Second Edition

Integrated ProductandProcess Design andDevelopmentThe Product Realization Process

Edward B. MagrabSatyandra K. GuptaF. Patrick McCluskeyPeter A. Sandborn

CRC PressTaylor &. Francis Group

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

Contents

Preface—Second Edition xiiiPreface—First Edition xvAuthors xvii

Chapter 1 Product Development at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century 1

1.1 Introduction 11.2 Ideas and Methods Currently Used in the Product Realization Process 3

1.2.1 Introduction 31.2.1.1 Engineering Design 31.2.1.2 Manufacturing 41.2.1.3 Logistics 41.2.1.4 Producibility 4

1.2.2 The Japanese Contribution to the Product Development Process 51.2.2.1 Just-In-Time (JIT) Manufacturing 51.2.2.2 Continuous Improvement 61.2.2.3 Lean Manufacturing 6

1.3 Innovation 71.4 Quality 9

1.4.1 A Brief History of the Quest for Quality Products and Services 91.4.2 Quality Quantified 101.4.3 Six Sigma 131.4.4 ISO 9000 14

1.5 Benchmarking 141.6 Partnering with Suppliers—Outsourcing 151.7 Mass Customization 17

Chapter 2 The Integrated Product and Process Design and Development Team Method 19

2.1 Introduction 192.2 The IP2D2 Team and Its Agenda 20

2.2.1 ,Stage 1: Product Identification 222.2.2 Stage 2: Concept Development 262.2.3 Stage 3: Design and Manufacturing 262.2.4 Stage 4: Launch 26

2.3 Technology's Role in IP2D2 272.4 IP2D2 Team Requirements..: 28

2.4.1 Team Requirements 282.4.2 Team Creativity 30

2.4.2.1 Brainstorming 322.4.2.2 Enlarging the Search Space 32

vi Contents

Chapter 3 Product Cost Analysis 35

3.1 Introduction 353.1.1 Engineering Economics and Cost Analysis 353.1.2 Scope of the Chapter 35

3.2 Determining the Cost of Products 373.2.1 The Cost of Ownership 373.2.2 Overhead or Indirect Costs 393.2.3 Hidden Costs 39

3.3 Design and Manufacturing Costs 403.3.1 Design and Development Costs 403.3.2 Manufacturing Costs 403.3.3 Cost of Manufacturing Quality 443.3.4 Test, Diagnosis, and Rework 45

3.4 Sustainment Costs: Life Cycle, Operation, and Support 483.4.1 Spare Parts and Availability: Impact of Reliability on Cost 483.4.2 Warranty and Repair 513.4.3 Qualification and Certification 52

3.5 Making a Business Case 543.5.1 Return on Investment 543.5.2 The Cost of Money , 55

3.6 Examples 563.6.1 Process Flow Model: The Manufacture of a Bicycle 56

3.6.1.1 Consideration of Manufacturing Yield 583.6.2 The Total Cost, Selling Price, and Cost of Ownership of a Bicycle 59

3.6.2.1 Cost of Ownership 623.6.3 Parametric Cost Model: Fabrication of Application-Specific

Integrated Circuits 633.6.4 The Return on Investment Associated with Web Banner

Advertising..: 663.6.5 Comparing the Total Cost of Ownership of Color Printers 683.6.6 Reliability, Availability, and Spare Parts of New York City

Voting Machines 70Bibliography :. 72

Chapter 4 Translating Customer Requirements into a Product Design Specification 73

4.1 Voice of the Customer 734.1.1 Recording the Voice of the Customer 754.1.2 Analyzing the Voice of the Customer 77

4.2 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) 78''" 4.2.1 Introduction 78

4.2.2 QFD and the House of Quality 794.3 Product Design Specification 85

Chapter 5 Product Functional Requirements and Functional Decomposition 91

5.1 Functional Modeling 915.1.1 Introduction 915.1.2 Functional Decomposition and the Axiomatic Approach:

Introduction 92

Contents _,

5.1.3 Functional Decomposition and the Axiomatic Approach: TwoAxioms 95

5.1.4 Functional Decomposition and the Axiomatic Approach:Mathematical Representation 97

5.2 Examples of Functional Decomposition 995.2.1 Introduction 99

5.2.1.1 Functional Independence versus Integration versusModularity 101

5.2.1.2 Phrasing of the Functional Requirements 1015.2.1.3 Physical Coupling 101

5.2.2 Example 1—Carton Taping System 1015.2.3 Example 2—Intelligent V-Bending Machine 1045.2.4 Example 3—High-Speed In-Press Transfer Mechanism 1065.2.5 Example 4—Drywall Taping System 1085.2.6 Example 5—Steel Frame Joining Tool 110

Chapter 6 Product Concepts and Embodiments 113

6.1 Introduction 1136.1.1 Initial Feasibility Analysis :. 1146.1.2 Estimation Example 1 1166.1.3 Estimation Example 2 116

6.2 Concept Generation and the Search for Solutions 1176.2.1 Introduction .'. 117

6.2.1.1 General Activities That Can Generate Ideas 1176.2.1.2 Ideas That Can Come from a Brainstorming Session 1176.2.1.3 Ideas That Can Come from Thinking about

Simplifying Things 1206.2.1.4 Crowdsourcing: Consumers as a Source of Ideas 120

6.2.2 Morphological Method.: 1206.2.3 TRIZ 1236.2.4 Bio-Inspired Concepts > 131

6.3 Product Modularity and Architecture" \ 1346.4 Concept Evaluation and Selection 1366.5 Product Embodiments 143Bibliography for Bio-Inspired Concepts 144

Chapter 7 Design for Assembly and Disassembly 145

7.1 Introduction 1457.2 Design for Assembly 146

7.2.1 Why Assemble? 1467.2.2 Assembly Principles and Guidelines 1477.2.3 Summary of Design-for-Assembly Guidelines 1487.2.4 Manual Assembly versus Automatic Assembly 152

7.3 Design for Disassembly (DFD) 1537.3.1 Introduction 1537.3.2 DFD Guidelines and the Effects on the Design for Assembly 153

viii _ Contents

Chapter 8 Material Selection 155

8.1 Introduction 1558.1.1 Importance of Materials in Product Development 1558.1.2 Guidelines for Materials Selection 155

8.1.2.1 Performance 1578.1.2.2 Producibility 1578.1.2.3 Reliability and Environmental Resistance 1578.1.2.4 Cost : 158

8.2 Ferrous Alloys 1628.2.1 Plain Carbon Steels 1628.2.2 Alloy Steels 163

8.2.2.1 Low-Alloy Steels 1638.2.2.2 Tool Steels 1668.2.2.3 Stainless Steels 167

8.2.3 Cast Irons 1678.2.3.1 Gray Irons 1688.2.3.2 Malleable Irons 1688.2.3.3 Ductile (Nodular) Irons 1698.2.3.4 Alloy Cast Iron 169

8.3 Nonferrous Alloys 1698.3.1 Light Alloys 169

8.3.1.1 Zinc Alloys 1698.3.1.2 Aluminum Alloys 1708.3.1.3 Magnesium Alloys 1748.3.1.4 Titanium Alloys : 174

8.3.2 Heavy Alloys 1758.3.2.1 Copper Alloys 1758.3.2.2 Nickel Alloys 1788.3.2.3 Tin'Alloys 1788.3.2.4 Cobalt Alloys 179

8.3.3 Refractory Metals 1798.3.3.1 Molybdenum Alloys 1798.3.3.2 Tungsten Alloys. - 179

8.4 Special Purpose Alloys 1808.4.1 Low Expansion Alloys 1808.4.2 Permanent Magnet Materials 1808.4.3 Electrical Resistance Alloys 181

8.4.3.1 Resistance Alloys 1818.4.3.2 Thermostat Metals 1828.4.3.3 Heating Alloys 182

8.5 ' Polymers 1838.5.1 Introduction 1838.5.2 Thermoplastics—Partially Crystalline 184

8.5.2.1 Polyethylene 1848.5.2.2 Polypropylene 1848.5.2.3 Acetals 1878.5.2.4 Nylons 1878.5.2.5 Fluorocarbons 188

Contents

8.5.2.6 Polyimides 1888.5.2.7 Cellulosic Materials 188

8.5.3 Thermoplastics—Amorphous 1898.5.3.1 Polycarbonates 1898.5.3.2 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) 1898.5.3.3 Polystyrene 1898.5.3.4 Polyvinyl Chloride 1898.5.3.5 Polyurethane 190

8.5.4 Thermosets—Highly Crosslinked 1908.5.4.1 Epoxies 1908.5.4.2 Phenolics 1918.5.4.3 Polyesters 191

8.5.5 Thermosets—Lightly Crosslinked 1928.5.5.1 Silicone Resins 1928.5.5.2 Acrylics 1928.5.5.3 Rubbers 192

8.5.6 Engineered Plastics 1938.5.6.1 Mechanical Property Enhancement 1948.5.6.2 Conductivity Enhancement 1948.5.6.3 Wear Resistance 1948.5.6.4 Color '. 1948.5.6.5 Flame Retardant Increase 1948.5.6.6 Plasticizers 195

8.6 Ceramics 1958.6.1 Structural Ceramics 1958.6.2 Electrically Insulating Ceramics 195

8.6.2.1 Ferroelectrics 1978.6.3 Thermally Conductive Ceramics 1978.6.4 Magnetic Ceramics 197

8.6.4.1 Soft Ferrites 1978.6.4.2 Hard Ferrites 197

8.7 Composites 1988.7.1 Metal Matrix Composites 1988.7.2 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 1988.7.3 Carbon/Carbon Composites 1998.7.4 Cemented Carbides 1998.7.5 Functionally Graded Materials 199

8.8 Smart Materials 2008.8.1 Piezoelectric Materials 2008.8.2 Magnetostrictive Materials 2018.8.3 Shape Memory Materials 201

8.9 Nanomaterials 2028.9.1 Sintered Nanoparticle Solids 202

8.9.1.1 Nanocrystalline Magnetic Materials 2028.9.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes 202

8.10 Coatings 2028.10.1 Wear and Scratch Resistance 2038.10.2 Electrically Conductive/Insulating 203

Bibliography 203

x Contents

Chapter 9 Manufacturing Processes and Design 205

9.1 Introduction 2059.1.1 Common Design Attributes 2059.1.2 General Guidelines for Reduced Manufacturing Costs 2069.1.3 Relationship to Part Shape 2099.1.4 Example—Steel Frame Joining Tool 210

9.1.4.1 Tool Shell 2109.1.4.2 Impact Piston 2109.1.4.3 Compression Piston Chamber 211

9.2 Casting—Permanent Mold 2119.2.1 Pressure Die Casting 2119.2.2 Centrifugal Casting 2139.2.3 Compression Molding 2149.2.4 Plastic Injection Molding 2169.2.5 Metal Injection Molding 2189.2.6 In-Mold Assembly 219

9.3 Casting—Permanent Pattern 2219.3.1 Sand Casting 2219.3.2 Shell Mold Casting 222

9.4 Casting—Expendable Pattern 2249.4.1 Investment Casting 224

9.5 Cutting—Mechanical Machining 2259.5.1 Single Point Cutting: Turning and Facing 2259.5.2 Milling: Multiple Point Cutting -. 2269.5.3 Grinding 227

9.6 Cutting—Electromachining 2299.6.1 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 229

9.7 Forming—Sheet '. 2309.7.1 Blow Molding 2309.7.2 Sheet Metal Working 232

9.8 Forming—Bulk 2339.8.1 Forging 2339.8.2 Rolling...: .-. 2359.8.3 Extrusion ; 236

9.9 Powder Processing 2389.9.1 Powder Metallurgy 238

9.10 Layered Manufacturing 2399.10.1 Introduction 2399.10.2 Stereolithography 2429.10.3 Fused Deposition Modeling 242

'9.10.4 Solid Ground Curing 2449.10.5 Selective Laser Sintering 2449.10.6 Laminated Object Manufacturing 2459.10.7 3D Printing 2469.10.8 Comparisons of the LM Processes 246

Bibliography 248

Contents., xi

Chapter 10 Design for "X" 249

10.1 Life-Cycle Engineering 24910.1.1 Introduction 24910.1.2 Reliability 25010.1.3 Failure Identification Techniques 25110.1.4 Design for Wear 254

10.2 Poka-Yoke 25510.2.1 Introduction 25510.2.2 The Basic Functions of Poka-Yoke 256

10.3 Design for Maintainability (Serviceability) 25710.3.1 Introduction 25710.3.2 Standardization 258

10.4 Design for Packaging 25910.4.1 Environmental Impact of Packaging 259

10.5 Design for the Environment 26010.6 Ergonomics: Usability, Human Factors, and Safety 26210.7 Material Handling 26410.8 Product Safety, Liability, and Design 265

10.8.1 Product Liability Law 267

Chapter 11 Product and Process Improvement 269

11.1 Introduction 26911.2 What Is Experimental Design? 2701.1.3 Guidelines for Designing Experiments 274

11.3.1 Designed Experiments and Statistical Process Control 27411.4 Factorial Analysis 275

11.4.1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 27511.4.2 Single-Factor Experiment 27611.4.3 Factorial Experiments 27811.4.4 Factorial Experiments with One Replicate 28011.4.5 2k Factorial Analysis 28111.4.6 2* Factorial Analysis with One Replicate 28411.4.7 Regression Model of the Output 28711.4.8 2k Fractional Factorial Analysis 288

11.5 Examples of the Use of the Analysis of Variance 28911.5.1 Example 1—Manufacture of Stiff Composite Beams 28911.5.2 Example 2—Optimum Performance of an Air-Driven Vacuum

Cleaner 28911.6 The Taguchi Method 295

11.6.1 Quality Loss Function 29611.7 Six Sigma 297Bibliography 298

Appendix A: Material Properties and the Relative Cost of Raw Materials 299

Index 303