info system.ppt

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Information Processing ApproachDefine cognition and differentiate

among the stage, levels-of-processing,parallel distributed processing, and

connectionist models of information

processing...


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Cognition can be defined as"the act or process of knowing in the

broadest sense; specifically, anintellectual process by which

knowledge is gained from perception

or ideas" (Webster's Dictionary).

The Cognitive System


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While cognitive psychology is the dominant

school of thought today, the information

processing approach is the dominant view

within this area.

Information Processing Approach

The information processing approach focuses

on the study of the structure and function of

mental processing within specific contexts,

environments, or ecologies.


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Information Processing ApproachThere are four major theories of how we

humans process information:

Stage approach Levels-of-processing theory Parallel distributed processing theory Connectionistic models


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The focus of this model is on how information

is stored in memory.

The Stage Theory

The model is based on the work of Atkinson and

Shriffin (1968) and proposes that information is

processed and stored in three stages:

Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its

control processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and

motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

Sensory memory

Short-term memory Long-term memory


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The Levels-of-Processing TheoryThe Levels-of-Processing theory is based on the

work of Craik and Lockhart (1972).

Craik, F., & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for

memory research. Journal of Verbal Thinking and Verbal Behavior, 11,

671-684. .

The major proposition is all stimuli that

activate a sensory receptor cell are

permanently stored in memory.According to these researchers, the issue isnot storage, but retrieval.


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Rather than hypothesize that information is

processed in stages, Craik and Lockhart

believe that retrieval of information is based on

the amount of elaboration used as informationis processed.

The Levels-of-Processing Theory

This is done on a continuum from perception,

through attention, to labeling, and finallymeaning.


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The parallel-distributed processing model

states that information is processed

simultaneously by several different parts of the

memory system, rather than sequentially ashypothesized by Atkinson-Shiffrin.

Parallel Distributed Processing Theory

The stage-theory model discussed in this course

differs slightly from that first proposed byAtkinson and Shriffin in order to incorporate

this principle.


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Connectionistic TheoryThe connectionistic model proposed by

Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) extends the

parallel-distributed processing model.

Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed

processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Cambridge,

MA: MIT Press.

This model emphasizes the fact that

information is stored in multiple locations

throughout the brain in the form of networks

of connections.


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Connectionistic Theory

It is also consistent with the levels-of-processing approach in that the more

connections to a single idea or concept (i.e., the

more extensively elaboration is used), the more

likely it is to be remembered.

It is one of the dominant forms of current

research in cognitive psychology and is

consistent with the most recent brain research.


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The Information Processing ApproachWhile there is much disagreement among

the various schools of thought related to

how human beings process information,

there are a few general principles aboutwhich almost all researchers agree:


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The Information Processing Approach

Limitedcapacity

assumption

The amount of information

that can be actively processedby the system at a given point

in time is constrained in some

very important ways.


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Limitedcapacity

assumptionBottlenecks, or restrictionsin the flow and processing

of information, occur at

very specific points.


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Controlmechanism

Required to oversee the

encoding, transformation,

processing, storage, retrieval

and utilization of

information.


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Controlmechanism

Not all of the processing

capacity of the system isavailable; an executive

function that oversees this

process will use up some of this

capability.


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Controlmechanism

When one is learning a new

task or is confronted with a

new environment, the

executive function requires

more processing power than

when one is doing a routinetask or is in a familiar

environment.


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Two-wayflow of

information

As we try to make sense of the

world around us, we

constantly use information

that we

gather through the senses

(often referred to as

bottom-up processing)


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Two-wayflow of

information

As we try to make sense of the

world around us, we

constantly use information

that we

information we have

stored in memory (often

called top-down processing)


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Two-wayflow of

informationThis is a dynamic processthat we use to construct

meaning about our

environment and our

relations to it.


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Two-wayflow of

information

This principle is somewhat

analogous to the differencebetween

inductive reasoning

deductive reasoning

OR


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Two-wayflow of

information

This principle is somewhat

analogous to the differencebetween

information we derive

from the senses

information generatedby our imaginations


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Geneticpreparation

A human infant is more

likely to look at a human

face than any other

stimulus.Language development is

similar in all humaninfants.


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Geneticpreparation The human organism hasbeen genetically prepared to

process and organize

information in specific ways.


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The Stage TheoryWe will focus on the stage theory in this course

as work has been done to identify how to apply

it to classroom and academic learning.

info system.ppt

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