bixa (Bixa orellana), a s m a l l bush g m for its flowers which contain a colorant of major use in the food industry, and the jojoba nut (Simnondsia chinensis , grown in the dr ier areas of Costa Rica for its o i l and wax. k d a v e small areas of the l a t t e r in production, and adaptation trials are under way with the Ministry of Agriculture.

XV. NOTES ON A VISIT TO GUATFiMALA (November 13-16, 1979)

A. Introduction

15.01 Guatemala has a population of 6,400,000 people, approximately two-thirds of whom live in the rural sector. Eighty-seven percent of the fa= take up only 18% of the fanned land, and 90% of a l l farm units are of e i ther insufficient s ize o r quality to support a family. With a moun- tainous topography and variable climate across the country, agriculture is diverse, ranging from temperate cropping in the altiplano region t o typical tropical systems in the high-rainfall lowland areas.

15.02 There is considerable population pressure on the land in the altiplano regions, with som 0.5 hectares per family. There are plans to diversify agriculture in th i s area, with extension of the apple, peach and plum tree crops among others. Additionally, there is a plan (Proyecto 520-T-026) ,supported by the AID program, to move a large n u h e r of these people into the FRJ (Franca Transversal del Norte), a humid, lowland tropical area in the north of the country. For f u l l detai ls of the agricultural sector the reader is referred to the Agricultural Sector kmorandum on Guatemala, January 1978, prepared by the Bank.

15.03 On th i s short v i s i t , only brief ca l l s could be made on the relevant organizations in Guatemala City, supplerented by a v i s i t t o a coffee "fincat'. The information obtained is detailed below.

B. ICTA (Institute de Ciencia v Tecnoloeia A d c o l a s l

15.04 This Inst i tute is concerned almost completely with and pasture, and as such could contribute l i t t l e to the tree c According to Ing. Ortez, the Technical Director, it is attempt apples, peaches; plums and other temperate crops in the a l t i p l A detailed account of its structure and policies is available

annual crops :rops study. ing to develop an0 region. in the paper

by Fumagalli and Waugh (137) .

C . INTA (Ins t i t u t o Nacional de Trans fomciGn Agraria)

15.05 This Inst i tute is responsible fo r both the FTN project and also the lesser crops involved in the country's diversification program. The Director of Proyecto 520-T-026, Ing. Agr. Estrada, s tated that this project l i e s in an area of high ra infa l l and poor so i l s . Plans are to s e t t l e people in four main centers, with a to ta l area of 43,600 hectares. Families are t o receive 9 hectares each, and overall organization is to be on a cooperative bas is (1 36) . 15 .06 Among the diversification crops are cashew (138) , macadamia nuts, cocoa, rubber, pepper, ginger, anatto, cardamom and cloves. While ICTA has links with CUT and C I W , it lacks 'bow-how" on these crops, and would welcome assistance. In view of the s imilar i ty of this crop l is t with those being developed in Sr i Lanka, the l a t t e r country would seem an appropriate source.

15.07 The situation with regard to cardamm is of interest , in that the local Association of Cardamom Producers is claiming that the world supply may be in excess of demand. Production in Guatemala over the years 1972/77 inkreased from 645 kg t o 3,662 kg, and the i r hope is that dem&d can be stimulated, without having recourse to a production quota system (134) .

15.08 Coffee is the most important t ree crop in Guatemala, with 20% of the crop land planted to coffee, and accounting for 30% of the nation's export earnings. ANAC9FE is responsible for technical support of the industry, and also for some of the diversification crops, including o i l palm, macadamia and ci t rus (under Ing. Agr. Velasquez).

15.09 A short visit w a s paid to a coffee "fincaw in company with two ANACAFE agronomists. Evidently a program of rehabilitation of old plantings is under way, supported by ANACAFE, with young plants established between the rows of old bushes, rather than complete renovation w i t h clearing and replanting. A herbicide trial was in hand in the "finca", necessary i n view of increasing cost of labor, together with a trial comparing a number of coffee rust-resistant varieties.

15.10 These rust-resistant varieties were as follows:

T5269 - Catimor T2700 - BA16 T2914 - S12 KAFFA T2710 - S6 CIOICCIE T3097 - S17 IRGALEbl 1H217 - Geisha x H66 T2722 - Geisha T2717 - KP423 1H210 - KP423 x Geisha

An a r t i c l e on the Catirnor variety appears in the k y issue of "Anacafe'", the Association journal (135) and f i e l d work is detailed in the ANACME'S research program 038) .

15.11 The young bushes in this l a t t e r experiment were shaded with inter-row plantings of pigeon pea (Cajanus ca an), but evidently th i s crop is not used for food. In general, - l+ t e mature coffee would have benefitted fmm more control. E thrina was c o r n in hedgerows, but w a s not planted in the coffee, shade elng provided by mixed species including legumes and some Grevillia.

+ 15.12 ANACcZFE is responsible f o r o i l palm in the country. A t present some 400 hectares are in production, with an additional 1,000 hectares coming into y ie ld shortly and a fur ther 1,000 hectares jus t planted. O i l palm plantings are in the range 40-200 hectares, and in areas of approximately 2,000 m ra in fa l l per anmm and a- marked three-month dry period are giving yields of around 14 tons f fb per hectare. An eventual t o t a l of 6,000 hectares is contemplated, and small mills of 4-5 tons f fb per hour capacity are being established for local processing.

15.13 There is solrre rubber in Guatemala organized by a Rubber Asso- c ia t ion, and clonal collections ex is t . Recently a group o f technicians v is i ted Malaysia.

E . General

15.14 The impression gained on t h i s visit was tha t Guatemala has a wide ranging diversification program in hand, but that its technical resources w i l l have t o be b u i l t up t o provide adequate support for all the different crops. The general s i tuat ion was discussed with Ing. Spi ra l l i s , Vice Minister of the Elinistry of Agriculture. A national plan is in preparation and should be of considerable in te res t .

XVI . NOTES ON A VISIT TO 'IHE COCONUT INDUSTRY BOARD, KINGS'IXN, JAhN CA (November 19 , 19 79)

Introduction

16.01 The Coconut Industry Board of Jamaica ex is t s to promote the in te res t s of the coconut industry, encourage the production of coconuts and regulate the purchase, sa les and exportation of coconuts. I t is responsible for technical support of the industry and fo r administration of the coconut replanting subsidy scheme, and derives its finance from a cess on a l l coconut production.

16.02 The Board finances a l l its own general breeding and agronomic work, but receives i r~ternat ional assistance in i ts major program on the "lethal yellow" disease, in the form of a technical team from the Br i t i sh Overseas Development Authority and assistance from U.SAID. Other technical work includes f i e l d t r i a l s on palm density, intercropping systems, ferti.9 lizer use, weed control, pest and disease control.

16.03 . For a shor t review of problems facing the Board i n respect of the production of coconuts and copra, and the local vegetable o i l market as a whole, the reader is referred t o the 1978 Report of the Board (141).

16.04 QI this visit it was not possible t o v i s i t plantings in the f ie ld , but data on intercropping were obtained that usefully complement tha t obtained from Asia in par t icu la r .

Planting Densities

16.05 The density comanly in use by Jamaican farmers for Malaysian dwarfs is 114 palms pe r acre. In the S/4 Pera experiment, comparing planting distances fo r Malaysian dwarfs and 'MYJAM' hybrids W l a y s i a n dwarfs x Jamaican t a l l s ) , the number of nuts per acre with dwarfs increased with increasing planting density, up t o 141 palms p e r acre, y ie lds f a l l i ng o f f a t 178 palms p e r acre (Table 39). The Pera s i t e is not completely typical of Jamaican conditions, as it receives a higher than normal level of sun- l i g h t . Nevertheless, the Board (140) report increasing evidence for ra is ing the planting density for dwarfs, decreasing planting distances from 2 1 f t t r iangular (114 t rees per acre) to 20 f t (123 t rees per acre) o r t o 19 f t (136 per acre) .

16.06 For the MAYJAM hybrids, although there were s ignif icant decreases in the number of bunches, flowers and nuts per t r ee at higher densi t ies , there was no s ignif icant difference in yield per acre. There were, however, large increases in t d height and crown diameter with greater density. For example, from the density normally accepted by farmers for hybrids of about 76 palms p e r acre to a density of say 114 palms pe r acre, trunk height increases by 3 f t and cruwn spread by 2 ft. It would appear that a planting density of approximately 76 t r ee s per acre is su i tab le f o r Fl. hybrids.

16 .07 A fur ther experiment compares spacing ranging from 12.5 f t to 21.5 f t along s ingle rows spaced a t 32.5 f t apart , the object being t o t e s t systems sui table fo r contour terrace planting and fo r intercropping. Closer spacing results in l e s s nuts per t r ee but a tendency for more nuts per acre o r per un i t o f row length. The number of nuts per acre per year at spacings of 12.5-16.5 ft averaged 5,930, compared with 5,004 at spacings of 17.5-21.5 f t (Table 40).

C. Intercropping

16.08 Intercropping of coconuts with banana is t rad i t iona l i n Jamaica. Bananas have, however, been shown to cause considerable delay in onset of coconut bearing i f allowed t o shade the cocanuts. Experiment C/T/6 compared several spacing layouts fo r temporary bananas between dwarf coconuts planted a t 114 pdlms per acre. The first year of production for the coconuts was 1976, and the presence of bananas reduced y i e ld from 29 to an average of 1 4 nuts per palm; there were no s ignif icant differences between the d i f fe ren t

banana layouts (Table 41) . However, a t the end of 1976, the bananas had declined and were removed. In 1977, the coconut yields i n the p lo ts which had had bananas recovered and were a s good as the control plots . Indi- cations are that bananas can be grown between young coconut plants without serious detriment t o the coconuts, provided tha t spacings are such tha t the bananas do not shade the young palm.

16.09 Cocoa and coffee a re not widely grown as intercrops in Jamaica, because of the calcareous nature of s o i l s in most of the coconut areas, but there are s i tuat ions where conditions are appropriate. Experiment C/T/7 demonstrates that intercropping bearing coconuts (planted 1967) with cocoa (planted 1971) does not s ignif icant ly reduce coconut yield, yet makes for sharing of maintenance costs (Table 42) . The best cocoa y ie ld was a t the closest spacing w i t h cocoa bushes 5.25 f t spaced along a single row down the coconut inter-row, i . e . 427 cocoa t rees per acre giving an average of 1,016 lb dried cocoa per acre (Table 43) . Average pmduction of cocoa was lowest for Variety 1 (F'A.150 x ICS3) a t the lowest density (19% of expected yield) and highest fo r Variety 3 (PA169 x ICS60) a t the highest density (40% of the expected y ie ld) .

16.10 In Experiment C/T/5, a f t e r intercropping with coffee, no s igni- f icant effects on coconut production had been noted i n the ear ly years of bearing. Stands were 600 coffee bushes and 114 dwarf coconuts per acre, with the coffee separately f e r t i l i z e d (139).

16.11 In general, work i n Jamaica confirms Asian w r k , to the e f fec t t ha t i n t e r c r o ~ ~ i n r r of coconuts with bananas. cocoa and coffee is possible. and indeed of*eco~omic advantage, i f direct-shading of young coc&uts is - avoided and i f both crops receive proper maintenancei Work on Pangola grass (Di i t a r i a decunbens) pasture-under coconut has s h m tha t f e s i - l i z e r use -g-6 m11 enef i t both palms and pasture; Pueraria haseoloides can also provide useful grazing with benefit t o t h e m l e

LiIRLIOGRrlPHY

R c f e r c n c e s a r e q u o t e d by c o u n t r y . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e docuinents have been d e p o s i t e d w i t h t h e T r o p i c a l T r c e C r o p s A d v i s o r ' s O f f i c e . L/

A . THAILAND

1. 'Anon. (1973 1 Annual r e p o r t o f t h e Coconut R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n , Sawi , T h a i l a n d .

2 . Anon. ( 1 3 7 4 ) R e p o r t o n a s u r v e y o f i n t e r c r o p p i n s i n immature r u b b e r . P r e l i m i n a r y T a b l e s . P a r t XI. Cocument No. 4 8 . Rubber R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , H a t Ya i , T h a i l a n d .

3 . FAO/UI*IDP ( 1979) T r a i n i n g o f a d v i s o r y and e x e c u t i v e s t a f f and f d r m e r s f o r t h e r u b b e r i n d u s t r y o f T h a i l z n d . E v a l u a t i o n s t u d y on A g r i c u l t u r a l T r a i n i n g M i s s P n R e p o r t , J an .1979 .

4. P!air, P.K.R., Bavappa, K . V . A . and N e l l i a t . (1975) . I n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g prograrxnes f o r s m a l l - s i z e d c o c o n u t p l a n t a t i o n s . A p a p e r g i v e n a t t h e F o u r t h S e s s i o n o f t h e FA0 T e c h r l i c a l Working P a r t y a n Coconut P r o d u c t i o n , P r o t e c t i o n and P r o c e s s i n g . K i n g s t o n , J a m a i c a , 14-25 Sep tember 1975.

5 . N a i r , P. K . H . , Vcxna R z n c , N e l l i a t , E.V. and Eavappa, K.V. A . (1975) . .

B e n e f i c i a l e f ~ e c t s - o ~ ~ crqp~co~@~li.ntion c f .=scc:~:dt a n d cacao . I n d i a n J. c g r i c . S c i . 45 ( 4 1 , 1t55-171.

6. P r a w i t W~nqsukoll &.ad Gr. Z.K. T~mple to ; , ( 1 9 ? 4 ) . Sweet and g l u t i n g u s coxn a s i n t e r c r o p s o f r u b b e r . Document No. 28 , Rubber R e s e a r c h C e n t r e .

7. P r a w i t Wongsuko:l, Anan Kongthon a n d Templetor: , J . K . (1974) . Yields o f c o r n , s o y a b e a n , mung b e a n a n d s u n f l o w e r i n p l o t s i n S o u t h T h a i l a n d . Document No. 24 , Rubber R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , H a t Ya i , T h a i l a n d .

8. P r a w i t Wongsuko2, W a i w i t Booranatham and D r . J . K . Templeton (1975) . G i r t h g rowth OF r u b b e r and i n t e r i o r manaqsnent . Document No. 56 , Rubber R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , Hat Y a i . T h a i l a n d .

9. S p e i r s Andrew, 3. (1974) . Towards a n u n d e r s t a n d i ~ q o f r u b b e r s m a l l h o l d e r s . A soc io-economic s u r v e y o f some r u b b e r v i l l a q e s i n T h a i l a n d . Document No. 42 , Rubber R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , H a t Y a i , T h a i l a n d .

1/ A s u b s t a n t i a l nunbe r o f a d d i t i o n a l background documents i s a l s o d e p o s i t e d - i n t h e same o f f i c e .

10. Templeton, J.K. (1974). Proposals for intercropping in accelerated programme of rubber replanting. Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

11. Vries, David Th.De (1974). Optimum intercropping patterns for rubber- small- holders. EconomFcs Division, Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

B. MALAYSIA

12. Abraham, P.D., Anthony, J.L., Gomez, J.B., Sivakumaran, S., and Ismail Harshim. (1980) Towards automated micro tapping of Hevea. Proc.

RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

13. Abraham, P.D. et a1 (1974). Soya bean (Glvcine max. L. ) An intercrop for smallholders. Report pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

14. Abraham, P.D. 1978. Improving the productivityof --- rubber - small -- farmers, Paper given at Regional Conf. on Technology for Rural Development. Kuala Lumpur, 24-29 April 1978.

15. Ang, B.B. and Shepherd R. (1978). Cocoa breeding and selection investigations at - Prang Besar research station. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

16. Anon. (1973). Intercroppinq with annual crops in immature rubber. Planters Bulletin, 126, 5-92.

17. Ariffin bin Mohd. Nor, Chan H.Y. and Chuah A.S.(1980). A comparative study of investments in four major perennial crops. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

18. Black Jamieson J. and Hubbard, F.T.P. (1977). Two methods of replantins rubber with cocoa - a preliminary appreciation. 6 pp.,J. Perak Planters' Association Journal.

19. Blencowe, J.W. and Templeton, J.K. (1970). Establishinq cocoa under rubber, Proc. Conf. Crop Diversification in Malaysia, 286-298. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

20. Chan E. (1978) . Growth and early yield performance of Malavan Dwarf x Tall coconut hybrids on the coastal clays of Peninsular Malaysia, 10pp. Proc. 1978. Int. Conf.

--

on Cocoa and Coconuts, Kuala Lumpur.

21. Chandapillai, M.M. and Yeon Kheng Hoe. (1970). Effect of spacins,fertilisers and soil type on the yield of qroundnut. Proc. Conf. Crop Diversification in Malaysia, 1969, 36-45. Pub' by Inc. Soc. of Planters Kuala Lumpur.

22. Cheng Yu Wei et a1 (13751 . Maize (- L.) An intercrop for smallholders. Report pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

23. Denamany, G., Md. Sharif bin Ahmed and Nasrun bin Baginda Hamid, (1978). Coconut intercropping systems in Peninsular Malaysia. lapp,Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconut. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

24. Gray, B.S. (1979). Major technical issues in future development of tree crops in Malaysia. Internal Bank memorandum, 19 June, llpp.

25. Guha, M.M. and Soong Ngin Kwi,(1970). Suitability and prospects of rubber-growing soils for intercropping. Proc. Conf. Diversification in Malaysia, 1969. 15-24. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

26. Ibrahim bin Mat Taib and Liu Sin, (1980) . Chemical weed control in legume cover management. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

27. ~amaludin Lamin and Perumal, S. (1980) . Settlement and development of FELDA settlers. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf, 1979.

28. Kamil Nik Faud bin Mohd. and Ahmad Mohd. Sharif bin. (1978) . The socio-economic status of coconut smallholder^ in Lower Perak. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub, by the Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

29. Khera, H.S. (1978) . The future of the coconut industry. 12pp. Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts, Kuala Lumpur.

30. Khoo Kay Thye,Chew Poh Soon and Eddie Chew.(1978). Fertiliser responses of cocoa on coastal clay soils in Peninsular Malaysia. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lunpur.

31. Kwiton Jong, Stone B.C. and Soepadmo, E. (1973). M a l a y s i a n an underexploited qenetic reservoir of edible fruit tree species. Proc. Symposium on Biological Resources and National Development. Pub. by Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, pp 113-121.

32. Lee Aik Kien. (1978). Performance of some cocoa hybrids under exposed conditions. 14pp.Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

33. Lee Aik Kien and Hanafi B. Kasbi. (1978). Jntercropping cocoa and oil wlm. 14 pp. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. . Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

34. Lim, K.P. and Chai, W. (1978). Cocoa-coconuts and oil palm as possible alternatives -- -. - -- - --

in replacing old rubber - an economic appraisal. 15pp. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

35. Lim Son Ching, Ho Ching Yee and Yoon Pooi Kong. (1973) Economics of maximising early yields and shorteg immaturity. 15pp. Proc. %I14 Planters Conf. 1973, pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

36. Mainstone, B.J. and Thong, K.C. (1978). Fertiliser responses over 6 years fr-m plantinq of monocrop cocoa on a Bungar Seni soil. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

37. Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia (1978). The coconut smallholder in Peninsular Malaysia. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. 1Opp. pub. by the Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

38. Mohd. Nor bin Abdullah, (1980). Dynamic Rubber Production Policy - its iaplications for the smallhdlder sector. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

39. Mohd. Tamin Yeop Dato, (1979) . Investment opportunities in horticultaral cSQps. 14pp. Conf. on Investment Opportunities in Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur.

40. Mustapha Juman and Gan Teng. (19801. FELCRA's experience in group farming. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

41. Nik Fuad bin Mohd.Kami1 and Mohd. Sharif bin Ahmad.(1978L The socio-economic status of coconut smallholders in Lower Perak. llpp. Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts, Kuala Lumpur.

42. Paardekooper E.C. , and Newall, W. ( 1977) . Considerations of density in H e v s plantations. Planter. , Kuala Lumpur. 53, 143-156.

43. Pushparajah, E. and Chellapah, K. (1969). Manuring of rubber in relation to covers. J. Rubb. Res. Inst. Malaya, 21, 126-139.

44. Pushparajah, E. and Tan See Yeak. (1970). Tapioca as an intercrop in rubber. Proc. Conf. Crop Diversification in Malaysia,l969, 128-138. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

45. Shepherd, R. Gilbert, J.P.. and Cowling, P.G.(1977'). Aspects of cocoa cultivation undey coconu-t on two estates in Peninsular Malaysia. Planter , Kuala L ~ m p ~ r , 53, 99-117.

46. Teoh, C.H., Adham Abdullah and Reid, W.M.(1980) Critical aspects of legume establishment and- maintenance. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

47. Thong, K.C. amd Ng W.L. (1979). Growth and nutrient composition of mon_ocrop cocoa plants on inland Malaysian soils. 2 5 ~ ~ . Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coccnuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

48. Ti Teon Chuan(1977) The Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Experimental Group Farming Scheme. A paper given at the Seminar on The Experience and Potential for Group Farming in Asia, sponsored by Agric. Dev. Council, USA. August 1977, Singapore.

49. Turner, P.D. and Shepherd, R. (1978) . Cocoa diseases in Malaysia and Indonesia, their present and potential importance. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

50. Wan Mohd, bin Wan Embong and Chee Yan Kuan,(1976). Maximising returns in immature rubber smallholdings. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1976. Pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

51. Wan Mohd. b i n Wan Embong, (1977) . U t i l i s a t i o n o f ground vege ta t ion i n rubber p l a n t a t i o n f o r animal r e a r i n g . Proc. R R I M P l a n t e r s Conf. 1977, 265-281. Pub. by R R I M , Kuala Lumpur.

52. Watson, G.A. (1957). Cover p l a n t s i n rubber c u l t i v a t i o n . J. Rubb. R e s . I n s t . Malaya, 15, 2-18.

53. Yaacob Tunku Mansur and St.Clair-George M.A. (1979). O i l palm, rubbe& cocoa - a comparative out look. 8pp. Proc. 1979 Conf. on Investment Oppor tun i t i e s i n Agr icu l ture . Kuala Lumpur.

C. INDONESIA

54. Bevan J. (1979) . C r e d i t . 358- I1JD North Sumatra Smallholders Development P r o j e c t - F u l l Superv is ion Report. 25 June.

55. Brandt Van M. , Siahan, M.M. and Sunarwidi (19761. Prospec ts of i n t e r c r o p p i n s younq rubber wi th e y e r a r i a thuhq&ma f o r fodder and proposa ls f o r f u r t h e r research . B.P.P.M. Medan, Indonesia.

56. Hutagalung, 0. and Lubis S j . (1972) In te rcroppinq i n younq o i l palm. Bull . B.P.P.M. Vol. 111, No. 1, March, 33-38.

57. Matondang Habib and Rangkuti Rahman, A. (1978). In te rcroppinq with upland r i c e i n smallholder p r o j e c t . B u l l BPP Medan, 9 ( 3 ) , 115-124.

58. Newall, W. and Reed, M.E.D. (1976). An e s t ima te of t h e c o s t s of p r e p a r i n s advanced p l a n t i n g ma te r i a l i n t h e nursery . Note No. 120 of UNDP/FAO P r o j e c t I N S / 7 2 / m .

59. Reed, M.E.D. and Sumana, (1976) . Economic a s p e c t s o f i n t e r c r o p p i n s i n immature rubber and o i l palm i n Indones ia . Note No. 131 of t h e UNDP/FAO P r o j e c t INS/72/004.

60. SmithI R.W. (1979). Cloves i n Indonesia: Socio-economic desk s tudy. ODM, UK Report, 5 July,3pp,

61. Sunarwidi and Hutagalung, 0. (1978). Residual e f f e c t s of i n t e r c r o p manurinq on rubber qrowth. Bull . BPP Medan, 9 ( 4 ) , 185-191.

62. Surya tna , E.S. and McIntosh, J.L. (1976) . Food c rops p roduc t i on and c o n t r o l o f

on s m a l l farms. Paper g iven a t t h e workshop on Alang-Alang (Imperata c y l i n d r i c a ) . Bogor, Indones ia .

63. T e r r a , G.J.A. Mixed-garden h o r t i c u l t u r e i n Java . Malayan Journa l o f T r o p i c a l Geography.

64. Toxopeus H i l l e and Hutomo T r i . (1975) . Bulk cacao i n Indones ia and t h e p roduc t ion o f improved p l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l . AGP/INS/72/004. Working P a w 35. FAO. Medan.

65. Wessel, M. (1973) . Cacao c u l t i v a t i o n and cacao resear .ch i n Nor th Sumatra. A G P / I N S / ~ ~ / ~ ~ ~ working Paper 20. FA0 Medan .

66. Yogyakarta Rura l Development P r o j e c t . ~ e c h n i c a l Development - Homeqardens, Bank Working Paper C-4 ( a ) .

D . SRI LANKA

Papers on I' I n t e r c ropp inq w i t h coconut" ; "Prornisinq p a s t u r e and fodder srasses f o r I .n te rc roppins w i th coconut"; Agrostology and In t e r c ropp ing D iv i s i ons o f t h e Coconut Research I n s t i t u t e o f S r i Lanka.

68. Ariyaratnam E.A. (1978). Deve lo~ment o f cocoa i n d u s t r y i n Matale , Kuruneqala and Kandy Districts. A F e a s i b i l i t y Report p repared f o r the A g r i c u l t u r a l . D i v e r s i f i c a t i o a Div i s ion . Min i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e and Lands, S r i Lanka.

69. McConnell, D . J . and Dharmapala K.A.E. (1978). The fo res t -garden farms o f Kandy. A paper based on Farm Management Report No. 7 , Economic S t r u c t u r e of Kandyan Forest-Garden Farms. FA0 A g r i c u l t u r a l D i v e r s i f i c a t i o n P r o j e c t , Peraden iya , S r i Lanka. 1978.

70. Santhirasegaram, N.(1966). I n t e r c r o p p i n g o f coconu= y&kh s p e c i a l s i ~ i f i c a n c e t o food produc t ion . Seminar on Tea and Coconut I n d u s t r i e s - Low Country Produc ts Assoc i a t i on . 8pp.

E. IVOW COAST

71. Anon. (1978). Rapport Annuel, I.F.C.C. Centre de Recherches de ~ S t e dlIvoire, 111, 2, p.42.

72. Anon. (1978) . Rapport du Premier Semestre, 1.R.C.A.sQrie Agronomie Physiologie,pp. 10-17,

73. Melis, Rob. (1978) . Rapport de stage effectug h 1'IRCA sur 1es cultures intercalaires. 15 July 1977 - 15 January 1978 pp.68. University of Waginingen Dept. of tropical plant technology.

74. SATbl3C1, (1975). Cultures vivrieres en association avec le cafgier ou le cacaoyer.

F. NIGERIA

75. Adeyoyu, S.K.(1976) Land tenure problems and tropical forestry development. FA0 committee on Forest Development in the Tropics, Fourth Session. Rome,Italy. 15-20 November.

76. Ball, J.B. (1977.). Taunqya in Southern Nigeria. Project Working Document NIR/71/546 - 14. UNDP/FAO Forest Development Project. Federal Department of Forestry, Lagos,35pp.

77. Igbozurike Matthias U. (1971). Ecological balance in tropical-g_riculture. The Geographical Review, 61 (IV),519-529.

78. IITA, (1979) Research Highlights 1978. pub.by IITA,pp.53 et seg.

79. Johnson, E.J. and Johnson, T.J. (1975). Economic plants in a rural Nigerian market. Economic Botany, 30, 375-381.

80. Juo, A.S.R. and Lal, R. (1979). Nutrient profile in a tropical alfisol under conventional and no-till systems. Soil Sci. 127, 3, 168-173.

81. Lagemann, J. Flinn, J.C., Okigbo, B.N. and Moorman, F.R.( 1979. Root crop/oil palm farming systems. A case study from Eastern Nigeria. Paper prepared for IITA Friday seminar, 10 October, 31pp. plus tables and references.

82. Lal, R.( 1976 1 . So i l erosion prob&l.ms on an a l f i s o l i n Western Nigeria and t h e i r control . IITA Monograph No.1.

83. NIFOR. Mixed cropping. 3rd Annual Report. p33.

84. Okafor, J.C. ( 1975) . The place of wild gncult ivated f r u i t s and vegetables i n Nigerian d i e t . National Seminar on F r u i t s and Vegetables, Ibadan, 13-17 October. 25pp.

85. Okafor, J.C.(1978). Edible indigenous woody plan% i n t he r u r a l economy of the Nigerian f o r e s t zone. Invi ted paper prepared for t he MAB Workshop on S t a t e of Knowledge on the Nigerian Rainforest Ecosystem. 19pp. p lus t ab l e s and references.

86. Okafor, J .C.(1978). Development of f o r e s t t r e e crops fo r food suppl ies ' i n Nigeria. Forest Ecol. Manage. 1, 235-247.

87 . Okigbo, B.N. and Greenland, D.J.(1976). I n t e r c r o ~ p i n q systems i n t rop ica l_ f r i ca . Multiple Cropping. ASA Special Number No. 27, 63-101.

88. Okigbo, B .N . (1977). Neglected p lan t s of ho r t i cu l t u r a l and nu t r i t i ona l importance i n t r a d i t i o n a l farming systems of t r op i ca l Africa. Acta Hort. 53, 131-149.

89. Sparnaaij , L.D. (1957). Mixed cropping i n o i l palm cu l t i va t i on . WAIFOR, 111. N 0 . 7 ~ 2 4 4 .

90. Wijewardene, R. (1978). Systems and energy i n t r op i ca l farming. 16pp. Paper No. 78-1511, presented a t the 1978 Winter Meeting, A m e r . Soc. Agric. Engineers, I l l i n o i s .

G. CAMEROON

91. Egger, E. Kurt(1978). Lekie-Mbam Agricultural Development Project . Study on improved cu l t iva t ion techniques and erosion control . Final r epor t submitted t o the Government of the United Republic of Cameroon.

H . BRAZIL

92. Abreu, J . M . , Cruz, P.F.N. and Smith, G.E.F.( 1979) . ~ b u n d s n c i a sazonal dp mandaravs da s e r i n g u e i r a U p n i i e l l o (LepiQptera: Sphingidae) na Bahia. Revista Theobroma, 9, 1, p. 39.

93. Adilson, E.S.S., F a l e s i , C . I . , Bastas , J. de Verga and ~ e r r e i r a , J.T.N. 4978 I ( ? ) .

P roduc t iv i ty of c u l t i v a t e d p a s t u r e s on low f e r t i l i t y s o i l s i n t h e Amazon of B r a z i l . (Ref. being sought, b u t document depos i ted with t h e Bank).

94. Alvim, de T. Pau lo , (1978) . F l o r e s t a ~mazgnica : ~ q u i l i b r i o e n t r e u t i l i z a & e c o n s e r v a c ~ o . ~ i g n c i a e Cultura, 30(1) , 14. -

95. Alvim de T. Paulo, h 9 7 8 ) . A expansso' da f r o n t e a g r i m l a no B r a s i l . Paper presented a t t h e F i r s t National Seminar on Agr i cu l tu ra l Pol icy . ~ r a s c l i a , 22-25 Nov. 32 pp.

96. Arkcoll , D.B.(1979). Nu t r i en t re-cycl inq a s an al tern_at ive t o s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n . A paper presented to t h e Conference on Ecodevelopment arid Ecofarming. Ber l in Science Foundation, pp. 11.

97. Brandt, S.A., Cas t ro , A.M.G. de,Carmo, D.A.S., Junqueira , M.R.A., Milagre, J .S. , Araujo, I.C. and Costa, J.R.0.(1973).

A. / acao de mercado b r a s i l e i r o de guarana. Manaus, ACAR-Amazonas, 21 pp. ( ~ c A i 3 - ~ i k i e : Estudos d e economia agr<cola do Estado do Amazonas, 1) .

98. Brandt, S.A., Carmo, D.A.S.,Rezende, A.M,,Costa, M.A. da , Ladeira , H.H. and Aad Neto A. (1975). Estudo de mercado po tenc ia l d e guararla' no ~ a p g o . 1975/

1985. Manaus, ACAR-AM, 46 pp. (ACAR. ~ 6 r i e : Estudc de economia agrl'cola do sta ado do Amazonas, 26 ) .

# 99. Cardoso, G. ( 1979) . Perspec t ivas favoraveis para a p r o d u ~ z o d e 61eo de - J o r n a l "Gazeta Mercantil", 21 Sept .

100. ~ o r r s a , M.P.F., Cesar J. and Sto lberg , A.G.Z.( 197ED.. Embrapa fornece s u b f d i o s m r a a c u l t u r a do quaran;, Manaus. Unidade de E X ~ C U ~ ~ O de Pesquisa de h i t o Estadual , 6 pp.

101. EMI3RAPA.(1976) . Sistemas de produpgo pa ra (micro-regizo 10). Manaus, Boletim 2. pp. 44.

102. F a l e s i , I.C. 6976 ) . Condi~ges edgficqasc s e r i n g a i s l oca l i zados ki margens d e r i o s la rgos . ~na-io nacional do se r ingue i r a . p.279-300.

103. Goodland, R., Irwin, H.S. and Tillman, G. (1977). Ecological development for Amazonia. cigncia e Cultura, 30 ( 3 1 , 275-289.

lo4. Holliday, P. 4970 1. South American Leaf Blight (Microcvclus) of Hevea brasiliensis. Phytopathological Papers, No.12. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, England, pp. 31.

105. Loureiro A.A. da Silva, M.F. and Alencar da Cruz, T. (1979) . ~ssencias madeireiras da Amaz2nia. Pub. by INPA/CNP~. p, 8.

106. Mainstone, B.J., McManaman, G. and Begeer, J.J.(1977). Aerial spravinq aqainst South American Leaf Blight of rubber, Planters Bulletin, R.R.I.H. No. 148, January.

107. Moraes, M. F.V. (1978) . ~stimulacako da produ~a'o de latex em serinqais natives.- ~omrnunica~o tkico, No. 02, pub. by EMBRAPA. 8 pp.

+ 108. Moraes, H.F.V. and Concei~ao, H.E. da(L978).

~e/cnica de preparo do CVP em placas finas defumadas . Communicado tgcnico No. 1.pu.b. by EMBRAPA, 15 pp.

109. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.(.1975). Under-exploited tropical plants with promisinq economic value.

110. Paardekooper, E.C. (1978) . Rubber cultivation in Bolivia, UNDP/FAO Bo1/74/031 pp. 21-29.

lllc. Templeton, J.K.(1978), Natural rubber. Organisations and research in producing countries. Pub. by IADS, pp. 84-94.

I. COSTA RICA

112. Beer, J.W., Clarkin, K.L., Salas G. de Las and Glover, N.L.(1979). a . A case studyof t r m aqro-forestry practices

in a wet tropical zone: the "La Suiza" project. A paper prepared for the ~nternational Symposium on "Forest Sciences and Their Contribution to the Development of Tropical America." CONICIT. INTERCIENTIA. SCITEC. 11-17 October, San JOS~, Costa Rica.

113. Budowski, G. (1977) . Agro-forestry in the humid tropics. Report submitted to IDRC by C A T I ~ Costa Rica. 24pp.

114. Budowski, G.(1979). Sistemas asroforestales en America tropical. Paper presented a t the International Symposium on the "Forest Sciences and t h e i r Contribution to the Development of Tropical Artrerica.", October 11-17, San Jose, Costa Rica, 9 pp.

115. Budowski, G.(1979).. Traditional agro-forestry practices in the wet t ropics : the "La Suiza" , c o s t a - ~ i c a , .. . - Case Study. UNU Proposal.

1 Camacho, V.E.(1970). Cultivo de l a macadamia. Presented a t the "Primer Seminario Internacional sabre ~nsesanza de Cultivos." San JOSQ, Costa Rica, 27 Sept. - 30 Oct. 15 PP.

117. Combe, J. ( 1979) ~ d c n i c a s agroforestales p q a 10s trdpicos h6medos: conceptos y perceptivas. Simposio Internacional sobre l a s Ciencias Forestales y su contribucio'n a1 Desarrollo de l a Amgrica m p i c a l , CONICIT-INTER- CIENCIA-SCITEC. 11-17 October, San Josg, Costa Rica.

110. Combe, J.(1979). Alnus acuminata with grazing and mowing pasture: Las Nubes de Coronado, Costa Rica. Proc. Workshop, Agro-forestry Systems in Latin America, Turrialba,

- - Costa Rica, 26-30 March, 199-201.

119. Combe , J. and Gewald, J. Nico. (1979) . Guia de campo de 1'0s ensaps forestales del CATIE en Turrialba, Costa Rica. pp. 378.

120. Ford, L.B. ( 1979) . An estimate of the yield o f Cedxels- L. (Syn. _C..mexicanaRoem.) grown i n association with coffee. Proc. Workshop, Agro-forestry Systems i n Latin America, h u r i a l b a , Costa Rica, 26-30 March, 177-183.

121 . Fournier, Luis A.0. (1979) . ~ i d e r crops ( u s ior-) in coffee plantations i n Costa Rica. ibid. 158-162.

122 . Ge wald, N. and Rosero, P. (1979) . Growth of l au re l ( C o r d i a l in coffee and cacao plantations and pastures in the Atlantic Region of Costa Rica. ibid. 205-208.

123. Hunter, J . R . and Camacho, E.(1.961 ) . observations on permanent mixed croppinq in

the humid tropics. Turrialba, Vol. 11 No. 1, 26-33.

124. Mendez, M . B . ( 1979). Descripci6n de un s i s t e m agriforestal de recuperaci& de suelos en l a zona t ropical h k d a de Costa Rica.

Paper presented a t the 1nterna.tlonal Syoiposium on "Forestry Sciences and Their Contributio.~ to the Develop- ment of Tropical America". 11-17 October, San J O S ~ ,

Costa Rica, 13pp.

125. Molleapaza A. J .E . (1979). ~roduccign de biomasa de poro U2!&hma nneDpiaiana (Walpers) O.F. Cook) y del laurel Gordin

(Ruiz and ~avoq) Oken , associadas con, cafc?. Tesis Mag. Sc. Turrialba, Costa Rica, UCR- - CATIE (Quoted by Combe and Gewald, 1979).

126. Stone, D. La def inicio'n de dos culturas d is t in ta s v i s t a s en l a antropologfa de l a ~me/rica Central. mmenaje a1 D r . Alfonson Cas o. pub. Nuevo Mundo, S .A. ~ g x i c o .

127. Ugalde, A. Luis A. (1979 1. ~esc r ipc ign y evaluacign de l a s prdcticas aqro- forestales en l a cuenca p i lo to de l a Suiza. cant& de Turrialba, UNU-CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.

128. Urpi, J.M. (1979). Consideraciones preliminares sobre e l desarrollode una tgcnica de polinizacio/n contrdada en pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes, H.B.K.). Paper prepared for cooperative programme of work on pejibaye, ASBANA-MAG- UCR. 8 pp.

129. Vargas, E. and Vilaplana, Marcela. Principales enfermedades del pejibaye observadas en Costa Rica. Revista ASBANA, AGO 3, No.7,~. 8/9.

130. Vega, L. (1979). Profit-rnakinq capacities of reqular plantations as compared y$th the a g r o s i 1 v i c u ~ a l model: Surinam. Proc . Workshop, Agro-forestry systems in Latin America, W r i a l b a , Costa Rica, 26-30, March 107-121.

131. Zaffaroni E., Locatelli EmI Shank M. and Burity A.M.,(1975). / ~ n a ( l i s i s econo'mico de sistemas de produccio(n aqrlcola

con &£asis en al ternat ivas de l a b r e o y no laboreo. Paper presented a t the XXIV Annual Meeting of the PCCMCA, San Salvador, E l Salvador, 10-14 July.

132. Zamora, C. Cpstos de producci6n del pejibaye. Revista ASBANA, d o 3, No. 7., p.11.

J. GUATEMALA

133. Anacafe.(1979) . Memoria de Labores. &o cafetelero, 1978-1979. Subgerencia tgcnica: Unidad de investigaciones en cafe<

134. Carlos, 5.5. ( 1979) . De in ter& para 10s productores de cardamno. "~nacaf 6 ", May, 1979, 37-40.

135.Escobed0, Luis M.(1979,). E l Cat imr. La agricultura gana un nuevo aliado en su lucha contra l a roya del cafeto."Anacaf6", May 1979, 30-34.

136. Estrada, . G. (1979) . Guidel ines f o r P ro j ec t 520-T-026. An u n t i t l e d paper given t o GAW and depos i t ed with t h e Bank.

137. Fumagalli A. and Waugh, R.K.(1977). A g r i c u l t u r a l Research i n Guatemala. Presented a t t h e Be l l ag io Conference, October 1977. Be l l ag io - I t a l y . 2 6 p p .

/ 138. Morales, R.H.F.(1979).Alternativa de nuevo y f a c i l e s c u l t i v o s en zonas

t r o p i c a l e s . E l Maranon " ~ n a c a f g ' . June 24-28.

K . JAMAICA

139. Coconut Indus t ry Board, Jamaica, West Indies , (19731. 1 3 t h Report of t h e Research Department, J u l y 1972-June 1973. p .10 p.33.

140. Coconut Indus t ry Board, J m a i c a ( l 9 7 7 ) . 1 7 t h Report o f t h e Research Department (1977).

141. Coconut Indus t ry Board, Zamaica,(1978). 37th Annual Report and Accounts f o r yea r ended 31s t December 1978. -

142. Smith, R.W.(1968). Coconut i n t e r c r o p s o t h e r than cocoa: p r i n c i p l e s of i n t e r c ropp ing i n coconuts w i th p a r t i c u l a r r e f e rence t o bananas and pas tu re . "Ccxoa and coconuts i n Malaya." pub. by Inc . Soc. o f P l a n t e r s , Kuala Lumpur, 87-95.

143. Smith, R.W. (1970). The Malayan Dwarf supercedes t h e Jamaica T a l l coconut. 2. Changes i n farming p r a c t i c e . ~ l g a c j i n e u x , 25e

1 annee, No. 11, 593-598.

144. Smith, R.W. (1972) . The optimum spacing f o r coconuts . Olgagineux, 27e annde, N o . 2, 73-86.

L. THE PHILIPPINES

145. Margate, R.Z.(1978.), In te rcropping s t u d i e s a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s Coconut Authori ty . A paper p re sen ted a t t h e F i f t h Nat ional Coconut Consul ta t ion : C u l t u r a l Management, PCA. Davao Research Centre , Nov. 17-18. 16 pp.

146. Reyes, G.D.(1976), Agr i - s i l v i cu l tu re : a m u l t i p l e u s e ~ _ a l s r n a t i v e . A g r i - s i l v i c u l t u r e , May, 8-10.

Table 2: YIELD PER RAI L/ OF VARIOUS INTERCROPS

Intercrop Number of Yield

Range Holdinss per r a i

Pineapples - f r u i t Bananas - bunches Upland r i c e - kg paddy Peanuts - kg unshelled nuts Maize - cobs Sweet potatoes - kg

1/ 1 r a i = 0.16 ha -

Table 3: YIELDS OF SWEET AND GLUTINOUS CORN

Yields per hectare Yields per r a i Crop & Stat ion planted of rubber Mean weight

kg No. cobs No. cobs per cob

A- (000) (000) ( gm) kg

Sweet Corn Khlong Thorn 5,120 59.7 6 15 7.2 85 RRCT 2 I 660 33.4 319 4 .O 80 Surat Thani 8,000 66.8 960 8 .O 120

Glutinous Corn Khlong Thorn 5,120 58.9 6 20 7.1 87 RIU3T 2,270 29.5 272 3.5 78 Tarn Toe 4,210 49.4 5 05 5.9 86

Table 4: MAIZE - YIELDS OF FRESH COBS (kg / ra i )

Table 5: MAIZE - COB WEIGHT AND NUMBER

Tarn Toe Va r i e ty Khlong mean Var i e ty Actua l a t 90% RRCT Khuntule exclud-

s t a n d i n g K.T.

Sweet Corns

HS E-2 1 ,681 2,360 880 1,618 1,823 HS E-1 1 ,459 2,436 678 1,715 1,455 HS 1,656 2,364 431 1 ,891 1 ,391 1,646

S i t e mean 1,599 2,387 663 1 ,741 1,556 1,632

Glut inous Corns

P.G.S. 20 1,579 1,960 428 1,770 1,286 1,672 Khaen-on 1,394 1,496 675 1,715 1,173 1,462 Khao-nyeow 927 1 ,888 399 1,261 1,291 1,480 Tien 1 ,038 1,372 371 1,079 1,336 1 ,263

S i t e mean 1,235 1,679 468 1,456 1,272 1,469

LSD 5% 511 5 11 386 5 88 390

No. cobs /p lan t &an cob weight (g) Va r i e ty

Tarn Toe Khlong Thorn Tarn Toe a l o n g Thorn

Mul t ip le range test 5% a l l s i b s , inc lud- i n g K.T.

1

Sweet Corns HS

Glut inous Corns Khae n-on Tien Khao-nyeow P.G.S. 20

Table 6: SORGHUM - YIELD OF DRY SEED (kg / r a i ) ON ASSLTMED 90% STAND - 1/

Var i e ty Khlong Thorn Khlong Thorn Khunt u l e Khuntule (a ) (b) ( a ) ( b )

Ear ly He g a r i TSP 748 IS84 IS 8719 IS 9278 TSS 1-12 TSS 1-10 TSS 17-1

-- - - - - - -- --- - - - - -

1/ Actual h a r v e s t s t a n d i n b r a c k e t s . -

Table 7: MLTNG BEAN - YIELDS ( kg / r a i ) ON ASSUMED 90% STAND - 1/

V a r i e t y

- - - - --- -

Tarn Toe Khlong Thorn Khuntule Thalang Var ie ty Means

Shiny green 207 ' (83) 86 (55) 253 (34) 35 (43) 145 Rough green 239 (851 136 (55) 171 (51) 129 (47) 168 Black 439 (44) 118 (51) 187 (46) 43 (37) 196 Red (439)2/ (76) 303 (61) 234 (61) 356 (75) (333)

S i t e means (331) 16 1 2 11 141

1/ Actua l s t a n d % a t h a r v e s t i n b r acke t s . - 2 / Rat damage, assumed y i e l d a s o f Black v a r i e t y . -

T a b l e 8: EFFECT OF INTERCROPPING ON R'BBER TREE: GROWTH - EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS

T r e a t - me n t n u m b e r

4

5 1 G r o u n d n u t - 1 G r o u n d n u t U p l a n d Rice I G r o u n d n u t U p l a n d Rice

1 9 7 2 1 9 7 3

M u n g b e a n )

1 - B a m b a r r a )

Mungbean ) B a m b a r r a ) M u n g b e a n - Yam-bean )

1 9 7 4

M u n g b e a n ) ) U p l a n d Rice

G r o u n d n u t )

7 1 S w e e t P o t a t o S w e e t potato S w e e t U p l a n d Rice ( S w e e t C o r n U p l a n d Rice

6

I C o r n

1/ One r o w i n the c e n t e r of each i n t e r - r o w . -

G r o u n d n u t Watermelon

T a b l e 9: EFFECT OF INTERCROPPING ON RUBBER TREE GROWTH - TOTAL TREATMENT INCREMENTS (cm) AS A PERCENTAGE OF LEGUME COVER

T r e a t m e n t

sunf l o w e r ) ) U p l a n d Rice

D w a r f C a s t o r

P e r c e n t a g e G i r t h a t June 1 9 7 4 RRIM 600 GT 1 RRIM 600 GT 1

S u n f l o w e r 1 1 U p l a n d Rice

D w a r f C a s t o r )

Legume cover

I n t e r c r o p No. 4 NO. 5 No. 6 NO. 7

Mean of I n t e r c r o p

N a t u r a l s

N a t u r a l s + P l o u g h i n g

T d l e 101 YEW AND ECONOMIC COXSIDERATIW OF INTEXROPPING I N COCONUTS (1973-74)

N e t r e t u r n Energy Yie ld Gross ~ e t a r e a p e r u n i t e q u i v a l e n t

S c i e n t i f i c Name V a r i e t y a r e a o f o f anuunt o f of h a r v e s t e d I n t a r a o p coconut i n t e r c r o p cOZt of

p r o d u c e h a L/ c u l t i v a t i o n ( m i l l i o n K ---- ( t / h a ) ----- Gal.)

Ele&an: Foot Yam - A m r @ ¶ o ~ a l u s companulatus bed. 12.85 16.06 1.28 10.15

m i h o t u t i l i s s i m a 1.165 10.51 11.90 1.37 16 .SO Cassava

IpomDea b a t a t a s H.42 9.53 13.61 1.00 11.46 Sweet P o t a t o

Dioscorea alata b c a l 12.72 15.90 1.70 17.14 Yam

Diosforsa e s c u l e n t a Local 9.00 11.25 1.29 12.06 L e s s e r Y a m

Coleus b a r b a t u s 9.23 1.83 2.94 Coleus -- bcal 6 .OO

(Chinese Po ta to)

Ginger Z ing iber o f f i c i n a r u m Rio de Zaneiro 11.57 17.80

l/ Hectare gross a r e a o f coconut p l a n t a t i o n . -

Table 11 r TOTAL PRODUCTIVITY OF COMNL? AN3 COCOA I N A FOVR YEAR IUXCD (IFIOPPING mERIF!Q?T

plant wpulation Average y i e l d o f coconut palm Annual i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i v i t y

Treatment - .

p r h e e r e ( n u t s /palr$year) p e r h e c t a r t o v e r t h e pre-experi- Before After mental l e v e l

Coconut Cocoa p l a n t i n g p l a n t i n g Rcspanae Coconut C o a x (dry hans) c o m a mc~a (No. o f n u t s ) (kg]

Coconut a l o n e 175 - 73.25 120.39 47.14 8,249

Coconut and s i n q l e hedge cocoa 175 350 66.50 112.03 45.53 7,932 200

f o c o n u t and double hedge cocoa 175 6 50 50.45 108.95 58.50 10,237 2 75

Table 12: YIELD DXTA DUiUHG 1973-74 OF DIFf'EREWT CIMPS I N AN 0BSERVATIC)NAL TRIAL CR4 MU?LTISTOKEYED CROPPRIG AT CPCRI INITIATED IN 1970

Coconut Cocoa T o t a l y i e l d S t . Gross Yield of n u t s / p a I i i y e a r Nuraber T o t a l nc. o f No. Treatment a r e a 7' re- Average o f two o f of pods pineapple

(m2) pah t r e a t m e n t y e a r s . 1972/73 p l a n t s h a r v e s t e d (kg) average and 1973/74

1 Coconut 6 &cod 1,000 26 57 -92 82.40 7 7 3 10

2 Coconut 6 pinapple 6 c o m a 1,000 20 61.35 87.53 7 5 945 40 2

3 Coconut 5 cocoa 5

pepper 910 1 7 57.50 73.25 6 8 834

4 Coconut 5 cocoa 6

9 20 1 5 i pepper 5 pineapple 50.16 65.79 50 411 192

Table 131 ESTIMATED EXPENSES AND GAINS POR INTERCROPPING COFFEE IN CCCONVTS OVER 1974-78, WITH 6 0 COCONUTS & 480 CODTEE PlANTS

I l a rves t ing , T r e a t u e n t P l a n t i n g P l a n t i n g Weed I n s e c t i - C u l t i v a t i o n , F e r t i l i z e r s p u l p i n g & l i a r v e s t i n g p e r t i l i ~ e r s

Mate r i a l M a t e r i a l C o n t r o l c i d e s v a t e r C n g , e t c f o r c o f f e e h u l l i n g o f c o c o n u t s f o r coconu t s T o t a l C o s t a ........................................... (bahtn)----------------------------------------------------------------------------

C o s t s v i t h c o f f e e 240 960 2,858 4,984 3,618 9,577.20 750 1,459.15 4,536.44 C o f f e e 22,987.20 Coconuts 5,995.59 (No weeding c o s t a l l o - c a t e d t o coconu t s )

No Coffee 960 1.748.05 4,536.44 Coconuts 7,244.49

Number o f Incoue from Y i e l d o f Income from T o t a l IncoIm T r e a t u e n t Net incorm/ ra l

n u t s coconu t s c o f f e e c o f f e e o v e r 4 y e a r s (bah tn ) (kg) ( b a h t s ) (baht61 (bal l ts)

Returns w i t h c o f f e e 8,403 10.509 50.02 2,601.50 C o f f e e 2,601.50 (6,311.36) Coconuts 18,509.00 3,754.02

No Coffee 10,115 22,352 Coconu t s 22,352.00 4,532.25

1/ Las t column g i v e s n e t l o a s o r p r o f i t p e r r a i , a l l o t h e r colwnns g i v e m a t s per 5 r e p l i c a t e s i n t h e exper iment .

Source: 1973 Annual Report o f Coconut Research S t a t i o n , S a v i , Tha i l and .

Table 14: MALAYSIA - ECONOMIC RETURNS FROM CULTIVATION OF GROUNDNUT, MAIZE AND SOYA BEAN PER HECTARE I N SMALLHOLDINGS

Returns - 1/ Unshelled groundnut Maize Soy a be an

Yield 3,348 kg 26,982 cob 1,233 kg

Pr ice 48 c t / k g 4.3 ct/cob 80 c t / k g

Gross income ( w i t h family l abo r ) $1,607.04 $1,160.22 $ 968.00

N e t income (with h i r e d labor) $ 506.45 $ 706.93 $ 406 .OO

- - - -- - - - - - -

1/ Currency - Malaysian $. -

Table 15: MALAYSIA - YIELDS AND RETURNS FROM FOUR VARIETIES OF BANANA FOR TWO YEARS

Variety Yield (kg/ha) Family r e t u r n s p e r ha.

To ta l 1st ha rves t 2nd h a r v e s t over two yea r s

Nangka

B e rang an

Mas

R a s t a l i

Table 16: COST AND REVENUE OF COCOA/OIL PALM INTERCROPPING - 1/

Density/ha Mean Annual Yield - 2/ Cost ($ ) Revenue ($ ) Treat- To ta l T o t a l Net % ments Cocoa O i l Palm Cocoa O i l Palm Cocoa O i l Palm Cost Cocoa O i l Palm Revenue Revenue Prof it

(kg/ha) ( t / h a ) ($1 - 3/ - 4/ ( $ 1 ($ )

1/ Currency - Malaysian $. - 2/ Yields of o i l palm and cocoa a r e based on mean of 1975/77 product ion. - 3/ Cocoa revenue is based on ex-farm p r i c e o f $1.50/kg dry bean, der ived from 20 years (1957-1976) average London spo t -

p r i c e of f382.05/t ( G i l l & Duffus, Cocoa Market Reports 1977) less 10% f r e i g h t and o t h e r t r a d e d i scount , and an ex- change r a t e of $4.36 t o £1.

4/ O i l palm revenue i s based on t h a t used by Paterson (1969) and Harcharan (1976); wi th an assumed o i l e x t r a c t i o n r a t e - of 20% and ex-farm p r i c e o f $333/t, whi le k e r n e l a t 4% f fb and ex-farm p r i c e o f $319/t.

Table 17 , W Y S I A - CCCOHGT SbL4LLHOLOERS' D W F L O P W N T PR[*TEC?' CROP COMPONENT - YIELD ASSUMPTIONS

I C O C O OU~ IevIantlnn I Coconut Iehabllltatrd 1 CO:O~ intercroppln~ t toffee l n t e r c r o ~ ~ i n s I Camhew nut i n t e r c r o ~ ~ i n ~ I H . T . (10% of rehab. area)l WUA rcplantinu I Averanc 45 palu/a= 1 ~ v e r a ~ e 300 mcanda/acre 1 4ver@ge 300 eta~dc/@cre I Average 10 etandr/acrr I rlcul I Plcul 1 Plcul 1 Lbs wet Lbr dry I Plcul Lba dry Ky I Plcula raw Lbs raw I Nura/ copra1 u I nut./ copra/ I Nut./ copra/ ~g I beans/ beans/ ~g dry 1 berriecl bmana coffee/ I k*rn*la/ ~ e r n e ~ . ~

Ymar 1 acre acre copra/ha I acre acre copra/ha 1 acre acre copralha I acre acre boanhlhr 1 acre acre ha I acre acre Lylha

I I I I

I I I I I I (plantlna) I - - 1 - - 1 1.150 4.5 610 1 - I - I

I I I I I I 2 I - - - I - - I 1.150 4.5 670 I - I - I

I I I I \

1 1 1 2,320 9.1 1.360 1 6.525 21.15 3.250 I I

1 I 1 2,320 9.1 1.360 16.525 11.75 3,250 I I

13 oow. 1 2.320 9.1 1.360 I 6,525 11.15 3,250

1.100 660 695 1 2 7 . 0 I

1.250 500 560 I 30.4 1

1.375 580 650 1 34.0 I

1,650 580 650 1 3 6 . 0 I onvard

1.450 580 650 1 I

1.450 580 65U I I

1.450 510 b5U /

3b0 405 1 3.5 465 525 I

405 5 5 1 4.6 615 685 I

655 505 1 6.0 BOO 89 5

455 505 I 1.1 1.025 1.150 onward onvard I onward ooward onward

I I I I I

Note: - I picul - 131.1 lb - 60.45 ka - - I picul 01 copra - 300 M Y * nuts - 255 U . T . nutr - Hat10 wrlghc of dry cocoa t o welght of wet bean. - .40. - Patio wcitht of dry beans to w8lght ui coftee berrles - .lo.

T a b l e 18: MALAYSIA - COCONUT SMALLHOLDERS' DEVELOPMENT PROJECT CROP COMPONENT - ACREAGE OF INTERCROPPING SINCE INCEPTION OF cR/RS (1963)

Year Hlxed Other

Maize Pineapple vegetables Banana Coffee Cashew nut f r u l t s Cocoa Total

Total

Total

Total

Table 19: MEAN HYBRID COCOA PERFORMANCE UNDER EXPOSED CONDITIONS

Hybrid group m a n

No. Yield - 1/ Bean Pod Corrected 2-/ Hybrid groups pro- (kg/ha value conversion y i e l d (kg/ha

genies DBE) (9) index DBE 1 - --

1. Aml x U.A. 3

2. Aml x Trin. 2

3 . Trin . x U.A. a ) Trin. x Na 4 b) Trin. x Pa 5 c) Trin. x Sca 6

4. U.A. x U.A. 3

5 . Sabah S G hybrids 2

1/ Calculated y i e l d based on 30 pods/kg DBE. - 2/ Corrected with r e spec t t o mean pod conversion index. -

T a b l e 20: PROGENY PERFORMANCE I N MALAYSIAN COCOA TRIAL

Location: Bagan Datoh E s t a t e P l an ted : 1968

R e p l i c a t i o n s : 5 P l o t s i z e : 7 2 trees

G i r t h Dry b e a n y i e l d (kg/ha/annum) Pod Bean VSD Canker 8 Y r 1/

v a l u e wgt. i n c i d e n c e i n c i d e n c e (cm) 1st y r 2nd y r 3 r d y r 4 t h y r 5 t h y r 6 t h y r 7 t h y r 1-7 y r ( r a n k ) (g) ( % t r e e s ) ( % t r e e s )

Aml x N a 3 3 ICS 1 6 x Pa 7 ICS 60 x Pa 7 ICS 95 x Pa 7 UIT 1 x Sca 6 UIT 1 x S c a 1 2 UIT 3 x N a 33

Av. T r i n . x UA

Pa 7 n.1. N a 32 n.1. UIT 1 n.1. UIT 2 n.1.

Av. n e a r l e g i t . 27.8 228 858 1 , 0 3 5 1 , 2 6 0 1 ,147 1 , 5 5 9 1 , 6 9 9 1 , 1 1 2 26.2 1 .02 66 7.9

Progeny av . 26.3 224 813 1 , 0 0 1 1 ,229 1 , 1 4 3 1 , 5 3 1 1 , 6 2 3 1 , 0 8 1 27.7 0.95 5 1 6 . 9

1 S.E. 2 - 0 -- -- - - - - - 5 3 0.9 0 .03 6 2 .7

Table 21: FERTILIZER EFFECTS ON COCOA YIELD - SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS FOR MAIN TREAT- MENT BY YEARS - 1973 TO 1976.

Aspect 1973 1974 1975 1976 --------- (kg dry beans/ha/yrl ----------

General mean

No N1 N2 Po Pl

MSD 1/ P = 0.05 - 130 132 171 80

1/ MSD = Minimum s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (P = 0.05) between corresponding - t r e a tmen t s .

Table 22: TOTAL NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT BY MATURE - 1/ COCOA FOR GROWTH AND PRODUCTION

1/ 50-87 months - o l d p l a n t s , producing 1,000 kg dry beans/ha/yr. -

Table 23r AVERAGE IMMATURE PERIODS I N SELECTED FELDA, STATE AND FRINGE ALIENATION SCHEMES, 1970

Type o f Number o f Immature - 1/ C o e f f i c i e n t o f scheme schemes p e r i o d v a r i a t i o n

(y rs l (%)

FELDA 60 6.9 9.8

S t a t e 15 7.8 4.5

Fr inge 4 7 8.1 12 .O

T o t a l 122 7.5 19.6

1/ From f i e l d p l a n t i n g t o commencement o f t app ing . -

Source: Smal lholders Modernization Committee , Report N o . 2 , February 1974: "Reduction o f Immature Pe r iod of Rubber f o r Smal lholders I*.

Table 24: YIELDS. COSTS AN3 NCCMES FROEl INTEafROPP~G I?] Y E XSSOP RREA L/

%turn Total Costs ?lumber t o Net exclul ing Cost of

Crop ar.d Location o f Yield Income Family F a n Famiiy Family Ho1dL.g~ Labor ~r.coue L a h r Labor 2/

(kg/ha) -------- ------- - (Rp/ha) ---- -------------- 1974 Wet Season:

Rice ?/ - NSSOP Babussalam I/

% r e and Yaize NSSOP - Rice

- Maize

a a t u s s a l m - Rice - .-ize t

1975 Dry Seascn:

Xalze - NSSDP Babussalm

Green Gran NSS5P

Yaize and Green Grun .-q-- .r-ar? - .Waiz~ - Green

Sabussalam - :-iaize 487 - G-een Gram 176 39,337 30,267 (16,553) 8,970 46,325

1/ %e f igures r e f e r t o one hectare of Nbber , not t o one hectare of in tercrop. On the NSSDP, ~ r t i c i p a ~ t s - are required t o leave a one-meter s t r i p on e i t h e r s ide o f the rubber rows; i n prac t ice the s t r i g was generally half a meter wide, and s o m e t h s l e s s . I f one-meter s t r i p s are l e f t , the e f f e c t i v e area i ~ t e r - cropped is 75% of the rubber area ( the inter-row dis tance is 8 m t e r s on NSSOP blocks) ; i f +% s t r i p s are only hal f a m t e r , the area intercropped is 87.5% of t ? e rubber area .

;/ Family labor i s value2 a t 300 @/man-day. - ? / A l l r i c e y i e ld s a r e i n kg dry paddy per hectare of d b e r . - 4 / Figures i n 2arenthesis a r e negative. - 5 / aabussalam is a v i l l a - of mainly Javanese people, not a p a r t of +he NSS5P but is +Ae Labut.am Baru rsqe2c:i -

in Kecenatb? Merbau.

Table 25: STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL SMALLHOLDERS FARM - MATALE, KUNUNGALA AND KANDY DISTRICTS I N SRI LANKA

No. of farmers Average no. Average Average no. growing the of t rees number for the species (togeth- (per farmer Per whole e r with cocoa) growing) acre sample 1.

Crop

Coffee

Jak

Coconut

Pepper

Arecanut

Breadfruit

K i t u l

Cloves

Nutmeg

Rubber

Cattle (No. of heads)

1/ Size of sample = 39. -

Table 26: INTERCROPPING - RESULTS 1977

Duration No. days F e r t i l i z a t i o n Crops and v a r i e t i e s Yield of cycle worked Mean

k g / h a ) (days) N P K (unit s/ha)

Maize :

1st cycle: CJB

2nd cycle: TUXPENO (Maize-Maize) 330 104 CSpt-Jan) TUXPENO (Rice-Maize) 1,523 104 (spt- an)

Rice :

1st cycle: IGUAPE-CATETO 2,500 132 (Mar-Jul)

2nd cycle: DOURADO PRECOCE 637 107 (Spt-Dec)

Groundnut:

1st cycle: Local v a r i e t y

2nd cycle: Local v a r i e t y

962 140 (Mar-Aug)

515 145 (Spt-Jan)

Igname :

Dioscorea d a t a 13,120 269 (Mar-Dec) Dioscorea cayenensis 13,458 296 (Mar-Jan)

Manioc :

Local v a r i e t y

P l an ta in Banana:

Local v a r i e t y

23,523 297 (Mar-Jan)

4,640 360 (Mar-Mar)

151 F e r t i l i z e r

15 1 trials

151

136 F e r t i l i z e r t r i a l

1/ The following has been appl ied per p l a n t f o r a dens i ty of 1,024 p lan ts /ha : - - 500 g of dolomite and 200 g of phosphate i n J u l y 1977 - 40 g of urea per month - 120 g of KC1 every two months.

T a b l e 27: ESTIMATE O F THE AGE STRUCTURE O F N I G E R I A ' S FARMERS

( i n the t e x t - p.33)

T a b l e 28: CROPS I N ORDER O F MAGNITUDE BY AREA, GROWN I N PRIVATE TAUNGYA I N SOUTHERN N I G E R I A

( i n the t e x t - p . 34)

T a b l e 29: ESTIMATED Y I E L D S O F AGRICULTURAL CROPS FROM TRADITIONAL AND DEPARTMENTAL TAUNGYA I N SOUTHERN N I G E R I A ( k g / h a crop)

( i n the t ex t - p.35)

Table 30: INTERCROPPING EXPERIMENT I N OIL PALM (EXPERI- MENT 33-1) - YIELD OF FRUIT BUNCHES I N l b / ac

A B C D E Trea t - Two y e a r s ' I n t e r c ropp ing Weed cover Weed cover Leguminous ment i n t e r c ropp ing to exhaus t ion s lashed s l a shed cover

(yams, maize, (yams, maize, r e g u l a r l y once a year Year cowpeas,okro) cassava , coco-

y a m ) ................................ (b) ------------

1945 2,434 2,711 1,991 1 ,961 1,984 1946 4,412 5,340 4,215 2,747 4,262 1947 7,047 7,364 7,049 5,393 6,584 1948 6,520 6,909 7,108 5,178 6,972 1949 7,601 8,688 7,628 6,073 7,363 1950 6,065 4,736 6,009 5,342 6,840 1951 4,418 5,016 3,471 2,948 4,064 1952 5,615 5,992 6,841 5,561 6,496 195 3 10,357 10,196 7,555 7,502 10,302 1954 7,627 7,613 6 ,101 6,269 6,882 1955 8,932 10,738 8,408 9,614 8,493 1956 7,427 8,091 9,482 8,522 9,228

Tot a 1 78,446 83,394 75,858 67,110 79,470

Table 31: INTERCROPPING EXPERIMENT I N OIL PALM (EXPERI- MENT 33-1) - CROP YIELDS I N lb /ac

A B Trea t - Two yea r s ' In t e r c ropp ing t o exhaus t ion ment i n t e r c ropp ing Year Seed yams Seed and Seed yams Seed and Maize Cassava Cocoyam

p l an t ed ware yams p l an t ed ware yams (dry ( t ube r s ) ( t ube r s ) harves ted ha rves t ed q r a in ]

Table 32: INTERCROPPING EXPERIMENT I N OIL PALM (EXPERI- MENT 704-11 - YIELD OF FRUIT BUNCHES I N lb/ac

Control Natural cover In te r cropping Continuous Years L e g d n o u s cover slashed annually every 4 years intercropping

with manuring

Table 33: DATA FROM OIL PALM AND COFFEE EXPERIMENT I N NJALA (SIERRA LEONE) - EXPERIMENT 910-4

Yield of coffee Yield of palm Total

-. (fresh cherry) ( f r u i t bunches) weight Treatment of

(Ib/acre, o r (&/acre, o r produce lblbush/annum) lb/palm/annum) Ilb/acl

A.Pure stand of coffee &

o i l palm. O i l palm 30f t 1,416 - 1,742 4,041 26,944 6,694 4,218 1/ - t r iangular (55.6/acre) . (4 -08) (72.7) Coffee 10ft .sq. (435.6 per acre)

B - O i l palm a t 30f t triangular with 1 row i n 3 471 - 574 2,632 18,943 4,762 5,336 omitted (37.l/ac) . Cof- (3.62) (70 -9) fee a t l o f t .sq. i n wide i n t e r l i ne s (130.l/ac)

C . O i l palm a t 30f t x 40f t (36.3/acre ) . Coffee in- 951 - terplanted a t l o f t .sq. (3 -06) ( 286.7/acre)

D . O i l palm a t 30ft.sq., with a l t e rna te palms in a l t e rna te rows omitted 1,058 - (36.3/acre) . Coffee a t (3 -66) l0 f t . sq . i n the hollow squares so formed (289.2/acre)

1/ i - e . half an acre of coffee and hal f an acre of o i l palm. -

Table 34: SOCAPALM OUTGROWER PROGRAM, 1977/79

(in the t e x t - p . 4 4 )

T a b l e 35: RAINFALL AT DENPASA O I L PALM PLANTATION BELEMI BRAZIL. MEAN DATA OVER 1 9 6 8 / 7 8

Month R a i n f a l l (rnm) D a y s

January

February

March

A p r i 1

May

June

J u l y

A u g u s t

Septemkr

O c t o b e r

N o v e m b e r

December

T o t a l

Table 36: S W M Y OP CXPI~RIbfNI'S (W TAW(XA SYSWM Al' Ml'IE

- -- Author locat ia i Species & Spacing Associated Crop lks i y 8 Treatment Period o f F ina l Results Status - hrc11 1979

& Area - Trial

l'aingya Tria l 1

Avel i ~ i o Agui rre

Bajo Qiino

4,608 mZ

%ietenia huni l is

' m a Cul)ressis l ir i i tanica

3 x 3 m

Coriandim s a t i ~ Cucunis sativun Cucurhita maxima

Factorial experiment in divided plots: 16 plants per sp./ 2 treetnlen ts/4 r ep l i - cations

Tamgya T r a Bajo Cordia all iodora Blocks a t randan San lntcas Cuttings an corn- in divided plots :

Mai~n, Miioz 2.500 m2 ~ l e t e olant: 41.280 pl . /ha, cut t ings and conplete 2.5 x '2.5 m with 6 without plants with 5 r ep l i -

f e r t i l i z e r cations

Tai~igya Trial 3 Florencia Eucalyptus Qgltlpta nlocks a t randan Norte with 5 r e p l i c a t i m s

C a r l o s h i m 7.794m2 2 . 5 x 2 . 5 m a n d 40,000 and 50.000 pl./ha, with and without f e r t i l i z e r

Cordia a l l iodora and

pr ia te for Ta~ngya system

(3nl y Cordia al l i o b r a sill-vives

VIII-1974 - Same maize production VII - 1975: fo r both periods, m r e 2 swings ecanornical with agro-

f o r e s t ~ y , b e t t e r survival & i n i t i a l gmwth with cut t ings

C P 7.7m2/ha a = 7.70 6 = 6.46 m Ihinned April 1979 .

I-XII-1976: Association o f nlaize 2 swings without f e r t i l i z e r

lmrs cos t of planta t ion by 50-665. No negat im influence of maize on E. deglupta

Tamgya Trial 4

Silvestre I%man&z 8

A u d i o Fkrios

Florencia QlElina arborea Blocks a t random VI-1977- N e t g a i n w i t h a s s o c i a - Norte b t t i n g s with 5 ~ r p l i c a t i o n s IV - 1978: t ion o f two crops: 8,000 m I x 2 m a n d 40,000 pl . /ho 2 sowings t! 3,599 t o C 8,22O/ha,

2 x 3 m depending m spacing Phaseolus vulgaris ($laC8. 54) var. Extender (green beans)

and

1-1977 - XII-1978: Current annual hlcremcnts: Td 3.1 - 3.7 d y r

ih = 3.1 - 4.9 d y r

I-XII-1977: Thinning in 1 x 2 m: 50! systematic and select ive 'Ihinning in 2 x 3 m: 0-30-40-501 select ive . Evaluation o f sprouts.

Tangya Trial 5 C a q w Teminalia ivorensis Blocks a t random VI-1978 - Better survival and 111-1979: -' in divided plots: V - 1979: i n i t i a l gmwth with Fi = 85 an (cuttings)

Jaime &gnc 40,000 pl./ha cut t ings and conplete 2 swings cot t ings , b e t t e r n lants with 5 r e ~ l i - r e s d t s obtained by 6 = 108 on (conplete

V i a un 'culata "-7

cations

and Phaseolus vulgaris var. m.1 a I t e m . 100.000 pl ./ha

association o f maize in m t a t i c n with beans

plants)

crop pin^ cont h u e s

Table 37: a3SrS OF PLPlYG AM) WNTEMME I N ?HE FIRST YUR OF TNNGYA SISIBI TRIALS AT GUIE

TALNGYA 1: four species (1962)

Plantation only Tamgya system (variorrs cmps)

Plantation without fe r t i l i ze r Tauigya system w/o fe r t i l i ze r , with maize Plmtaticm with fe r t i l i ze r Tamgya system w/fertilizer, with maize

M G f A 5 : Eucalyptus &glupta (1976)

Plantation without f e r t i l i z e r Tamgya system w/o fe r t i l i ze r , with maize amgya system with fe r t i l i ze r , with maize

C Plantation without fe r t i l i ze r Tamgya system w/o fer t i l izer , with maize Tamgya system wi th fe r t i l i ze r , with maize

P? wtation only - Taungya system with maize Taungya system with beans

" i Tamgya system with maize + beans

Plantatian only Tamgya system with maize + kms Tamgya system with -a + maize Tamgya system wjmaize + cowpea in rotatian

W/ m i ze + beans

at &,is line

4 ,300 ,200 ,100

Cost of p l a n t a t i d h a in % of m s t of "plantaticn only"

1OJ ZOO, 300 , >

Net pmf i t per ha in % of cost of "plantation only"

Table 38 : YIELD WT.4 Ct.: FOOD CWPS GROl1X ON 'iXlh'GY.% TRIALS, GZTIf (in kg/ha)

T-GYA !: Cordia alliodora (1974) 1 s t season

Plantation only without f e r t i l i z e r Taungya system w/o fe r t i l i ze r , with maize 1,850 Plantation only with f e r t i l i z e r Taamgya system w/fert i l izer, with maize 1,890

TALPJGYA 3: Eucalyptus deglupta (1976) E

: { Plmtation only without f e r t i l i z e r Tamgya system w/o fe r t i l i ze r , with maize 1,338

1 Tamgya system with f e r t i l i z e r , with maize N

1,445

Plantation only without f e r t i l i z e r Tamgya system w/o fe r t i l i ze r , with maize 1,293

system with f e r t i l i z e r , k i th maize 1,355

TALKGYA 4 : Cmlina a r b o ~ a (1977) m i z e beans 1 s t season 2nd season 1st season 2nd season

Plantation only Tamgya system with maize Taungya system with beans Tamgya system with maize + beans

Plantation o ~ y Tamgya system hit!! maize Tmgya sys t e a h t t ? beans Tamgya system with o&ze + beans

TA!NCN.9 5: Tenninalia ivorensis (1978) maize beans cm'pea 1 s t season 2nd season 1 s t season 2nd season 1st seasor, 2nd season

Plmtation only Taunaa system with m i z e + beans 10,733 430

ear af corn Taungya system w i t h cowpea + maize 1,078 5,077 Taungya system with maize + Us'qea in

rotation with maize + beans 6,833 784 140 1,973 ear of corn

.a1 c!ata obtained from respective thesis on taungya t r i a l s . See Cornbe & Gehzld (1979) for de ta i l s .

Table 39: EFFECT OF SPACING DENSITY ON YIELD OF MALAYSIAN DWARF AND MAYJAM HYBRIDS (PERA SPACING EXPERIMENT, S/4, 1977)

Average Density No. o f n u t s No. o f nu t s Trunk Crown Var ie ty spac ing pe r palm p e r a c r e h e i g h t r a d i a

( f t ) palm/acre ( f t ) ( f t )

M.D.

Mean - 47.9 5,602 - 1/ 9.8 2/ 12.4 L/

15.6 178 28.5 5,075 15.1 15.9

17.6 141 40.2 5,686 14.3 15.8

M.D. x J.T. 19.6 114 42.5 4,829 13.1 15.6

21.7 93 50.2 4,648 12.2 14.5

23.9 76 65.5 4,982 11.4 14.7

Mean - 45.4 5,044 13.2 - 2/ 15.3 - 1/

1/ Ind ica t e S ig . Di f f . a t 1%. - 2/ Ind i ca t e s S ig . D i f f . a t 5%. -

T a b l e 40: EFFECT OF SPACING COCONUT PALMS I N WIDE ROW PLANTINGS (ORANGE RIVER SPACING EXPERIMENT, S/6, 1977)

-

Spac ing Palms/acre No. n u t s No. bunches No. n u t s NO.? f l o w e r $ No.nuts ( 3 2 . 5 f t row p e r palm p e r palm P e r p e r i n f l o r - S e t p e r ac

( f t ) s p a c i n g ) bunch e s ce nce

12 .5 1 3 . 5 1 4 . 5 1 5 - 5 16 .5 17.5 18 .5 19 .5 20 - 5 21.5 Mean

1 0 7 99 9 2 86 81 7 7 72 69 6 5 6 2 -

S i g .

56.8 63.2 60.3 72 - 3 6 8 - 5 65 .4 59.7 73.0 78.3 89.7 68 .7

Dif f .

12.2 1 2 . 1 12.4 12 .8 1 2 . 8 1 2 - 4 12.5 1 2 . 3 1 2 - 8 12.8 12 .5

a t 5% N.S.

4 - 6 5 - 0 4.7 5 .5 5 . 1 5 .2 4.7 5 . 8 5.9 6 .8 5.3 N.S.

16 .1 20 .o 17 .0 18 .7 1 7 . 3 18.2 15 .4 20.7 19 .6 20.7 18.4 N.S.

30 .O 26.1 27.2 30.6 33 .1 28.4 27 - 6 29.8 26.7 32.9 29.3 N.S.

6 , 0 7 8 6 ,257 5 ,548 6 ,218 5 ,548 5,036 4 ,298 5,037 5,090 5 ,561 5,467 N.S.

Tab le 41: EFFECT OF BANANA INTERCROPPING ON COCONUT 1/ YIELDS - (UNITY EXPERIMENT C/T/6, 1976 & 1977 2/) -

NO. $' Banana N o . n u t s N o . bunches f lowers /

Banana s p a c i n g s d e n s i t y p e r palm % S e t p e r palm i n £ lor- ( ft) p l a n t s / a c e s c e n c e

C o n t r o l 0 29.2 (38.2) 15 .3 (11.1) 8 . 8 ( 9 . 7 ) 21 .8 (32 .5)

1/ W a r f s p l a n t e d a t 114 /ac re , 1976 f i r s t y e a r o f p r o d u c t i o n , and bananas removed - a t e n d 1976.

2/ 1977 yields in brackets. -

Table 42: EFFECT OF COCOA INTERCROPPING ON COCONUT YIELD (SPEING GARDEN EXPERIMENT, C/T/7, 1977)

Treatments No. n u t s No. bunches No. n u t s No. $ f lowers p e r % Set p e r palm p e r palm p e r bunch i n f l o r e s c e n c e

Cocoa v a r i e t y 1 75.2 2 82.6 3 79.7

Cocoa v a r i e t y 1 83.4 2 74.1 3 80.0

N.S.

Cont ro l 83.4

Grand Mean 80.2

No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

S i g . D i f f . 10% N.S. N.S. N.S.

Table 43: SPACING AND VARIETY EFFECTS ON COCOA INTER- CROPPING I N COCONUTS (SPEING GARDEN EXPERI - MENT C/T/7, 1977)

- -

No. p o d s / t r e e Wet cocoa / t ree ( lb Wet cocoa (Us) Spacing 1/ -- ' . - - Var.1 Var.2 Var.3 Var .l Var.2 Var.3 Var.1 Var.2 V a r . 3

( f t )

1/ Cocoa p l a n t e d i n a s i n g l e row a l o n g t h e coconut i n t e r r o w , g i v i n g (1) 213; - (2 ) 320; and (3 ) 417 cocoa bushes p e r a c r e .

in the humid tropics volume i1 - world...

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