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Indigenous Ecotourism

Sustainable Development and Management

DEDICATION

To my father – Mervin Vernon Zeppel (13 July 1922–26 September 2005)

and for S.T.M.(for your Cree and Ojibway heart)

Ecotourism Book Series

General Editor: David B. Weaver, Professor of Tourism Management, George Mason University,Virginia, USA.

Ecotourism, or nature-based tourism that is managed to be learning-oriented as well as environ-mentally and socio-culturally sustainable, has emerged in the past 20 years as one of the mostimportant sectors within the global tourism industry. The purpose of this series is to providediverse stakeholders (e.g. academics, graduate and senior undergraduate students, practitioners,protected area managers, government and non-governmental organizations) with state-of-the-artand scientifically sound strategic knowledge about all facets of ecotourism, including externalenvironments that influence its development. Contributions adopt a holistic, critical and interdisci-plinary approach that combines relevant theory and practice while placing case studies fromspecific destinations into an international context. The series supports the development and diffu-sion of financially viable ecotourism that fulfils the objective of environmental, socio-cultural andeconomic sustainability at both the local and global scale.

Titles available:

1. Nature-based Tourism, Environment and Land ManagementEdited by R. Buckley, C. Pickering and D. Weaver

2. Environmental Impacts of EcotourismEdited by R. Buckley

3. Indigenous Ecotourism: Sustainable Development and ManagementH. Zeppel

4. Ecotourism in Scandinavia: Lessons in Theory and PracticeEdited by S. Gossling and J. Hultman


Sustainable Development and Management

Heather D. Zeppel

James Cook UniversityCairns, Australia

CABI is a trading name of CAB InternationalCABI Head Office CABI North American Office Nosworthy Way 875 Massachusetts AvenueWallingford 7th FloorOxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139UK USA

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© H. Zeppel 2006. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may bereproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by pho-tocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copy-right owners.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London,UK.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress,Washington, DC.

ISBN 1-84593-124-6ISBN 978-1-84593-124-7

Produced and typeset by Columns Design Ltd, ReadingPrinted and bound in the UK by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge

www.cabi.org

Contents

List of tables ix

About the Author xi

Preface xiii

1 The Context of Indigenous Ecotourism 1Introduction 1Indigenous Peoples and Tourism 3Indigenous Tourism 8Indigenous Ecotourism 11Study of Indigenous Ecotourism 16Rationale and Need for this Book 23Methods and Case Study Approach 23Conclusion 24References 25

2 The Pacific Islands: Village-based Ecotourism in Community Rainforests 35Introduction: Ecotourism in the Pacific Islands 35South Pacific Biodiversity Conservation Programme: Community Ecotourism 36Conservation NGOs and Village-based Ecotourism 38Solomon Islands 40Fiji 45

Ecotourism and Village-based Tourism in Fiji 46Vanuatu 50Papua New Guinea 52Samoa 57Cook Islands, Niue and Tonga 59Micronesia 59Conclusion 60References 61

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3 Latin America: Rainforest Ecotourism, Andes Mountains and Indian Territories 67Introduction: Ecotourism in Latin America 67Indigenous Ecotourism in South America 68

Ecuador 68Community-based Ecotourism in Ecuador 69

Peru 76Chile 81Bolivia 81Venezuela 83Colombia 84Guyana 84Suriname 86French Guiana 87Brazil 88

Indigenous Ecotourism in Brazil’s Amazon 88Indigenous Ecotourism in the Amazon Rainforest, South America 89Amazonian Ecotourism Exchange 91

Indigenous Ecotourism in Central America 91Belize 91Mexico 93Guatemala 97Honduras 99Panama 101Nicaragua 102Costa Rica 103Dominican Republic, Caribbean 104Conclusion 104References 106

4 East Africa: Wildlife and Forest Ecotourism, the Maasai and Community Lands 117Introduction: Ecotourism in East Africa 117Kenya: Wildlife-based Ecotourism on Maasai Lands 118

Maasai People and Tourism 119Maasai Group Ranches 120Wildlife Tourism on Amboseli Group Ranches 128Wildlife Tourism on Masai Mara Group Ranches 129CORE Community Ecotourism Ventures 133

Tanzania: Village-based Ecotourism on Community Lands 136Village-based Ecotourism in Community Forests 137Marine Ecotourism in Zanzibar and Pemba 139Maasai Community Ecotourism in Tanzania 141Ecotourism in Tarangire and Serengeti 141Ngorongoro Conservation Area 144Community Ecotourism versus Safari Hunting 145Tanzania Cultural Tourism Coordination Office 147

Uganda: Forest-based Ecotourism with Local Communities 148Uganda Community Tourism Association (UCOTA) 149Uganda Wildlife Authority 150Community Involvement in Mountain Gorilla Tourism 151

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Ethiopia 154Conservation and Community Benefits of Ecotourism, East Africa 154Conclusion 156References 157

5 Southern Africa: Ecotourism on Wildlife Conservancies and Communal Lands 169Introduction: Ecotourism in Southern Africa 169Botswana 170

Community-based Tourism in Botswana 170Community Tourism in Okavango Delta 175

Zimbabwe 178CAMPFIRE: Communal Areas Management Program for Indigenous Resources 178

Namibia 182Communal Area Conservancies 183Community-based Tourism 184Namibia Community Based Tourism Association (NACOBTA) 185Caprivi Strip 190

South Africa 192Kruger National Park 193Community Ecotourism in KwaZulu-Natal Province 195Conservation Corporation Africa 199Wilderness Safaris 200Community Ecotourism in Eastern Cape Province 202

Conclusion 204References 205

6 West Africa: Community-based Ecotourism in Forest Areas 216Introduction: Ecotourism in West Africa 216Ghana 216

Community-based Ecotourism Project 217Kakum Canopy Walkway 220

Gambia 221Senegal 223

Casamance Village Tourism 223Niger 224Ivory Coast 225Cameroon 225

Lowland Gorilla Ecotourism, Southern Cameroon 227Other Lowland Gorilla Ecotourism Projects 227Republic of Congo 228Conclusion 228References 229

7 South-east Asia: Forest and Mountain Ecotourism, Hilltribes and Island Nations 232Introduction: Ecotourism in South East Asia 232Thailand 233

Hilltribe Trekking in Northern Thailand 233Lisu Lodge 237

Vietnam 238Hilltribe Tourism in Sapa 239

Contents vii

Cambodia 240Cambodia Community-based Ecotourism Network (CCBEN) 240Yeak Laom Ecotourism Project 241

Laos 241Nam Ha Ecotourism Project 241

China 243Ethnic Ecotourism in Yunnan Province 243Wanglang Nature Reserve, Sichuan 247

Indonesia 248Indonesian Ecotourism Centre (Indecon) 248Mountain Ecotourism in Java and Lombok 248Marine Ecotourism in Sulawesi 251Mentawai Cultural Ecotourism, Siberut 253Kayan Mentarang National Park, Kalimantan 254

Philippines 255Mountain Ecotourism in Luzon 255

Malaysia 257Orang Asli Ecotourism in Peninsula Malaysia 257Dayak Ecotourism in Sabah 258Iban Longhouse Tourism, Sarawak 262

Conclusion 267References 268

8 Sustainable Development and Management of Indigenous Ecotourism 278Indigenous Ecotourism on Tribal Lands 279Empowerment and Community Development 283Sustainable Indigenous Ecotourism 285Development and Management of Indigenous Ecotourism 286Conclusion 288References 290

Index 295

viii Contents

List of Tables

1.1. Key features of Indigenous tourism 91.2. Industry and Indigenous perceptions of ecotourism 121.3. Key features of general ecotourism and of Indigenous ecotourism 141.4. Indigenous community involvement in ecotourism 151.5. Indigenous peoples and ecotourism in developed and developing countries 171.6. A framework for Indigenous ecotourism 722.1. Pacific island countries and ecotourism programmes 362.2. Community ecotourism initiatives in SPBCP Conservation Areas 372.3. Community ecotourism products and funding support in SPBCP Conservation

Areas 382.4. Rivers Fiji: supporting conservation through village-based ecotourism in Fiji 482.5. Village guesthouses, homestays and lodges in Papua New Guinea 563.1. Community ecotourism ventures in the Amazon region, eastern Ecuador 693.2. Key Indigenous ecotourism ventures in the Amazon rainforest, South America 904.1. Community ecotourism ventures on Maasai group ranches, Kenya 1214.2. Tourism activities and revenue at Shompole and Olkiramantian group ranches 1254.3. CORE community ecotourism enterprises in Kenya 1344.4. Village tours in Tanzania cultural tourism programme 1484.5. Community ecotourism projects in Uganda 1504.6. Conservation and community benefits of Indigenous ecotourism in East Africa 1555.1. Registered community trusts and tourism ventures in Botswana 1715.2. Community-based tourism development in Namibia 1856.1. Community-based ecotourism projects in Ghana 2177.1. The Indigenous villages involved in Sabah’s Homestay Programme 2618.1. Key features of Indigenous ecotourism on tribal lands 2808.2. International agencies funding Indigenous ecotourism on tribal lands 2818.3. Biodiversity conservation, Indigenous rights and ecotourism on tribal lands 2828.4. Stages of Indigenous ecotourism development 2838.5. Conservation NGOs supporting Indigenous ecotourism on tribal lands 2838.6. Sustainability and empowerment within Indigenous ecotourism 2868.7. Strategies for sustainable development and management of Indigenous ecotourism 2888.8. Tourism and conservation organizations promoting Indigenous ecotourism on tribal

lands 289

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About the Author

Heather Zeppel is Senior Lecturer in Tourism in the Tourism Program, School of Business atJames Cook University Cairns in Queensland, Australia. She has an Associate Diploma (Wildlifeand Park Management), BSc, Graduate Certificate of Education, Graduate Diploma (MuseumCuratorship) and PhD (Tourism/Material Culture).

Heather lectures on Tourism Issues in Developing Countries, Tourism and the Environment,Tourism Analysis, Australian Ecotourism and Wildlife Tourism Management and Regional TourismPlanning and Foundations of Conference and Event Management.

Her research interests include Indigenous tourism, cultural interpretation, ecotourism, wildlifetourism and sustainable tourism development. Heather’s research articles and notes onIndigenous tourism have been published in the Journal of Travel Research, Pacific TourismReview, Tourism, Culture & Communication and Tourism Management. She has also written tenbook chapters on cultural tourism or Aboriginal tourism and other research reports on AboriginalTourism in Australia (Zeppel, 1999) and Indigenous Wildlife Tourism in Australia (Muloin, Zeppeland Higginbottom, 2001). Her current research examines Aboriginal tourism issues in the WetTropics World Heritage Area of Queensland.

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Preface

This book had its genesis in the author’s previous employment (1981–1984) as a park ranger atUluru-Katatjuta National Park in the Northern Territory of Australia. This involved working withAnangu Aboriginal people on cultural interpretation and land management issues. Uluru (AyersRock) is a major tourism icon and culturally significant area, handed back to Anangu Aboriginalpeople in 1985.

Starting at Uluru, this interest in conservation and Indigenous cultures continued through to adoctoral study of Iban longhouse tourism in Sarawak, Borneo (1991–1994) and postdoctoralresearch on Indigenous cultural tourism in Australia, New Zealand and Canada (1996–2000).The initial academic studies of Indigenous tourism in the mid-1990s have now emerged into amajor theme or focus at recent tourism or ecotourism conferences in Australia, New Zealand,USA, Canada, Africa and Asia.

This cross-disciplinary research on Indigenous tourism involves tourism, business, geography,anthropology and other areas, along with varied Indigenous groups.

This specific book emerged from an invitation by Professor David Weaver, editor of the CABIEcotourism Series, to develop a book proposal that focused on Indigenous ecotourism. The sub-sequent acceptance of this book proposal by CABI indicates a broadening of the academic cover-age of ecotourism from certification, policy and management to local communities andIndigenous peoples.

The commissioning editors at CABI, Rebecca Stubbs and Claire Parfitt, helped bring this bookto fruition. The author thanks the three reviewers of the original CABI book proposal for theirinsightful comments and specific suggestions on further topics and issues to cover in a book ofthis type. In particular, Professor David Weaver provided useful editorial comments throughoutthe writing of this book. These prompted more in-depth examination of conservation and tourismissues and their impact on Indigenous peoples. Dr Sue Muloin also critically reviewed the first andlast chapters of this book. Jenny Thorp and Sue Saunders provided further editorial corrections.The research and writing of this book was assisted by study leave during August 2004 to January2005. The author thanks the School of Business, James Cook University for this time granted asleave.

The issues pertaining to Indigenous peoples, cultures, land rights, resource use and tourismcontinue to receive attention from academic researchers, government agencies, NGOs and theprivate sector.

Recent media coverage of some Indigenous issues that affect tourism include Maori claims tothe foreshore, beaches and coastal waters of New Zealand in 2004, and Aboriginal groups in

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Northern Australia lobbying for limited trophy hunting of saltwater crocodiles on Aboriginal landsin 2005. Both of these Indigenous claims to lands and use of natural resources are still pendingfinal outcomes, although the Australian government continued to ban the commercial sport hunt-ing of native wildlife.

At the international level, Indigenous groups are pressing for full legal recognition of theirclaims to traditional territories, biological diversity, cultural resources and traditional knowledge.This book on Indigenous ecotourism links biodiversity conservation and Indigenous rights withglobal growth in tourism.

The UN Decade of the World’s Indigenous Peoples was declared from 1995 to 2004. Theresearch and writing of this book during 2004/05 provided an effective overview of key develop-ments in conservation and ecotourism as they affected Indigenous peoples during this previousdecade. Hence, this book provides a summation and appraisal of what has been achieved withIndigenous groups involved in conservation and ecotourism projects on their traditional territoriesand tribal lands. It also suggests key topics that need further research and critical investigation inthis emerging area of Indigenous ecotourism. While the author is non-Indigenous, every effortwas made to incorporate Indigenous perspectives on ecotourism as reported in the published lit-erature and case studies. Any errors made in the presentation and interpretation of these casestudies about Indigenous ecotourism are inadvertent. The author welcomes feedback or furtherinformation about the topics in this book.

Heather ZeppelCairns, North Queensland

Australia22 November 2005

xiv Preface

Introduction

This book is concerned with Indigenous-ownedand operated ecotourism ventures that benefitIndigenous communities and conserve thenatural and cultural environment. Ecotourismenterprises controlled by Indigenous peopleinclude cultural ecotours, ecolodges, huntingand fishing tours, cultural villages and othernature-oriented tourist facilities or services.Indigenous involvement in ecotourism isexamined through global case studies ofIndigenous operators and providers of eco-tourism products. Indigenous ecotourism isdefined as ‘nature-based attractions or toursowned by Indigenous people, and alsoIndigenous interpretation of the natural andcultural environment including wildlife’(Zeppel, 2003: 56). The case studies ofIndigenous ecotourism ventures in the PacificIslands, Latin America, Africa and South EastAsia illustrate how Indigenous groups areconserving natural areas and educating visitorswhile developing and controlling ecotourismon Indigenous lands and territories. These casestudies, therefore, challenge the commonperception of ‘minimal involvement inecotourism by indigenous people in manycountries’ (Page and Dowling, 2002: 279).Indigenous ecotourism provides an alternativeto extractive land uses such as hunting,farming, logging or mining, and it involvesIndigenous people in managing tourism,

culture and their own environment. Ecotourismsupplements a subsistence lifestyle and aids thetransition to a cash economy for many tribalgroups. How various Indigenous communitiesdevelop and operate tribal ecotourism venturesis a key focus of much recent research in thisarea.

Worldwide, Indigenous peoples arebecoming more involved in the tourismindustry, and particularly with ecotourism(Sykes, 1995; Butler and Hinch, 1996; Price,1996; Mercer, 1998; Ryan, 2000; Mann, 2002;Smith, 2003; Christ, 2004; Hinch, 2004; Ryanand Aicken, 2005; Johnston, 2006; Notzke,2006). Tourism enterprises controlled byIndigenous people include nature-based tours,cultural attractions and other tourist facilities orservices in tribal homelands or protected areas.These Indigenous tourism ventures are largelya response to the spread of tourism into remoteand marginal areas, including national parks,nature reserves and tribal territories that aretraditional living areas for many Indigenousgroups. Indigenous cultures and lands arefrequently the main attraction for ecotoursvisiting wild and scenic natural regions such asthe Amazon, Borneo, Yunnan, East Africa andOceania. Indeed, ‘Indigenous homelands richin biodiversity are the prime target of mostecotourism’ (Johnston, 2000: 90). Ecosystemssuch as tropical rainforests, coral reefs,mountains, savannah and deserts indeveloping countries are a drawcard for

1The Context of Indigenous Ecotourism

© H. Zeppel 2006. Indigenous Ecotourism: Sustainable Development and Management (H. Zeppel) 1

ecotourism, and many of these ecoregions arestill inhabited by marginalized Indigenousgroups (Weaver, 1998; WWF, 2000). Touristencounters with these exotic tribal peoplesduring safaris, mountain trekking and villagetours are growing areas of new tourism (Smith,2003).

The spread of ecotourism into remote areasoften coincides with regions that are still thetraditional homelands for surviving groups ofIndigenous peoples. Tourist experiences withIndigenous peoples now include trekking withMaasai guides in East Africa (Berger, 1996),visiting Indian villages in the rainforest ofEcuador (Wesche, 1996; Drumm, 1998),meeting Inuit people in the Arctic (Smith,1996a), staying at Iban longhouses in Borneo(Zeppel, 1997) and Aboriginal cultural tours innorthern Australia (Burchett, 1992). Smallisland states or countries with rainforest, reefsand Indigenous groups, especially in the Asia-Pacific region, are also a growing focus forecotourism ventures (SPREP, 2002; Harrison,2003). Environmental, cultural and spiritualaspects of Indigenous heritage and traditionsare featured in ecotourism, community-basedtourism and alternative tourism. Newecotourism enterprises managed by Indigenousgroups are featured in travel guides andwebsites for community tourism andalternative travel (Franke, 1995; Mann, 2000,2002; Tourism Concern, 2002). Native landsand reserves in developed countries such asAustralia, New Zealand, Canada and the USAare also a growing focus for Indigenoustourism (Lew, 1996; Ryan and Aicken, 2005).For example, the USA has 52 million acres ofIndian reservation land, often near nationalparks, with many tribal governments involvedin tourism ventures on these lands (Gerberich,2005). In these colonized countries, Indigenousecotourism ventures are also found inprotected areas that are co-managed withnative people having traditional claims overthis land. In North America, many Indigenousgroups are investing money from land claimsettlements, mining or fishing royalties andgaming revenue from tribal casinos in tourismventures (Ryan, 1997; Lew and van Otten,1998). In developing countries, someIndigenous groups with communal or legalland titles now derive income from forest or

wildlife resource use rights and from renting orleasing land to tourism operators.

Globally, there is greater public awarenessof both environmental impacts and Indigenouspeoples. Ecotourism recognizes the specialcultural links between Indigenous peoples andnatural areas. A growing tourist demand forIndigenous cultural experiences also coincideswith the Indigenous need for new economicventures deriving income from sustainable useof land and natural resources. This global trendis reflected in increasing contact withIndigenous communities living in remote areasand also the opening up of Indigenoushomelands for ecotourism (Honey, 1999;Christ, 2004). These Indigenous territories areusually in peripheral areas, away frommainstream development, where Indigenousland practices have maintained biodiversity in‘wilderness’ regions and otherwise endangeredecosystems (Hinch, 2004). While Indigenouscommunities are vulnerable to increasedaccessibility and contact with outsiders,ecotourism is seen as one way to maintainecosystems and provide an economicalternative to logging or mining. Indigenousecotourism involves native people negotiatingaccess to tribal land, resources and knowledgefor tourists and tour operators.

With greater legal recognition and controlover homeland areas, culture and resources,Indigenous groups in many areas aredetermining appropriate types of ecotourismdevelopment in traditional lands and protectedareas. As well as being an exotic touristattraction, Indigenous peoples are alsoincreasingly the owners, managers, jointventure partners or staff of ecotourismventures, cultural sites and other touristfacilities. Therefore, the roles of Indigenouspeople in ecotourism now include landowners,tribal governments or councils, traditionalowners, land managers, park rangers, tourismoperators and guides. This global expansion oftourism into remote natural areas andIndigenous lands, often in developingcountries, has seen increasing concern forsustainable tourism development, particularlywith Indigenous groups (Price, 1996; Honey,1999; McIntosh, 1999; McLaren, 1999;Robinson, 1999; Smith, 2001; Duffy, 2002;Johnston, 2003a, b; Mowforth and Munt,

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2003; Sofield, 2003; Gerberich, 2005). ForIndigenous peoples, ‘land rights are anabsolute prerequisite for sustainable tourism’(Johnston, 2000: 92). Legal rights over triballands and resources allow Indigenous groupsto benefit from ecotourism, throughcommunity-owned enterprises, joint venturesand other partnerships.

This book considers the environmental,cultural and economic impacts of Indigenousecotourism ventures in tribal areas ofdeveloping countries. Case studies describeand analyse the approaches adopted bydifferent Indigenous communities indeveloping and operating ecotourism ventures.These case studies of Indigenous ecotourismventures are drawn from the Pacific region,South and Central America, South East Asiaand Africa. Tropical rainforest areas in theAsia-Pacific region, Latin America and Africaare a main focus for these community-basedIndigenous ecotourism projects (Wesche andDrumm, 1999; Mann, 2002; SPREP, 2002;Tourism in Focus, 2002a). The savannah anddesert regions of Africa along with the AndesMountains of South America are another keyfocus. North Asia (i.e. Mongolia) and southAsia (i.e. India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka)are not included in this book. In developingcountries, ecotourism ventures for Indigenouspeoples are mainly implemented with the helpof non-government agencies (NGOs) involvedin conservation or community developmentprojects. For many Indigenous peoples,controlled ecotourism is seen as a way ofachieving cultural, environmental andeconomic sustainability for the community(Sofield, 1993; Butler and Hinch, 1996;Zeppel, 1998a; Notzke, 2006). Opening upIndigenous homelands to ecotourism,however, involves a balance between use ofnatural resources, meeting tourist needs andmaintaining cultural integrity.

Indigenous Peoples and Tourism

Indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples are generally regarded astribal or native groups still living in theirhomeland areas: ‘Indigenous people are the

existing descendants of the original peopleinhabiting a particular region or country’ (BSR,2003). They are considered to be original orFirst Peoples with unique cultural beliefs andpractices closely linked to local ecosystems anduse of natural resources (Furze et al., 1996;Price, 1996). According to Russell (2000: 93),Indigenous people are those who ‘are generallyminority groups in their territories, havedeveloped a unique culture which may includesocial and legal systems, and whose ancestralconnections to a region are pre-colonial’.

The United Nations (UN, 2004) definesIndigenous communities, peoples and nationsas those having ‘a historical continuity withpre-invasion and pre-colonial societies thatdeveloped on their territories’, are distinct fromother settler groups and want to ‘preserve,develop and transmit to future generationstheir ancestral territories, and their ethnicidentity’. This historical continuity is based onoccupation of ancestral lands, commonancestry, cultural practices and language.Indigenous peoples are also economically andculturally marginalized and often live inextreme poverty (UNDP, 2004).

The International Labor Organization (ILO)Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and TribalPeoples defined Indigenous groups as:

peoples in independent countries who areregarded as indigenous on account of theirdescent from the populations which inhabitedthe country, or a geographical region to whichthe country belongs, at the time of conquest orcolonisation or the establishment of presentstate boundaries and who, irrespective of theirlegal status, retain some or all of their ownsocial, economic, cultural and politicalinstitutions (ILO, 1991, Article 1 cited in Ryan,2000: 422).

Indigenous peoples are thus the originalinhabitants of a region with a specialattachment to their lands or territories; have asense of shared ancestry and selfdetermination; have their own distinct cultures,languages, spirituality and knowledge; theirown cultural, political and social institutionsbased on customary law and collectivecommunity living; and have their lands andinstitutions dominated by other majoritygroups and modern states (Kipuri, nd). ManyIndigenous groups are geographically isolated,

Context of Indigenous Ecotourism 3

economically disadvantaged and socially andpolitically marginalized. Indigenous peoplesmake up one third of the world’s 900 millionextremely poor rural peoples (IFAD, nd). Theyhave often experienced ethnocide, racism andforced removal by other settlers (Maybury-Lewis, 2002). These Indigenous groups aretribal or semi-nomadic pastoralists, hunter-gatherers or shifting cultivators. They mainlyhave a subsistence economy and rely onnatural resources for food and cash.

Different terms used to describe Indigenousgroups include ethnic minorities (China,Vietnam, Philippines); tribes (Africa, Americas);hilltribes (Thailand); scheduled tribes oradivasis (India); Native American, Indian orAmerindian (North and South America);Indigenas (Latin America); Aboriginal(Australia, Canada, Taiwan) and First Nations(Canada). These Indigenous peoples mayeither be the majority group (e.g. Papua NewGuinea, Bolivia) or, more commonly, they area minority group, particularly in colonizedcountries such as North America, Australia andNew Zealand. Colonized Indigenous groupswhose lands are now part of other modernnation states are also called ‘fourth world’peoples. Worldwide, there are an estimated400 million Indigenous peoples (Weaver,2001). These 5000 tribal or Indigenous groupsrepresent about 5% of the world population.There are 150 million Indigenous people inChina and India and some 30 millionIndigenous people in the Americas (Healey,1993). India has 67.76 million adivasisrecognized as scheduled tribes, living on 20%of the land area, mainly in forests, hills ormountain areas (Bhengra et al., 2002).

Most Indigenous peoples are still found indeveloping countries, mainly in the southernhemisphere. For example, some 50 millionIndigenous people from about 1000 tribes livein tropical rainforests in the equatorial belt ofAfrica, Asia, Oceania and the Amazon (Martin,2001). Small, traditional tribes in isolatedtropical or desert regions are often seen asendangered cultures, threatened by resourceextraction, tourism and cultural change(Raffaele, 2003). New migrants, logging,mining and dams have displaced many tribalgroups from their homelands. Organizationssuch as Cultural Survival (US), Survival

International (UK) and Minority Rights GroupInternational campaign for the rights ofIndigenous peoples affected by dispossessionand development projects on their lands(Janet, 2002). Tribal groups still living atraditional subsistence lifestyle are found inover 60 countries and number 150 millionpeople (Survival International, 1995).However, other Indigenous peoples also nowfollow a mainstream lifestyle and no longer livein tribal societies based solely on a subsistenceeconomy.

Most Indigenous people are identified bythe name of their ‘tribe’, clan, group, band ornation (Waitt, 1999). Individually, anIndigenous person is one self-identified asIndigenous who is recognized and accepted byan Indigenous group or community as amember. This definition of an Indigenousperson as self-identified is followed inAustralia, regardless of the mix or proportionof ethnic backgrounds, whereas in Canadathere must be proof of native lineage with aminimum of 6% Indigenous ancestry. In NewZealand, people can be entered on the Maorilist without knowing their tribe or iwi, while inthe USA Native Americans need to show directdescent from at least one Indian great-grandparent listed on a tribal or voting list fromthe early 1900s (Ryan, 1997). In Taiwan, thegovernment requires that Indigenous peoplestill speak their own native language and fundsIndigenous language classes. Taiwan has about400,000 Indigenous people from 12 officiallyregistered tribes (Coolidge, 2004; Yang, 2005).In contrast to these official governmentdesignations about Indigenous descent, ‘Firstpeoples have a strong sense of their ownidentity as unique peoples, with their ownlands, languages, and cultures. They claim theright to define what is meant by indigenous,and to be recognized as such by others’(Burger, 1990: 16–17). In Africa, recognizedIndigenous groups include the nomadicpastoralists of West Africa (e.g. Fulani, Tuareg)and East Africa (e.g. Maasai), the hunter-gather San or Bushmen in southern Africa andthe rainforest Pygmies in central Africa. Thesegroups are politically and economicallymarginalized, and experience discriminationfrom the dominant Bantu agricultural groups.A coordinating committee for Indigenous

4 Chapter 1

peoples of Africa was formed in 1998 to seekofficial recognition for Indigenous groups andadvocate for their rights (IPACC, 2004). OtherAfrican politicians claim that all black Africansare Indigenous to Africa and Indigenouspeoples are not always recognized as such byAfrican states (Sharpe, 1998; Kipuri, nd).Hence, other traditional and tribal groups inAfrica are also covered in this book.

Indigenous peoples and human rights

The terms ‘tribal’ and ‘Indigenous’ are bothused at the United Nations (UN). However,more people and communities with strong tiesto ancestral land now identify themselves as‘Indigenous’ where they are marginalized oroppressed. Tribal groups increasingly use theterms ‘Indigenous’ and ‘Indigenous peoples’due to growing national and internationalrecognition of the existence and territorialclaims of native groups. Hence, the politics of‘Indigeneity’ involves reworking or reposi-tioning the identity of Indigenous people andgroups in relation to economic, political orsocial power (Barcham, 2000; Maaka andFleras, 2000; Hendry, 2005). The category orstatus of being Indigenous is then linked tolegally asserting cultural, political andeconomic claims, such as the ownership anduse of land, river and sea areas, hunting andfishing rights, cultural or intellectual copyrightof Indigenous knowledge and royalties fromland use including tourism. Key issues for allIndigenous groups include human rights, useof land and resources (e.g. plants, wildlife,minerals and water), and intellectual andcultural property rights (e.g. traditionalecological knowledge, cultural copyright). Thepolitical and legal recognition of Indigenousstatus (i.e. people and territories) ‘entails claimto certain rights over the use, management andflow of benefits from resource-based industries’(Howitt et al., 1996: 3). Increasingly,Indigenous customary claims have beenrecognized as legal rights in national andinternational laws and conventions. Theseinclude both individual human rights and thecollective property claims of Indigenous groupsto land and resources (Wilmer, 1993; McLaren,1998; Pera and McLaren, 1999; Smith, 1999;

Macdonald, 2002; IFAD, 2003; Johnston,2003). According to Honey (2003), the rangeof Indigenous rights include fundamental,cultural, Indigenous knowledge and intellectualproperty, land, protected areas, economic,labour, local communities and a right tosustainable development of ancestral lands.

The International Labor Organization (ILO)Convention No. 169 (1989) is the onlyinternational law recognizing the rights of tribaland Indigenous peoples to their cultures,languages and ancestral territories (Osava,2005; Roy, nd). The ILO has sponsored awebsite listing of community tourism projects inLatin America, including Indigenousecotourism ventures (Redturs, nd). World Bank-funded investment projects now require theinformed participation of Indigenous peoplesfor preparation of an Indigenous PeoplesDevelopment Plan (Survival International,2004). The World Bank’s policy for Indigenouspeoples recognizes their special cultural, socialand environmental ties to land. It also supportslegal recognition of traditional or customaryland tenure through legal land titles or by rightsof custodianship and use (World Bank, 1991).This policy of legal land titles was enforced for aforestry loan to Nicaragua. However, aninternal operations evaluation found only 29 of89 World Bank projects affecting Indigenouspeoples had any elements of this Plan(Selverston-Scher, 2003). Business for SocialResponsibility has also published a document‘Rights of Indigenous Peoples’ for companiesdoing business in the traditional territories ofIndigenous groups (BSR, 2003).

Globally, Indigenous issues are representedby key international organizations. For example,the UN set up a Working Group on IndigenousPopulations in 1982, yet only established aPermanent Forum on Indigenous Issues in2000. The Forum is an advisory body to the UNEconomic and Social Council addressingIndigenous issues related to culture, theenvironment, economic and socialdevelopment, education, health and humanrights. Recent activities of this Forum include aninternational workshop on Indigenousknowledge and a declaration on conservingbiological and cultural diversity at sacred naturalsites and cultural landscapes (UN, 2005). In2003, a Global Fund for Indigenous Peoples


was established by the World Bank to supportthis Forum and provide grants to Indigenousorganizations (Cultural Survival Voices, 2004).A UN Draft Declaration on the Rights ofIndigenous Peoples, based on human rights andcommunal property rights, was devised in1989/90; however, it has still not been formallyadopted by the UN or by other organizations.UNESCO’s 2001 Universal Declaration onCultural Diversity highlights protectingIndigenous cultural heritage, traditionalknowledge and use of natural resources. TheUN Commission on Sustainable Developmenthas an Indigenous Peoples’ Caucus thatprepared an issues paper about Indigenouspeoples for the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment held in Johannesburg, SouthAfrica (UN Commission on SustainableDevelopment, 2002). A World Social Forum forNGOs, held since 2001, also includedIndigenous peoples for the first time in 2005with 400 people from around 100 Indigenousethnic groups attending (Osava, 2005).

In addition, the UN Decade of the World’sIndigenous People was declared from 1995 to2004 with the UN International Year for theWorld’s Indigenous People held in 1993(UNESCO, 2004). There is even a UNInternational Day of the World’s IndigenousPeople held each year on 9 August! These UNinitiatives focus on achieving social, culturaland political recognition for Indigenouspeoples. Gaining this recognition was anongoing process; hence a second UN Decadeof the World’s Indigenous People was declaredfrom 2005 to 2014. Funding for majorIndigenous development projects on bio-diversity conservation or ecotourism is alsodirected through UN bodies (e.g. UNEP, UNDP)to national governments, aid groups,environment NGOs and Indigenous peoples’organizations. Increasing amounts of fundingfrom international banks and developmentagencies are being directed towards ecotourismand the sustainable development of Indigenouscommunities (Halfpenny, 1999; Griffiths, 2004;EBFP, 2005). In 2002, the UN EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) invested over US$7 billionin 320 tourism-related projects with 21development agencies (Selverston-Scher,2003). Indigenous groups also represent theirterritorial claims and cultural interests by

establishing their own organizations. Forexample, the Coordinating Body for IndigenousOrganisations of the Amazon Basin (COICA)represents tribal organizations from nineAmazon countries and 2.8 million AmazonIndian people (Osava, 2005). Globally, over1000 Indigenous organizations advocate forland and resources (Hitchcock, 1994).

Indigenous peoples and biodiversity

Indigenous land practices and culturalknowledge have ensured the conservation ofglobal biodiversity. The UN Commission onSustainable Development highlighted the keyrole of Indigenous peoples in the conservationof natural areas and species on their lands:

Indigenous peoples comprise five per cent ofthe world’s population but embody 80% of theworld’s cultural diversity. They are estimated tooccupy 20% of the world’s land surface butnurture 80% of the world’s biodiversity onancestral lands and territories. Rainforests of theAmazon, Central Africa, Asia and Melanesia ishome to over half of the total global spectrumof indigenous peoples and at the same timecontain some of the highest species biodiversityin the world (UN Commission on SustainableDevelopment, 2002: 2–3).

The Indigenous Peoples’ BiodiversityNetwork was established in 1997 in Peru andhas hosted workshops on Indigenous tourismand biodiversity conservation in Peru, Malaysia,Spain and Panama. Its position is thatIndigenous peoples are the ‘creators andconservers of biodiversity’, with remainingforest areas or global 200 ecoregions with thehighest biodiversity linked with survivingIndigenous groups in Asia, Africa, the Americasand Oceania (Nature Conservancy, 1996;Oviedo et al., 2000; Weber et al., 2000; WWF,2000). The International Alliance of Indigenousand Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests,formed in 1992, and the Forest PeoplesProgramme (FPP) formed in 1990 alsorepresent Indigenous views on conservation,parks and resource development. The UNConvention on Biological Diversity in 1992recognized the environmental stewardship andtraditional dependence of many Indigenouscommunities on biological resources (Prance,

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1998). Article 8(j) requires governments topreserve Indigenous environmental knowledgeto help conserve biodiversity and to shareequitably any benefits arising from the use oftraditional knowledge (Johnston, 2003). Since1991, the UN’s Global Environment Facility(GEF) has funded major projects onbiodiversity conservation in developingcountries with many including Indigenouslands. GEF funding from 2002 to 2006 wasnearly US$3 billion (Griffiths, 2004; GEFSecretariat, 2004). WWF also adopted a policyon Indigenous peoples and conservation in1996 that recognized the rights of Indigenouspeoples to their traditional lands, territories andresources (Weber et al., 2000; Alcorn, 2001;WWF, 2001a, 2005). Over 12 million people,mainly hunter-gatherers and pastoralists, havebeen removed from their ancestral lands tomake way for protected areas, conservation andtourism. They are affected by poverty, limits onresource use and land degradation, with fewbenefits from tourism (MacKay, 2002; AfricanInitiatives, 2003; Colchester, 2003, 2004;Martinez, 2003; Negi and Nautiyal, 2003; Hill,2004; Lasimbang, 2004).

Ecotourism is seen as one main way forIndigenous groups to conserve and benefitfrom biodiversity on their traditional lands(Butcher, 2003). Ecotourism operators inIndigenous territories and protected areas withIndigenous claims also need to negotiate andbe aware of the legal rights of Indigenousgroups for ongoing use of natural resources. In2002, new guidelines for tourism in Indigenousterritories were drafted under the UNConvention on Biological Diversity. The WorldSummit on Sustainable Development (UNCommission on Sustainable Development,2002) and the World Parks Congress in 2003also included resolutions on the rights ofIndigenous peoples in protected areas andconserving biodiversity (FPP, 2003; Larsen andOviedo, 2005; Scherl, 2005). These are partlya response to the dominance of internationalagencies funding biodiversity conservationprojects. In the mid-1990s, USAID had 105ecotourism projects in 10 tropical developingcountries and also Nepal. These had US$2billion in funding directed through USconservation NGOs and the private sector(Honey, 1999). Since 2000, three international

conservation NGOs (i.e. WWF, ConservationInternational and The Nature Conservancy)have together spent US$350 million a year onbiodiversity conservation projects indeveloping countries, which is more than theUN’s GEF programme. It is important to note,however, that the political efforts and fundingof local NGOs fighting for Indigenous landrights are secondary to these majorenvironmental NGOs funding conservationand ecotourism projects (Chatty andColchester, 2002; Epler Wood, 2003). TheWorld Conservation Union (IUCN) onlyrecently devised guidelines to involveIndigenous communities in co-managingnational parks, protected areas and communityconservation areas (Beltran, 2000; Borrini-Feyerabend et al., 2004a,b; Marrie, 2004;Scherl, 2005; Bushell and Eagles, 2006). Inmany regions, such as Africa, protected areasdeny Indigenous rights or involvement inconservation (Negi and Nautiyal, 2003; Nelsonand Hossack, 2003; Lasimbang, 2004). RecentIUCN guidelines focus on securing Indigenousrights in legislation together with policies forco-managed protected areas and also supportfor community conservation and resourcemanagement (Borrini-Feyerabend et al.,2004b; Carino, 2004; Grieg-Gran andMulliken, 2004; Hill, 2004; UNESCO, 2005).

Indigenous territories

Indigenous territories are areas traditionallyoccupied by Indigenous groups, or are othersmaller areas set aside as reserves andreservations for tribal groups in colonizedcountries. These designated ‘territories’ includeAboriginal reserves in Australia, Maori reservesin New Zealand, and Indian reservations inNorth and South America. Examples includethe Hopi Indian Reservation in Arizona (USA)which attracts 100,000 tourists annually (Lew,1999) and Arnhem Land Reserve in theNorthern Territory of Australia, which is hometo the Aboriginal rock group Yothu Yindi, barkpaintings and the yidaki or didgeridoo. In thewestern USA, cultural tourism on Indianreservations began in the 1960s (Browne andNolan, 1989). A lucrative form of diversifiedIndigenous tourism in the USA and Canada are


tribally owned casinos on reserve lands withtax-free status for sovereign Indian nations(Lew and van Otten, 1998). In Taiwan,250,000 ha of land in mountain areas wasdesignated as Aboriginal or native reservations.Farming was limited and ecotourism wasencouraged. However, Taiwan’s Aboriginalpeople wanted compensation for limited landuse and to independently manage their ownreserve lands (Yang, 2005). Indigenousterritories with a majority Indigenouspopulation inside modern nation states includeself-rule for the Inuit people of Greenland, apart of Denmark, and the newly created Inuitterritory of Nunavut in Northern Canada. Otherterritories are the former tribal homelands(Bantustans) of South Africa and a ‘homelands’movement back to traditional Aboriginal landsin Australia. The Torres Strait Islands betweenAustralia and Papua New Guinea are movingtowards being a more autonomous regionwithin Australia. Torres Strait Islanders are ofMelanesian origin and culturally distinct fromthe mainland Aborigines of Australia. Countriessuch as China and Russia also designateprovinces or regions as ‘ethnic’ homelands forminority Indigenous groups (e.g. TibetanAutonomous Region in China). However,settlers from the majority culture dominate mostof these ethnic regions (Weaver, 2001).

Indigenous territories include lands underthe legal control of Indigenous groups, with thisformal native title defined by nation states, and‘aboriginal’, ‘customary’ or ‘communal’ title forlands long occupied and used by Indigenouspeoples (Hinch, 2001). Most Indigenousgroups are pursuing legal title to theirtraditional lands, reserves and national parksdeclared on Indigenous lands through treaties,native title claims, land use agreements andother means (MacKay and Caruso, 2004;Weaver, 2006). These Indigenous territoriesare often in rural and remote areas, are high inbiodiversity, wildlife and scenic values and area focus for traditional life-ways and culturalpractices such as art, music, ceremonies andhandicrafts. For these reasons ‘Indigenousterritories are among the most significant of thecultural environments associated withecotourism’ (Weaver, 2001: 262). Indigenouspeoples are developing ecotourism and othersustainable ventures based on natural

resources to support the economicdevelopment of Indigenous lands. Privateoperators also seek new locations and productsin tribal territories, often in joint ventures orexclusive operating agreements withIndigenous groups.

Indigenous Tourism

Indigenous tourism is referred to as Aboriginalor Indigenous tourism in Australia; asAboriginal, Native or First Nations tourism inCanada; and Indian or Native Americantourism in the USA. It is also referred to asanthropological tourism or tribal tourism (seeTable 1.1). According to Hinch and Butler(1996: 9), ‘Indigenous tourism refers to tourismactivity in which indigenous people are directlyinvolved either through control and/or byhaving their culture serve as the essence of theattraction’. In Canada, Parker (1993: 400)defined Aboriginal tourism as ‘any tourismproduct or service, which is owned andoperated by Aboriginal people’. In Australia,Aboriginal or Indigenous tourism has beendefined as ‘a tourism product which is either:Aboriginal owned or part owned, employsAboriginal people, or provides consentingcontact with Aboriginal people, culture or land’(SATC, 1995: 5). Among the Kuna Indians ofPanama, Swain (1989: 85) considersIndigenous tourism as ‘tourism based on thegroup’s land and cultural identity andcontrolled from within by the group’. For Smith(1996b: 299), tribal tourism at Acoma Pueblo,New Mexico (USA) involves ‘small scaleenterprises that are labour intensive for anowner, a family, or a small tribe’. Therefore,Indigenous tourism typically involves smallbusinesses based on the inherited tribalknowledge of culture and nature.

Indigenous tourism is sometimes regardedas ethnic tourism (Smith, 1989; Sofield, 1991;de Burlo, 1996; Moscardo and Pearce, 1999).Ethnic tourism always involves some form ofdirect contact with host cultures and theirenvironment. For Smith (1989), ethnic tourismtypically occurs among tribal groups in remoteareas with limited numbers of visitors (though100,000 visitors a year now go trekking amongthe hilltribes of northern Thailand). Therefore,

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ethnic and tribal tourism are forms ofIndigenous cultural tourism involving touristcontact with Indigenous peoples or theircultural practices (Smith, 2003). However,ethnic tourism also implies contact withimmigrant groups who may not be native orIndigenous to a destination. Indigenous peoplethemselves may also be ‘ethnic’ tourists visitingcultural sites, native reserves or tribal eventsoutside their local area. According to Smith(1996b: 287), the four ‘Hs’ of habitat, heritage,history and handicrafts define Indigenoustourism as: ‘a culture-bounded visitorexperience which, quite literally, is a micro-study of man-land relationships’. Hence,Indigenous tourism includes ‘that segment ofthe visitor industry which directly involvesnative peoples whose ethnicity is a touristattraction’ (Smith 1996b: 283). This includespersonal tourism businesses with direct contactbetween Indigenous hosts and visitors andindirect businesses involving the productionand sale of native handicrafts or manufactured‘Aboriginal’ products. Indigenous culturalknowledge, ownership and control, then, arekey factors defining Indigenous tourism (seeTable 1.1). Key aspects of Indigenous tourismproducts, along with their development andoperation, are also related to community-basedtourism, cultural tourism, heritage tourism,responsible tourism, pro-poor tourism, nature-based tourism and ecotourism.

Hinch and Butler (1996) distinguish betweenIndigenous-controlled and Indigenous-themedtourism. Attractions based on Indigenous culturethat are owned and operated by Indigenouspeople represent ‘culture controlled’ orIndigenous Cultural Tourism. Other tourismventures controlled by Indigenous people, thatdo not have Indigenous culture as a main

theme, represent Diversified IndigenousTourism. These diversified tourist attractions andfacilities owned by Indigenous groups includeresorts, boat transport or cruises, roadhouses,campgrounds and other visitor services. Thisinfrastructure, including transport and accom-modation, is a key part of Indigenous tourism inCanada, the USA and New Zealand. Ryan’s(1997) model of Indigenous tourism involvedIndigenous ownership and size of the enterprise,amount of Indigenous culture portrayed and theintensity of the visitor experience. Indigenousownership of tourism and the expansion fromculture-based to service-based Indigenoustourism ventures, including ecotourism ontraditional lands, has mainly occurred since the1990s (Zeppel, 1998a, 2001, 2003; Ryan andAicken, 2005; Notzke, 2006).

Key aspects of Indigenous tourism

Indigenous tourism evolves when Indigenouspeople operate tours and cultural centres,provide visitor facilities and control touristaccess to cultural sites, natural resources andtribal lands.

Indigenous tourist attractions include nativemuseums and cultural villages, nature-basedtours, Indigenous festivals or events andIndigenous art galleries. Cultural, environ-mental and spiritual aspects of Indigenousheritage and traditions are especially featuredin Indigenous tourism. Through the 1990s,Indigenous tourism has developed into a newvisitor market segment marked by Indigenousownership and management of culturalattractions, nature tours and other visitorfacilities (Getz and Jamieson, 1997; Zeppel,1998a, d, 2001; Ryan and Aicken, 2005;


Table 1.1. Key features of Indigenous tourism.

INDIGENOUS TOURISMAlso referred to as: Anthropological Tourism; Cultural Tourism; Ethnic Tourism; Tribal Tourism

● Tourism connected with Indigenous culture, values and traditions● Tourism products owned and operated by Indigenous people● Tourism based on Indigenous land and cultural identity, controlled from within by Indigenous groups● Tourism which includes Indigenous ‘habitat, heritage, history and handicrafts’● Typically involves small tourism businesses owned by tribes or families● Tourism focused on Indigenous knowledge of culture and nature

Sources: Based on Swain (1989); Parker (1993); Hinch and Butler (1996); Smith (1996a, b).

Notzke, 2006). Many of these Indigenoustourism ventures are community based,developed by native bands, tribal groups,leaders or entrepreneurs living in a nativecommunity. Unique aspects of Indigenoushistory and cultural traditions are included incultural and heritage tourism, while Indigenousties to the land and use of natural resources area part of nature-based tourism and ecotourism(Miller, 1996; Scheyvens, 1999). Ceremonialaspects of Indigenous cultures are also featuredin native festivals and special events.Indigenous cultures are frequently the specialinterest or main motivating factor for touristtravel to exotic destinations, regions and tribalevents. However, Indigenous tourismenterprises on tribal lands are often located inrural or remote regions, with limitedinfrastructure and access by tourist markets(Getz and Jamieson, 1997). For example, thereare high transport and tour costs for visitingNunavut in Arctic Canada or Arnhem Land inNorthern Australia. These factors, along with alack of capital and business skills amongIndigenous peoples, also limit the developmentof Indigenous ecotourism ventures in triballands and territories.

Honey and Thullen (2003) reviewedvarious codes of conduct for Indigenoustourism, ecotourism and sustainabledevelopment that were prepared by Indigenousgroups, major tourism conferences, the travelindustry, ecotourism societies, NGOs, financeor development institutions and governmentagencies. These codes reaffirmed the rights ofIndigenous peoples to control and benefit fromtourism, and the responsibilities of touroperators, development agencies andgovernments for Indigenous groups. Thisincluded fair terms for tourism participation,community empowerment and povertyalleviation. For Indigenous peoples, regainingcontrol of Indigenous lands and territories,along with their natural and cultural resources,are integral for self-determination andsustainable development of Indigenoustourism.

Key issues for the development of tourismor ecotourism on Indigenous lands include thelegal rights of Indigenous peoples onIndigenous territories, the commodification ofIndigenous cultural practices for tourism and

the intellectual property rights of Indigenouspeoples for the use of their designs and theirtraditional cultural or biological knowledge intourism. Indigenous self-determination andcontrol over tourism on Indigenous territoriesmainly relies on legal title to traditional lands(Hinch, 2004).

Hence, achieving sustainable tourism onIndigenous territories depends on several keyfactors such as: ‘land ownership, communitycontrol of tourism, government support fortourism development, restricted access toindigenous homelands and reclaiming naturalor cultural resources utilised for tourism’(Zeppel, 1998a: 73). The chapters in this bookexamine these key issues for Indigenousecotourism ventures on Indigenous lands orterritories in the Pacific Islands, Latin America,Africa and South East Asia.

Indigenous Tourism Rights International

Indigenous Tourism Rights International (ITRI)was established in 1995. Based in the USA, itwas formerly known as the Rethinking TourismProject. It is dedicated to helping Indigenousgroups preserve and protect their traditionallands and cultures from the impacts of globaltourism (McLaren, 1999, 2003). Theircampaigns focus on helping Indigenous groupsachieve self-determination and control overtourism. In 2002, ITRI campaigned against theUN International Year of Ecotourism, andorganized alternative forums for Indigenouspeoples to debate the benefits and impacts ofecotourism activities on their culture andtraditional lands (Vivanco, 2002). TheInternational Forum on Indigenous Tourismheld in Oaxaca, Mexico in March 2002generated a declaration on the rights ofIndigenous peoples to control tourism on theirlands. ITRI has formed a working partnershipwith the International Indian Treaty Council topromote Indigenous community-based tourismprojects and build an Indigenous TourismNetwork in the Americas. In 2004, an onlineITRI conference titled ‘Rethinking TourismCertification’ discussed Indigenous viewpointson the promotion of global standards forcertifying ecotourism or sustainable tourism.These certification programmes, however, give

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priority to environmental and economicmatters rather than to Indigenous issues, asnon-Indigenous agencies control thesecertification schemes with few Indigenouscriteria included.


Defining Indigenous ecotourism

The main focus of this book is commerciallymarketed ecotourism products and venturesoperated by Indigenous groups. Key aspects ofIndigenous ecotourism include a nature-basedproduct, Indigenous ownership and thepresentation of Indigenous environmental andcultural knowledge. Ecotourism includesAboriginal people and their traditions becauseof the strong bond between Indigenouscultures and the natural environment. Thisincludes cultural, spiritual and physical linksbetween Indigenous peoples and theirtraditional lands or natural resources.Indigenous cultural tourism or ecoculturaltourism involves ‘responsible, dignified andsensitive contact between indigenous peopleand tourists which educates the tourist aboutthe distinct and evolving relationship betweenIndigenous peoples and their country, whilstproviding returns to the local indigenouscommunity’ (TWS (The Wilderness Society),1999). Indigenous ecotourism then is: ‘Tourismwhich cares for the environment and whichinvolves (Indigenous) people in decision-making and management’ (ANTA, 2001). Itincludes nature-based tourism products oraccommodation owned by Indigenous groupsand Indigenous cultural tours or attractions in anatural setting. Much of this Indigenoustourism development focuses on community-based ecotourism that benefits local people(Liu, 1994; Drumm, 1998; Sproule andSuhandi, 1998; WWF, 2001b; TourismConcern, 2002; Fennell, 2003; Chen, 2004;Notzke, 2006). According to Drumm (1998:198), Indigenous community-based ecotourisminvolves ‘ecotourism programs which takeplace under the control and activeparticipation of the local people who inhabit anatural attraction’. These ecotourism

enterprises involve Indigenous communitiesusing their natural resources and traditionallands to gain income from tourism. Hence,Indigenous ecotourism ventures involve natureconservation, business enterprise (orpartnerships) and tourism income forcommunity development (Sproule, 1996, citedin Fennell, 2003). Hunting and fishing toursare also part of Indigenous ecotourism, (withsustainable use of wildlife resources), althoughconsumptive activities are not usuallyconsidered to be ‘true’ ecotourism (Honey,1999; Weaver, 2001).

The term Indigenous ecotourism hasemerged since the mid-1990s to describecommunity ecotourism projects developed onIndigenous lands and territories in LatinAmerica, Australia and Canada. Colvin (1994),Schaller (1996) and Wesche (1996) first usedthe term ‘Indigenous ecotourism’ to describecommunity-based ecotourism projects amongIndian tribes in Ecuador. Wearing (1996) alsopresented a paper on training for Indigenousecotourism development at the Fourth WorldLeisure Congress. Karwacki (1999) used theterm Indigenous ecotourism in reviewingchallenges for Indigenous groups seeking todevelop ecotourism ventures on their lands,while Beck and Somerville (2002) and Sofield(2002) also referred to Aboriginal (cultural)ecotourism in Australia in this way. Fennell(2003) also refers to Indigenous ecotourismentrepreneurs, while the Mapajo Lodge inBolivia describe their rainforest programme asIndigenous ecotourism. Furthermore, theAustralian National Training Authority (ANTA,2001) developed an Indigenous EcotourismToolbox, which includes case study examplesand business plans for communities to set uptheir own ecotourism ventures. IndigenousTourism Rights International has reviewedcertification programmes and culturallyappropriate standards for Indigenousecotourism. Finally, and most recently, Nepal(2004, 2005) examined capacity building forIndigenous ecotourism on the Tl’axt’en Nationlands in British Columbia, Canada, whileHashimoto and Telfer (2004) reviewedAboriginal ecotourism in northern Canada.Indigenous ecotourism also occurs in Africa,Asia and Oceania, and is covered in severalchapters of this book.


Indigenous views on ecotourism

According to Johnston (2000), there are somekey differences between industry definitions ofecotourism and Indigenous views ofecotourism (see Table 1.2). Industry use ofecotourism includes commercializingIndigenous biological and cultural heritage,claims to be environmentally or sociallyresponsible, and uses criteria for sustainabilityderived without input from Indigenouspeoples. Indigenous support for ecotourism,however, involves ‘tourism that is based onindigenous knowledge systems and values,promoting customary practices and livelihoods’(Johnston, 2000: 91). Cultural aspects ofIndigenous ecotourism include the close bondsbetween Indigenous peoples and theenvironment, based on subsistence activities,along with spiritual relationships with the land,plants and animals. However, potentialconflicts within Indigenous ecotourism includetourists objecting to traditional huntingactivities and tribal people using modern itemssuch as rifles and outboard motors (Hinch,2001). In East Africa, there are land-useconflicts between hunting companies killingwildlife and the walking or wildlife-viewingsafaris run as community ecotourism venturesby the Maasai (Tourism in Focus, 2002b).

In addition to generating employment andincome, there are often political motivations forIndigenous ecotourism. For many Indigenousgroups, ecotourism is used to reinforce landclaims, acknowledge cultural identity and landownership, and regain their rights to access oruse tribal land and resources. Ecotourism alsoshows that tribal land is being usedproductively to generate income and the abilityof Indigenous groups to govern themselves ormanage businesses (Hinch, 2001; Weaver,2001, 2006). For Indigenous peoples, then,sustainable ecotourism development is basedon ‘conservation of resources andempowerment of local people through directbenefits and control over ecotourism activities’(Scheyvens, 2002: 80). However, governmentpolicies on community-based ecotourism andsupport from environmental NGOs areessential for most Indigenous ecotourism andconservation projects to be implemented.

Most tourism organizations considerIndigenous tourism, ecotourism and wildlifetourism as separate niche or special interestareas of nature-based tourism. EcotourismAustralia (2005), though, defines ecotourismas: ‘ecologically sustainable tourism with aprimary focus on experiencing natural areasthat fosters environmental and culturalunderstanding, appreciation and conservation.’

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Table 1.2. Industry and Indigenous perceptions of ecotourism.

Industry Ecotourism● Ecotourism as any form of industry monopolized tourism● Marketed as nature, cultural, ethnic or adventure travel● Commercialize Indigenous bio-cultural heritage, including ● collective property (knowledge) and/or homeland of ‘host’ peoples● Claim to be socially and environmentally responsible● Apply sustainability criteria determined without Indigenous input● Indigenous cultures commercialized e.g. photographs on brochures● Few companies obtain prior consent to promote Indigenous peoples● Few companies negotiate business partnerships or royalty payments

Indigenous Ecotourism● Ecotourism based on Indigenous knowledge systems and values● Ecotourism based on promoting Indigenous customary practices and livelihoods● Ecotourism used to regain rights to access, manage and use traditional land and resources ● Ecotourism used to manage cultural property such as historic and sacred sites● Takes place under the control and active participation of local Indigenous people● Includes Indigenous communities in ecotourism planning, development and operation● Managing Indigenous cultural property in terms of land, heritage and resources ● Negotiating the terms of trade for the use of ecotourism resources, including people

Sources: Based on Drumm (1998); Johnston (2000); Hinch (2001); Hillel (2003).

In this definition, there is a primary focus onthe natural environment with a secondaryemphasis on cultural heritage, includingIndigenous cultures. The InternationalEcotourism Society (2004), based in the USA,defines ecotourism as ‘responsible travel tonatural areas that conserves the environmentand improves the well-being of local people’.The focus, again, is on the naturalenvironment, but with ecotourism providingbenefits for local communities. For Honey(1999: 25), ecotourism also ‘directly benefitsthe economic development and politicalempowerment of local communities; andfosters respect for different cultures and forhuman rights’ (see Table 1.3). In Canada, theterm Aboriginal tourism is preferred toecotourism (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2004).Some Indigenous groups also refer to culturalecotourism or ecocultural tourism, toemphasize that the natural environment andresources are still managed as an Indigenouscultural landscape (Helu-Thaman, 1992; Beckand Somerville, 2002).

Indigenous ecotourism in Australia

In Australia, Indigenous ecotourism venturesinclude boat cruises, nature-basedaccommodation, cultural ecotours and wildlifetours operating on Aboriginal lands, NationalParks and in traditional tribal areas (Singh etal., 2001; Zeppel, 2003). These Indigenous-owned ecotourism enterprises present uniqueIndigenous perspectives of the natural andcultural environment, promote natureconservation and provide employment forlocal Indigenous people (Zeppel, 1998a).Hence, these Indigenous products meet thekey criteria of ecotourism as nature based,include environmental education, areecologically sustainable and support natureconservation (Weaver, 2001). Indigenousnature conservation or ‘caring for country’involves traditional landowners or custodians‘looking after the environmental, cultural andspiritual well being of the land’ (AboriginalTourism Australia, 2005). Looking afterAboriginal sites, landscapes or naturalresources and educating visitors about‘country’ often motivate Indigenous conserva-

tion ethics in ecotourism or land management.Nganyintja, a Pitjantjatjara Elder working withDesert Tracks in Central Australia, stated that:‘carefully controlled ecotourism has been goodfor my family and my place Angatja’ (cited inJames, 1994: 12). Many Indigenous tours innatural areas are marketed as cultural toursrather than ecotours, emphasizing the ongoingcultural links between Indigenous tourismoperators and their traditional lands.

Indigenous ecotourism ventures, then, focuson Indigenous relationships with the land andthe cultural significance of the naturalenvironment, including wildlife. This includesIndigenous use of bush foods and medicinalplants, rock art, landscape features withspiritual significance, creation stories, totemicanimals, traditional artefacts and ceremoniesand contemporary land use. Such tourseducate visitors on Indigenous environmentalvalues, sustainable use of natural resourcesand ‘caring for country’. As Tom Trevorrow, anNgarrindjeri operator of Camp Coorong inSouth Australia noted, ‘We have to look afterthe environment and we teach visitors theimportance of this’ (cited in ATSIC, 1996: 29).Indigenous interpretations of nature andwildlife are also important for the maturingecotourism market (DISR (Department ofIndustry, Science and Resources), 2000).However, there is limited engagement of theecotourism industry with Aboriginal peoples inAustralia (Dowling, 2001). Gatjil Djerrkura, anAboriginal keynote speaker at the 2000ecotourism conference, stated that Aboriginal-owned enterprises should have contemporarybusiness roles to play in Australia’s ecotourismindustry (Ecotourism News, 2000). Indigenousculture is a significant but overlooked part ofecotourism products in Australia. Aboriginaltourism operators also resent ‘outsiders settingup tours in their traditional areas, national parkpermits to visit sites in their own country andecotourism certification when ‘Aboriginal“accreditation” involves approval from elders’(Bissett et al., 1998: 7).

Key Indigenous issues in Australianecotourism include the following:

● sustainable development of Aboriginaltourism (Burchett, 1992; Altman andFinlayson, 1993);


● environmental impacts of tourism (Ross,1991; Miller, 1996);

● cultural interpretation of heritage sites(Bissett et al., 1998; Howard et al., 2001;Beck and Somerville, 2002); and

● tourism in Aboriginal national parks(Mercer, 1994, 1998; Pitcher et al., 1999;Sutton, 1999; Hall, 2000).

Other industry issues include ecotourismtraining for Aboriginal people (ANTA, 2001),Aboriginal control of tourism (Trotter, 1997;Pitcher et al., 1999; Zeppel, 2002), ecotourismpolicies (Zeppel, 2003) and developingAboriginal ecotourism products (Zeppel,

1998b, c). In Australia, ecotourism is regardedsolely as nature viewing activities. SomeAboriginal tours, though, include huntingactivities, eating witchetty grubs and plantfoods. Tasting wild plant foods may beconstrained by environmental laws inprotected areas. One Aboriginal tour operatorin North Queensland used to let visitors tasterainforest fruits, but a sign in the vehicle nowasks guests not to touch or eat anything in therainforest (Miller, 1996). Telling tourists howIndigenous peoples used to hunt, eat bushfoods and utilize the natural environment, as apast practice, contradicts the reality of

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Table 1.3. Key features of general ecotourism and of Indigenous ecotourism.

Ecotourism Indigenous ecotourism

1. Involves travel to natural destinationsRemote regions, protected areas, private Remote homelands, communal reserves, reserves inhabited protected areas and tribal territories

2. Minimizes impactReduce ecological/cultural impacts of facilities Minimize environmental and cultural impactsand touristsSustainable development of non-consumptive Sustainable tribal use of natural resourcesindustry

3. Builds environmental and cultural awarenessEnvironmental education of tourists and Tribal guides share environmental knowledge residents by trained guides Reinforces Indigenous cultural links with land

4. Provides direct financial benefits for conservationTourism funds environmental protection, Tourism funds conservation and community needseducation and researchPark entrance fees, tourist taxes and levies, Tourist/lease fees, wildlife quotas and NGOconservation donations funding

5. Provides financial benefits and empowerment for local peoplePark revenue sharing, community tourism Park revenue sharing with local communitiesconcessions and partnerships Legal land title to negotiate tourism contracts

Lease land on reserves and sell wildlife quotasBusiness owned/co-owned by tribal community

6. Respects local culture and sensitive to host countriesCulturally respectful of local customs, dress Promotes ecocultural tourism and learningcodes and social norms Tourism complements traditional lifestyle

7. Supports human rights and democratic movementsRespect human rights; understand social and Tribal land rights and human rights recognizedpolitical situation Indigenous political history acknowledged

Sources: Based on Honey (1999); Blake (2003); Scheyvens (2002); The International Ecotourism Society(2004).

Indigenous cultures as alive and still linked totribal lands. These key issues are similar for allIndigenous peoples involved in ecotourism.

Indigenous involvement in ecotourism

Worldwide, Indigenous involvement andparticipation in ecotourism occurs with variedlevels of ownership and input from Indigenousgroups and organizations. Indigenous peoplemay participate in ecotourism as individuals,families, a village or community and through atribal council or federation (Cater, 1996;Ashley and Roe, 1998; Wesche and Drumm,1999; Mann, 2002). Indigenous involvementin ecotourism can include full or partownership, joint ventures, partnerships,services provision (e.g. lodge accommodation,boat transport, guiding and food) andemployment by non-Indigenous tourismcompanies (see Table 1.4). Mann (2002)distinguishes between responsible tours thathire a local Indigenous guide; partnership tourswith a tourism business and marketing by anoutside operator; and community tours, withenterprises set up, owned and run by anIndigenous community though often with anoutside manager. Community-based ecotourismenterprises (e.g. lodges) are owned andmanaged by communities, with tourism jobsrostered among members and profits allocatedto community projects. Family or groupinitiatives in ecotourism may also employ orinvolve other community members. Jointventures involve formal business contracts orexclusive operating agreements betweenIndigenous communities or tribal councils withnon-Indigenous tourism businesses. In jointventure arrangements, the outside operator is

responsible for marketing, bringing tourists, aguide and most transport, with the Indigenousgroup hosting and entertaining visitors.Alternatively, the outside company obtains along-term lease on Indigenous land, buildstourist facilities and employs local people. Thetour operator pays a lease rental fee and/orpercentage of profits to the Indigenous groupowning or claiming the land. Indigenouspeople also develop ecotourism ventures inpartnership with conservation NGOs, nationalpark agencies, government tourism bureaus,Indigenous organizations, developmentagencies, university researchers and other localcommunities (Fennell, 2003). Other relatedissues with these enterprises include limitedcommunity involvement and empowerment inecotourism, especially by women (Scheyvens,1999, 2000, 2002; Medina, 2005) businessand social challenges for Indigenous groups indeveloping ecotourism ventures (Karwacki,1999; Epler Wood, 1999, 2002; Johnston,2001), and potential conflicts betweenecotourism and Indigenous hunting or land useactivities (Pleumarom, 1994; Grekin andMilne, 1996; Hinch, 1998; Zeppel, 1998d;Honey, 1999). The chapters in this book assessthe nature of Indigenous ownership andinvolvement in ecotourism ventures on theirtraditional lands.

UN International Year of Ecotourism

The UN International Year of Ecotourism washeld in 2002. It provided a global focus forefforts to link sustainable tourism developmentwith the conservation of natural areas. Therewere two main international ecotourismconferences sponsored by the UN, one held in


Table 1.4. Indigenous community involvement in ecotourism.

● Renting land to an operator to develop while simply monitoring impacts● Working as occasional, part- or full-time staff for outside operators● Providing selected services such as food preparation, guiding, transport or accommodations

(or a combination of several or all of these) to operators● Forming joint ventures with outside operators with a division of labour, which allows the

community to provide most services, while the operator takes care of marketing● Operating fully independent community tourism programmes● Enterprise run by local entrepreneur, supplying goods and services (guiding, campsites,

homestays)

Sources: Drumm (1998: 201); Ashley and Roe (1998: 8).

Quebec (Canada) and the other in Cairns(Australia), which addressed a range of issuesincluding the role of Indigenous groups inecotourism. The Quebec Declaration onEcotourism stated that ecotourism issustainable tourism that contributes actively tothe conservation and interpretation of naturaland cultural heritage. In this QuebecDeclaration, ecotourism also ‘includes localand indigenous communities in its planning,development and operation, and contributes totheir well being’ (Hillel, 2002, in Buckley,2003: xiv). The vision statement for the relatedCairns Charter on Partnerships for Ecotourismdeveloped in Australia at the end of 2002,states: ‘Ecotourism respects the desire ofindigenous peoples … to profitably generatesustainable economic and social development’(Ecotourism Australia, 2002). Article one inthis Cairns Charter on Indigenous communitiesas ecotourism partners reaffirms thatIndigenous peoples are recognized for theircultural heritage, provision of access to culturalsites and traditional practices, the requirementof consent for ecotourism projects in homelandareas, support and participation in ecotourismtraining and encouragement of the touristappreciation and understanding of Indigenouscultures.

Indigenous groups argued that the UNInternational Year of Ecotourism representedthe commercial aspects of using ‘ecotourism’ todevelop global mass tourism, furtherencroaching on Indigenous territories and therights of Indigenous peoples. Organizationssuch as Tourism Concern, the Third WorldNetwork and the Rethinking Tourism Projectraised key issues relating to the impacts ofecotourism on local communities. Indigenousgroups held an alternative meeting in Oaxaca,Mexico in March 2002 to debate the issuesfrom ecotourism development. Some 200participants from 13 countries in the Americasreviewed case studies of Indigenous tourismprojects in local communities. In a Zapoteccommunity in Oaxaca, ecotourism was seen assharing Indigenous knowledge of sustainableland use, with forest tours an economicalternative to other uses of forest resources(Vivanco, 2002). The International Forum onIndigenous Tourism at Oaxaca drafted adeclaration reaffirming the rights of Indigenous

groups to manage and control tourism on theirlands.

The nature or type of Indigenousecotourism differs between developed anddeveloping countries (see Table 1.5). Thisincludes the legal status of Indigenous peoples,their lifestyle, type of Indigenous territories,extent of legal rights and land rights and typeof support from government agencies or NGOsfor ecotourism on tribal lands. Indigenousgroups in developing countries are threatenedby land incursions, still acquiring legal landtitles and rely on support from NGOs todevelop ecotourism. This book examinesIndigenous participation and control overecotourism that occurs on tribal lands andprotected areas in the developing countries ofOceania, Latin America, Africa and South-eastAsia.

Study of Indigenous Ecotourism

There have been a number of books andarticles written about Indigenous involvementin ecotourism since the mid 1990s. The firstbook published on Tourism and IndigenousPeoples (Butler and Hinch, 1996) included twochapters about Indigenous ecotourism. Oneaddressed issues with Inuit people in PondInlet, Canada, developing and marketingtourism in a remote Arctic area, and alsonegative tourist responses to traditional Inuithunting (Grekin and Milne, 1996). The otherreviewed community conflicts betweencustomary landowners and local ‘big men’ indeveloping a rainforest wilderness walking trailon Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands(Rudkin and Hall, 1996). Other chapters in thebook reviewed cross-cultural issues and theimpacts of tourism on local hosts in Bali,Nepal, Thailand, Vanuatu, the Cook Islands,Native American reservations in the USA andMaori tourism in New Zealand. However, thisbook’s inclusion of case studies about Balinesepeople did not meet the criteria for‘Indigenous’ or tribal peoples as defined by theUN (Ryan, 1997).

The book, People and Tourism in FragileEnvironments (Price, 1996), included five casestudy chapters of Indigenous peoples andcommunity-based tourism in natural areas.

16 Chapter 1

These included cultural tourism at Zuni Pueblo,New Mexico (USA) (Mallari and Enote, 1996);Inuit hunting and tourism in Nunavut, northernCanada (Smith, 1996a); and the developmentof Aboriginal tourism on remote Cape YorkPeninsula in northern Australia (Strang, 1996).Another case study covered the 75,000 Samipeople in their Sapmi homeland of northernScandinavia, where tourism is based on thetraditional life of reindeer herding (Pedersen andViken, 1996). In Kenya, some Maasai peoplebenefit from ecotourism partnerships with safaritour operators on Maasai group ranches andtrust land, however, community disputes overincome from tourism have increased (Berger,1996). These five case studies review the keychallenges for Indigenous groups in developingecotourism ventures on tribal lands based onnatural and cultural resources.

Chapters on Indigenous ecotourism issues

have been included in more recent tourismbooks. For example, the book TourismDevelopment in Critical Environments includedchapters about community-based ecotourism onnature reserves in Belize, with Mayan familiesinvolved at Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary(Horwich and Lyon, 1999); community tourismin Senegal, Uganda and Namibia in Africa(Echtner, 1999); and tourism on Pueblo Indianreservations in Arizona and New Mexico, south-west USA (Lew, 1999). Books on sustainabletourism and special interest tourism have alsoincluded chapters on Indigenous tourismventures (Zeppel, 1998a, 2001). The EarthscanReader in Sustainable Tourism (France, 1997)included articles about Maasai people andtourism in Kenya and Tanzania, the CAMPFIREprogramme in Zimbabwe and ecotourism in theThird World (Cater, 1997). The book Tourismand Cultural Conflicts included chapters on


Table 1.5. Indigenous peoples and ecotourism in developed and developing countries.

Developed countries Developing countries

Indigenous peoples Minority cultures Majority or minority culturesOfficially recognized as Varied status as indigenous/tribal/minorities

Indigenous Traditional subsistence economiesTraditional or modern lifestyles Colonized or independent nationsColonized sovereign nations

Indigenous territories Mainly government reservations Ancestral lands and some Indigenous Co-managed Aboriginal national reserves

parks Live inside protected areas, share revenue Managed by tribal councils and Managed by Indigenous tribal councils

governmentTax-free status on reserves Threatened by resource extraction and

(North America) settlers

Indigenous rights Traditional resource use rights Communal resource use rights (forest, No direct wildlife ownership reefs)

rights Limited wildlife ownership or use rightsIntellectual and cultural No intellectual and cultural property rights

property rights Traditional or legal title to ancestral landsLegal title to ancestral lands

Indigenous ecotourism Supported by government Supported by conservation and aid NGOsagencies Funded by development agencies and NGOs

Funded by government grants Mainly community tourism venturesCommunity, family or individual Economic alternative to extractive land

ventures usesEconomic development of tribal

areas

Developed countries/regions = Canada, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Japan.Developing countries/regions = Pacific Islands (Oceania), Latin America, Africa, South-east Asia, China,India.

Maori tourism in New Zealand (Ryan, 1998),First Nations peoples managing heritage sites inCanada (Wall, 1998) and cultural property rightsfor Indigenous tourism in Australia (Whittaker,1998). Ecotourism: A Guide for Planners andManagers (Lindberg et al., 1998), published byThe Ecotourism Society, included three chaptersreviewing community-based ecotourism venturesin southern Africa (Christ, 1998), Ecuador(Drumm, 1998) and Indonesia (Sproule andSuhandi, 1998). Drumm (1998) reviewedecotourism ventures in Ecuador managed byQuechua, Huaorani, Napo Runa and CofanIndians. In contrast, the book Ecotourism in theLess Developed World (Weaver, 1998) did notcover Indigenous involvement in ecotourism.Most recently, Tourism in DestinationCommunities included a chapter reviewingIndigenous resource rights in tourism andbiodiversity (Johnston, 2003).

There are several published case studiesabout Indigenous ecotourism projects in thePacific region. Harrison (2003), in his editedbook Pacific Island Tourism, included chaptersreviewing ecotourism policy in Fiji andcommunity-based ecotourism projects, such asvillage guesthouses in Vanuatu and trekking onMakira Island in the Solomon Islands. Sofield(2003) in Empowerment for SustainableTourism Development critically examined theoutcomes of village or community-basedtourism projects in the Solomon Islands, Fijiand Vanuatu. A manual on Community-basedEcotourism and Conservation in the Pacificislands included 14 case studies of ecotourismventures in community Conservation Areas(SPREP, 2002). The book, Nature-basedTourism in Peripheral Areas: Development orDisaster? (Hall and Boyd, 2004) has a chapteron beach fale tourism in Samoa (Scheyvens,2004). In contrast, tourism books on Asia andAfrica have included little coverage ofIndigenous ecotourism, apart from villagetourism and management of national parks. Abook on local participation in Latin Americantourism included one chapter on Indigenoustourism in Ecuador (de Bont and Janssen,2002). A Companion to Tourism had a chapteron Indigenous peoples and tourism (Hinch,2004). Scheyvens’ (2002) book, Tourism forDevelopment: Empowering Communities,included reviews of CAMPFIRE, the

Sunungukai ecotourism venture and Noah’secocultural tours in Zimbabwe; communalconservancies in Namibia and Zambia; tourismat protected areas and Phinda wildlife reservein KwaZulu Natal, South Africa; and gorillatourism in Rwanda and Uganda. However,there was no chapter in this book dedicated toIndigenous tourism or ecotourism.

Since 2000, books on the ecotourismindustry, ecotourism policy and ecotourismmanagement have included some chapters orsections on Indigenous ecotourism issues.Zeppel (2003) examined current ecotourismpolicies for Indigenous peoples in Australia,while Hashimoto and Telfer (2004) reviewedAboriginal ecotourism in northern Canada.Duffy (2002) included a chapter on threats tocommunity-based ecotourism among Mayancommunities in Belize in her book titled A Triptoo Far: Ecotourism, Politics and Exploitation.Weaver’s (2001) book on ecotourism reviewedkey issues for ecotourism on Indigenousterritories, while Epler Wood (2002) coveredthe key criteria needed for ecotourism tobenefit Indigenous communities. TheEncyclopaedia of Ecotourism included achapter on Indigenous territories addressingland claims and Indigenous involvement inecotourism (Hinch, 2001). Page and Dowling’s(2002) book on ecotourism summarized anIndigenous ecotourism project in Capirona,Ecuador, based on research by Drumm (1998).Buckley’s (2003) Case Studies in Ecotourismprovided brief reviews of conservation andecotourism projects involving Indigenouspeoples in Latin America, Australia/NZ, Africaand Asia-Pacific. These studies mainly focusedon Indigenous ecotourism in protected areas,on private reserves, at ecolodges and a fewecotours on tribal lands. A manual onSustainable Development of Ecotourismincluded case studies of several Indigenousecotourism projects in Africa and LatinAmerica (WTO, 2003). The book Ecotourism:Management and Assessment (Diamantis,2004) has chapters on responsible naturetourism in South African parks, communityecotourism at Lisu Lodge (Thailand) and IlNgwesi Lodge (Kenya) (Johannson andDiamantis, 2004) and on Canadian Aboriginalecotourism (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2004).

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