insomnia and psychiatric disorders
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Introduction
During the past several years, the relationship between insomnia and psychiatric disorders has come to be
viewed as circular and synergistic. Psychiatric illnesses, particularly anxiety and mood disorders, have long
been recognized as a frequent cause of insomnia symptoms. In some instances, this association is even
formalized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV ) diagnostic
criteria. Clinical experience shows that almost all patients with mood and anxiety disorders have sleep
disturbances either chronically or during exacerbations of their psychiatric illnesses. However, it has become
clear that insomnia also increases the risk of future relapse or the development of new onset anxiety, mood, and
substance abuse disorders. This relationship can promote a downward spiral of symptom severity and quality of
life for patients that further complicates treatment efforts. On the other hand, the close association of insomnia,
depression, and anxiety symptoms can be viewed as an opportunity for targeted therapies that may provide
significant benefits for patients.
Introduction
Epidemiology
An analysis of data from the large-scale Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) project[1]
demonstrates the
relatively high percentage of individuals in the general population who suffer from significant insomnia
symptoms and meet the criteria for mood, anxiety, or substance abuse disorders. In all, 10% of the sample met
the stringent criteria for insomnia, and 40% of these insomnia sufferers met the criteria for at least 1 psychiatric
disorder. Major depression or dysthymia was diagnosed in 23%; anxiety disorder was diagnosed in 24%;
alcohol abuse was found in 7%; and drug abuse was discovered in 4%. Furthermore, if insomnia was present
both at baseline and 1 year later, the risk of the individual having a new onset mood or anxiety disorder at the
time of the follow-up interview increased significantly.
This general conclusion has been replicated in longitudinal studies with subjects ranging from adolescents to
the elderly.[2,3]
Indeed, any history of persistent insomnia augments the lifetime risk of major depression.[4]
It is
unclear whether the insomnia represents a prodrome, shared genetic vulnerability, or a causative process
promoting depressive symptoms. Nevertheless, this association emphasizes the need for early recognition and
treatment of insomnia, and an evaluation for potential psychiatric disorders.
Insomnia and Bipolar Disorder
In addition to major depression and dysthymic disorder, insomnia commonly occurs with bipolar disorder during
depressive and manic episodes. Although some manic patients will describe a decreased need for sleep, others
complain of being distressed by an inability to sleep. Sleep loss from any reason, including jet lag and workschedules, may contribute to the onset or progression of manic episodes in patients with bipolar disorder.
[5,6]
Insomnia and Psychiatric DisordersDavid N. Neubauer, MD
Posted: 06/21/2004
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Early sleep-targeted interventions may prevent or limit exacerbations for these patients.
Anxiety Disorders
Among anxiety disorders, insomnia is particularly problematic for patients with panic disorder, posttraumatic
stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and social phobia. Most patients with panic disorder at times will
experience distressing panic episodes that awaken them from sleep. This may lead to considerable anticipatory
anxiety about going to sleep, which may lead to sleep insufficiency and more anxiety.[7]
Patients withposttraumatic stress disorder frequently experience poor sleep quality and vivid nightmares.
[8]The chronic
anxiety of patients with generalized anxiety disorder often affects these patients throughout the night with
resulting difficulty falling asleep and repeated awakenings. Patients with social phobia report significantly worse
sleep quality and difficulty falling asleep as compared with healthy controls.[9]
Management of Insomnia in Patients With Psychiatric Comorbidities
Managing the insomnia complaints of patients with concurrent psychiatric disorders is a 2-pronged approach.
Specific therapeutic interventions should address the primary psychiatric condition. These interventions may
include psychotherapeutic, behavioral, and pharmacologic strategies. Optimizing the treatment of the underlying
disorder ultimately should improve sleep.
Medications for patients with mood and anxiety disorders include an assortment of antidepressants, anxiolytics,
and mood stabilizers. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants and venlafaxine (a
combination SSRI and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) often are effective for these patients, although they
rarely improve insomnia symptoms rapidly. Furthermore, some patients will develop insomnia as a side effect
from these medications.
A sedating antidepressant, such as amitriptyline, trazodone, or mirtazapine, may help with sleep, but also may
cause residual sedation the following day. If trazodone is prescribed, further caution is advised regarding
hypotension, priapism (men and women), and the potential contribution to the serotonin syndrome when
combined with other serotonergic medications. Although selected medications work well for certain patients,
there currently is no antidepressant that reliably and rapidly promotes improved nighttime sleep and daytimealertness.
General approaches to insomnia are those applicable to a broad range of patients and include sleep hygiene
and behavioral interventions, cognitive behavioral therapy, and hypnotic medications. These approaches may
be used concurrently with specific treatment strategies for the psychiatric disorders. There are several
advantages to this 2-pronged approach. First, there is greater choice in selecting medications for the psychiatric
symptoms, rather than restricting the options to sedating agents. There also can be flexibility in the dosage,
timing, and duration of use of medications targeting different symptoms. Second, hypnotic medications may
provide immediate relief and, subsequently, decreased distress and improved quality of life. A hypnotic can
offset the stimulating effect of some antidepressants. Third, these general insomnia treatment approaches can
directly address the perpetuating factors that reinforce chronic insomnia.
Currently available hypnotic agents include 5 benzodiazepines (estazolam, flurazepam, quazepam, temazepam,
and triazolam) and 2, newer nonbenzodiazepine agents (zaleplon and zolpidem). All of these medications are
positive allosteric modulators at the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A receptor complex. The inhibitory
GABA-A system functions through membrane hyperpolarization as negative chloride ions enter the cells.
Benzodiazepine receptor agonists enhance this normal process. The traditional benzodiazepines appear to
interact with most subunit configurations of the GABA-A receptor, whereas the newer agents are more selective
for a particular configuration. This selectivity and the relatively short elimination half-lives of these
nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics help explain the good efficacy, safety, and tolerance of these newer-generation
agents.
In clinical practice, hypnotics often are prescribed concurrently with antidepressants for patients with mood and
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anxiety disorders. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies of fluoxetine and sertraline combined with
zolpidem have been performed in healthy, nondepressed women.[10,11]
These studies found no clinically
significant interactions. Another trial evaluated the sleep of patients prescribed an SSRI concurrently with
zolpidem or a placebo.[12]
The study population included individuals successfully treated for depression with an
SSRI, but who were complaining of persistent insomnia. The hypnotic-treated patients reported significantly
improved sleep and daytime functioning.
New Agents
A variety of pharmacologic agents is being evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of insomnia. These
include new nonbenzodiazepine medications and modified-release preparations as well as melatonin agonists,
presynaptic and postsynaptic GABA-A modulators, and corticotropin-releasing factor antagonists.
On the near horizon is eszopiclone, a moderately short-acting, nonbenzodiazepine agent derived from
zolpiclone, which has been available outside the United States for several years. The newest development with
the nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics is the modified-release formulation. The rationale behind the development of
this formulation is that the immediate-release component promotes rapid sleep onset, whereas the extended-
release component helps maintain sleep through the night. Ideally, short medication half-lives will allow a rapid
decline of the sedating effects to prevent residual daytime effects. Formulations of this type are being evaluatedfor zaleplon and zolpidem. Indiplon is a new, very short half-life nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic that likely will be
available in both immediate- and modified-release formulations.
Looking for Other Causes of Sleeplessness
Although it is important to identify and treat the insomnia symptoms that may result from psychiatric illnesses, it
is equally important to evaluate psychiatric patients for other possible contributing causes of their sleep
disturbances. These may include stimulating effects of psychotropic and other medications, medical disorders
and underlying primary sleep disorders, circadian rhythm disorders, irregular schedules, and maladaptive habits
and routines. Patients with sleep apnea can present solely with insomnia complaints. Restless legs syndrome
and periodic limb movements, which can be exacerbated by most antidepressants, can cause difficulty falling
asleep and repeated awakenings. Withdrawn or agoraphobic patients may spend excessive time at home, sleepat irregular times, and be deprived of the photoperiod that normally reinforces the sleep-wake cycle.
Although the clinical history is the cornerstone of the evaluation of sleep disturbances, patients' descriptions of
their sleep problems can be supplemented with a sleep log or diary maintained for at least several weeks. This
may offer a more accurate representation of exactly when they are awake or sleeping (nighttime and daytime)
as compared with their summary given at a clinic appointment. It also can be helpful when monitoring the
effectiveness of treatment approaches. Consultation with a sleep medicine specialist and sleep laboratory
testing may be appropriate for patients with excessive daytime sleepiness, when patients are suspected of
having disorders, such as sleep apnea and narcolepsy, and when insomnia is persistent and not responsive to
standard treatments.
The effective treatment of insomnia in patients with psychiatric disorders may require a constellation of
strategies involving proper sleep habits, schedule manipulations, cognitive behavioral interventions, and
adjustments of psychiatric medications. Hypnotic medications may play a valuable role for selected patients.
Improving sleep can be an important catalyst to more general clinical recovery.
References
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