Instructional Design

JMA503-61

Monday 6:00-8:40

Objectives

1. Learning perspectives | influence

2. ToolBook interactions

Influences on ID

Learning Theory

Influences on ID

Theories of instruction...theories of instruction (TOI)

draw on knowledge generated by learning research and theory.

relate specified instructional events to learning processes and learning outcomes,

Gagne and Dick (1983, p. 264)

Theories of instructionTheories of instruction provide educators

and instructional developers methods and principles to help them create the conditions that will promote learning.

Theories of instructionExample: Gagne's theory of instruction defines:

taxonomy of learning outcomes (verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills);

learning hierarchies, acquire elemental skills prior to learning more complex skills;

events of instruction, a sequence of events that lessons should follow for optimized learning; and

conditions of learning, unique conditions necessary for learner to acquire desired, skill, knowledge or attitude (Driscoll, 2000, p. 357).

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/Resources2/gagnetax.htm

Theories of instructionExample: Gagne's theory of instruction defines:

taxonomy of learning outcomes (verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills);

learning hierarchies, acquire elemental skills prior to learning more complex skills;

events of instruction, a sequence of events that lessons should follow for optimized learning; and

conditions of learning, unique conditions necessary for learner to acquire desired, skill, knowledge or attitude (Driscoll, 2000, p. 357).

http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/Resources2/gagnetax.htm

Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning.

For example, to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Source: www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html

Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning.

For example, to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Source: www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/conditions-learning.html

Theories of instruction

Instructional theory explain causal link between instructional procedures and improvements in learning.

Instructional design identifies efficient and

effective procedures for instruction BUT does not explain causal relationship between instructional procedures and learning.

Psychological Basis

Three Perspectives

• Behaviorism

• Cognitivism

• Constructivism

Behaviorism

In the mid 1950s, behaviorism was the prevailing orthodoxy in American psychological science.

Behaviorism

Scientific psychology based solely on observable environmental stimuli and to the observable responses stimuli evoked.

Mysterious, unobservable mental processes not considered.

Behaviorism

What is... Behaviorism Behavioral psychology, also known as Skinnerian or

stimulus-response psychology.

Learning results from pairing of responses with stimuli.

Studies external, observable behaviors in trying to explain why behaviors occur.

Much in education and daily lives based on behaviorism.

Drill and Practice

(Example 2)

Behaviorism

By 1956 human complexity unexplained by behaviorism become evident (MIT symposium).

Noam Chomsky, George Miller, Herbert Simon, and Allen Newell - science of mind was necessary.

New research paradigm in psychology, Cognitive Science.

Cognitive Science

Cognitive scientists study how our minds work - how we think, remember, and learn.

Cognition is categorized by transformation of information from stimuli in the environment to a response by the learner.

Cognitive Science

Information Processing - Cognitivism

Cognitive Information Processing Model

Working memory

75948208316258492

How many can you remember?

Working memory

7 ± 2 “chunks” of information

Miller’s Law: bits of information average person can store in working memory is 7 ± 2.

Miller, G., 1956

Cognitive Science

Dog

LTM

STM

My

dog’

s na

me

was

Spa

rkie

Sparkie loved trees.

• We try to relate new information to knowledge we already know.• The more we can relate new information to things we already know, the

more memorable the information becomes and/or the easier it is to learn.

Cognitive Science

3-14-97

LTM

STMI was born in March on the 14th and I graduated college in 1997.

What do these number mean, what do these number mean? 3-14-97 How can I remember?

Encoding

• Relate new information to things we already know, the more memorable the information becomes and/or the easier it is to learn.

Rehearsal3-14-973-14-973-14-973-14-973-14-97…

Metaphor - often make interfaces easier to learn.

What we as designers can do… Design digital spaces so that people understand how to use them.

Cognitive Science: Prior knowledge

We are already familiar with a calculator in the real world.

Exploit prior knowledge

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 1997) consisting of three main ideas:

(a) dual coding, in which visual and verbal materials are processed in different processing systems (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1986),

(b) limited capacity, in which the processing capacities of visual and verbal memory systems are severely limited (Baddeley, 1992; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995), and

(c) generative learning, in which meaningful learning occurs when learners mentally select relevant information and build coherent connections (Mayer, 1999; Wittrock, 1990).

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Three main ideas (continued):

1. Two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information (referred to as Dual-Coding theory);

2. Each channel has a limited (finite) capacity;

3. Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based upon prior knowledge.

Limited capacity

People can hold a few images and a few sounds in working memory at one time (Cognitive load theory).

Span tests show the average memory span is small, from 5 to 7 “chunks” of information.

We constantly make decisions about the allocation of our processing resources.

Learning is an active process

We are not like tape recorders.

We don’t passively collect information.

We are constantly selecting, organizing and integrating information with past knowledge.

The result of this processing is the creation of a mental model of the information presented.

Working memory

We try to make sense of things, we look for patterns, we are constantly selecting, organizing and integrating information with past knowledge.

Working memory: Hard to remember

Working memory: easier to remember

Working memory: easier to remember

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Design principles: Provide coherent verbal, pictorial information Guide learners to select relevant words and

images, and Reduce load for a single processing channel.

http://www.learning-theories.com/

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

“…in short-term memory tasks, auditory presentation almost always resulted in higher recall than did visual presentation"

(Penney, 1989).

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Design principles:

When possible, present words as auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen text.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

“…people learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer, p. 47).

Dual-Coding Theory of Multimedia Learning

Mayer and Gallini (1990) found across three studies that coordination of words and pictures improved problem-solving transfer.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Learners who learned with concurrent narration and animations outperformed those who learned with concurrent on-screen text and animations.

Constructivism

Constructivism

Constructivism is concerned with the process of how we construct knowledge.

How we construct knowledge depends on what the learners already know, which depends on their experiences.

Constructivism

If we construct our own reality through interpreting experiences in the world, then professors cannot map their interpretations completely onto learners, because they don't share a set of common experiences and interpretations.

Rather, reality (or at least what we know and understand of reality) resides in the mind of each knower, who interprets the external world according to his or her own experiences, beliefs, and knowledge.

Constructivism

Constructivist learning occurs when learners actively construct meaningful mental representations from presented information.

(Richard E. Mayer)

Constructivism

When I say tree, you think…

Grass

Dog

Christmas

Rain forest

Each of us is likely to have a somewhat different meaning.

Constructivism

Characteristics of constructivist learning:

Learning is active. Multiple perspectives are valued and necessary. Learning is collaborative and cooperative rather than competitive. Control and responsibility for learning is in the hands of the learner.Learning should be learner-centered, learners actively participate in determining what and how learning occurs and teacher adjusts role from instructor to learning guide, facilitator, and coach.Learning is authentic and real-world based. Learners should be provided complex, authentic and relevant tasks and environments.

(Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson,1999; Driscoll, 2000)

Screen SampleScreen Sample

Software types

Drill and practiceTutorials (Ex 1) (Ex 2)SimulationsGamesProblem solving programs

Learning Theory

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-0Wxv-7saHM