Interclausal Interclausal relations in relations in

Orizaba NawatlOrizaba Nawatl(towards a preliminary initial beginning of a first stab (towards a preliminary initial beginning of a first stab

at)at)

A usage-based A usage-based accountaccountDavid TuggyDavid TuggySIL-MexicoSIL-Mexico

Orizaba Nawatl (ON)Orizaba Nawatl (ON)

Orizaba Nawatl Orizaba Nawatl (ON) is spoken (ON) is spoken in the moun-in the moun-tains south of tains south of the city of Ori-the city of Ori-zaba, zaba, Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico.Mexico.

Orizaba Nawatl (ON)Orizaba Nawatl (ON) As many as 150,000 people speak a As many as 150,000 people speak a

variety of closely-related dialects of variety of closely-related dialects of the language.the language.

The data used in this study, along with The data used in this study, along with Spanish translations for them, were Spanish translations for them, were composed as illustrations for lexical composed as illustrations for lexical entries in a dictionaryentries in a dictionary

by Victor Hernández de Jesús, who is by Victor Hernández de Jesús, who is from San Juan del Río (officially Rafael from San Juan del Río (officially Rafael Delgado), about 8 km. SE of Orizaba.Delgado), about 8 km. SE of Orizaba.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar As a “usage-based” theory, Cognitive As a “usage-based” theory, Cognitive

Grammar claims that linguistic Grammar claims that linguistic structures derive their specifications structures derive their specifications from the ways they are used.from the ways they are used.

The meaning of a structure, in The meaning of a structure, in particular, is a distillation of what is particular, is a distillation of what is common to the cognitive structures common to the cognitive structures shared by speakers and hearers in shared by speakers and hearers in particular usages where the structure particular usages where the structure has occurred.has occurred.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar Meanings consist in expectations, of Meanings consist in expectations, of

varying degrees of strength, that the varying degrees of strength, that the common structure of previous usages common structure of previous usages will occur again.will occur again.

They are also usefully thought of as They are also usefully thought of as instructions from the speaker to the instructions from the speaker to the hearer, to modify the current shared hearer, to modify the current shared cognitive structure in accordance with cognitive structure in accordance with those expectations.those expectations.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar A common misunderstanding arises from A common misunderstanding arises from

uncritical acceptance of the “container uncritical acceptance of the “container metaphor”which views words and other metaphor”which views words and other structures as “boxes” that “contain” their structures as “boxes” that “contain” their meanings.meanings.

This implies This implies that a meaning has a clear “inside” and an that a meaning has a clear “inside” and an

“outside”, and “outside”, and that the meanings of neighboring structures are that the meanings of neighboring structures are

separate from it and will adjoin but not overlap it.separate from it and will adjoin but not overlap it. Both of these implications are basically Both of these implications are basically

wrong.wrong.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar It is more helpful to think of meanings as It is more helpful to think of meanings as

windows on a vast network of inter-related windows on a vast network of inter-related ideas that the speaker and hearer have come ideas that the speaker and hearer have come to share.to share.

Neighboring windows typically afford Neighboring windows typically afford overlapping views; overlap of meanings is overlapping views; overlap of meanings is normal.normal.

From a given window some specifications will From a given window some specifications will be “in your face”, almost impossible to ignore.be “in your face”, almost impossible to ignore.

Others will be far off, inconspicuous, and Others will be far off, inconspicuous, and unlikely to be focused on.unlikely to be focused on.

But it is only a matter of degree of prominence But it is only a matter of degree of prominence (salience) which are central to the meaning (salience) which are central to the meaning and which are peripheral to what degrees.and which are peripheral to what degrees.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar In lexical, phrasal and clausal structures In lexical, phrasal and clausal structures

the meaning usually consists in an in-the meaning usually consists in an in-your-face “profile” (designated structure) your-face “profile” (designated structure) which stands out as figure against a which stands out as figure against a cognitive background (“base”).cognitive background (“base”).

Features Features intrinsicintrinsic to the profiled to the profiled element (“inside-the-box”) tend to be element (“inside-the-box”) tend to be prominent or central to the meaning, prominent or central to the meaning, while while extrinsicextrinsic (outside-the-box) (outside-the-box) features tend to be less so.features tend to be less so.

But these are only tendencies.But these are only tendencies.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar Sometimes extrinsic specifications are central.Sometimes extrinsic specifications are central. For the word For the word hathat, the shape, color, and material , the shape, color, and material

are intrinsic. Yet they can vary widely.are intrinsic. Yet they can vary widely. The extrinsic relationship of being worn on a The extrinsic relationship of being worn on a

head is arguably a more salient (central), head is arguably a more salient (central), general and strongly-expected part of the general and strongly-expected part of the meaning.meaning.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar If it is fulfilled, almost anything can If it is fulfilled, almost anything can

be called a “hat”.be called a “hat”.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar For relational terms especially, the For relational terms especially, the

entities which are related, though in entities which are related, though in a sense extrinsic, are very a sense extrinsic, are very prominent. prominent.

It is (probably) impossible to It is (probably) impossible to conceive of the relation without conceive of the relation without conceiving of them.conceiving of them.

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar You cannot conceive of You cannot conceive of (temporal)(temporal) “AFTER” “AFTER”

without thinking of two events occurring without thinking of two events occurring sequentially.sequentially.

The second of these events is given more The second of these events is given more prominence and is thus the “trajector” or prominence and is thus the “trajector” or subject; the preceding event is the “landmark” subject; the preceding event is the “landmark” or object.or object.

Event A

time

Event B

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar It is no accident that you do not It is no accident that you do not

(almost, you cannot) use the word (almost, you cannot) use the word afterafter without syntactic neighbors without syntactic neighbors which specify the nature of the which specify the nature of the trajector and landmark.trajector and landmark.

Event B

Event A

time

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar That is, That is, afterafter automatically brings automatically brings

with it the expectation of occurrence with it the expectation of occurrence in a syntactic construction with a in a syntactic construction with a subject and an object.subject and an object.

time

Event A

Event B

…

(subject)

…

(object)

semantic structure

phonological structure

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar This extrinsic relationship of This extrinsic relationship of afterafter to to

its syntagmatic partners is highly its syntagmatic partners is highly central to it.central to it.

time

Event A

Event B

…

(subject)

…

(object)

semantic structure

phonological structure

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar It is not, in principle, different in kind from It is not, in principle, different in kind from

other extrinsic specifications that, through other extrinsic specifications that, through usage, come to be associated with a form.usage, come to be associated with a form.

time

Event A

Event B

…

(subject)

…

(object)

semantic structure

phonological structure

Usage-based grammarUsage-based grammar Hats go on heads, and Hats go on heads, and after after goes with an object goes with an object

and a subject, for much the same reason:and a subject, for much the same reason: They constantly show up together.They constantly show up together. Consistent usage entrenches the expectation of Consistent usage entrenches the expectation of

further such usage.further such usage.

A B

… …

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations AfterAfter can be construed with a nominal (Thing) subject can be construed with a nominal (Thing) subject

and object, or clausal ones (grounded Processes), in and object, or clausal ones (grounded Processes), in any combination.any combination.

E.g. one might say E.g. one might say a nap after breakfasta nap after breakfast,, or or he slept he slept after he ateafter he ate..

(Or (Or a nap after he atea nap after he ate, or , or he slept after breakfasthe slept after breakfast.).) In any case, the subject is mentally located in time In any case, the subject is mentally located in time

subsequent to the time of the object.subsequent to the time of the object.

hié tʸ

(object)

(present)t

food

time

time

hisl pt

(subject)

(present)t

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations afterafter is, accordingly, a unified “lexical item” is, accordingly, a unified “lexical item” notwithstanding the fact that it is called a notwithstanding the fact that it is called a

“preposition” when it has a nominal object, “preposition” when it has a nominal object, and a “subordinating conjunction” when it and a “subordinating conjunction” when it has a clausal object.has a clausal object. Clausal relators very often are useful relators of Clausal relators very often are useful relators of

other kinds of structures as well.other kinds of structures as well.

hié tʸ

(object)

(present)t

food

time

time

hisl pt

(subject)

(present)t

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations AfterAfter’s various usages are describable as nodes ’s various usages are describable as nodes

in the same kind of coherent schematic network in the same kind of coherent schematic network that helps define other lexical items. that helps define other lexical items.

time

……

semantic structure

phonological structure

time

Thing

time

Process

time

Thing

time

Process

(This is far from an exhaustive account, of course. Non-temporal usages of (This is far from an exhaustive account, of course. Non-temporal usages of afterafter must must fit in, also, for instance, or the fit in, also, for instance, or the afterafter CLAUSE, CLAUSE CLAUSE, CLAUSE constructions.) constructions.)

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations The “subordination” imposed by The “subordination” imposed by afterafter

consists (largely if not entirely) in the consists (largely if not entirely) in the lesser prominence accorded the object lesser prominence accorded the object (landmark) as compared with the (landmark) as compared with the subject (trajector).subject (trajector).

The hearer’s attention is directed to the The hearer’s attention is directed to the subject clause in preference to the subject clause in preference to the object clause.object clause.

This is not an absolute thing, however. This is not an absolute thing, however. Like many other semantic specifications, it Like many other semantic specifications, it

is an expectation that can be overridden.is an expectation that can be overridden.

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations This seems to happen especially This seems to happen especially

easily at inter-clausal and higher easily at inter-clausal and higher discourse levels,discourse levels,

to the point that it becomes less than to the point that it becomes less than clear that “subjecthood” and clear that “subjecthood” and “objecthood” are the right ways to “objecthood” are the right ways to talk about what’s happening.talk about what’s happening.

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations At best they are instructions for At best they are instructions for

default prominences, but both speaker default prominences, but both speaker and hearer know they may be and hearer know they may be overridden.overridden.

Usage that overrides them will Usage that overrides them will become entrenched as the become entrenched as the expectation (weighted largely expectation (weighted largely according to frequency of the usage) according to frequency of the usage) that they may be overridden on other that they may be overridden on other occasions. occasions.

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations It is a complex matter, and difficult to It is a complex matter, and difficult to

pin down, but it seems clear thatpin down, but it seems clear that In clausal and smaller structures, you want In clausal and smaller structures, you want

to build a single coherent picture, with a to build a single coherent picture, with a single unambiguous profile.single unambiguous profile.

Clear signalling of main vs. subordinate Clear signalling of main vs. subordinate status is important to that end.status is important to that end.

Langacker suggests, following Chafe (1994) Langacker suggests, following Chafe (1994) and others, that a single clause and others, that a single clause prototypically (but far from inevitably) prototypically (but far from inevitably) correlates with an “intonational group” (on correlates with an “intonational group” (on the phonological side) and a “single the phonological side) and a “single attentional gesture” (on the semantic side).attentional gesture” (on the semantic side).

Inter-clausal relationsInter-clausal relations As the complexity of multi-clausal As the complexity of multi-clausal

structures increases, howeverstructures increases, however The “single coherent picture” prototype The “single coherent picture” prototype

gradually gives way to a series of coherent gradually gives way to a series of coherent pictures.pictures.

This is doubtless related to issues of This is doubtless related to issues of processing time and cognitive processing processing time and cognitive processing capacity.capacity.

As it becomes less intrinsically important to As it becomes less intrinsically important to achieve a single unambiguous profile,achieve a single unambiguous profile,

a clear distinction between main and a clear distinction between main and subordinate status becomes less normative. subordinate status becomes less normative.

Coordination, and other prominence Coordination, and other prominence arrangements such alternation or cession of arrangements such alternation or cession of control, become more common. control, become more common.

Inter-clausal relations Inter-clausal relations in Orizaba Nawatlin Orizaba Nawatl

As in any language, the system of As in any language, the system of interclausal relations in ON is very complex.interclausal relations in ON is very complex.

We will briefly examine the next-most-We will briefly examine the next-most-common relational mechanism, and then, common relational mechanism, and then, even more briefly, the most common one.even more briefly, the most common one.

First, some relevant facts about ON clauses:First, some relevant facts about ON clauses:

Clauses Clauses in Orizaba Nawatlin Orizaba Nawatl

In Nahuatl generally, and in ON in In Nahuatl generally, and in ON in particular:particular: Verbs obligatorily carry pronominal prefixes Verbs obligatorily carry pronominal prefixes

for subject and (if transitive) primary object.for subject and (if transitive) primary object. Any verb can function alone as a full clause.Any verb can function alone as a full clause. Clausal subjects, objects, secondary objects, Clausal subjects, objects, secondary objects,

time expressions, etc., are in this sense time expressions, etc., are in this sense “optional”. “optional”.

NP’s with those functions are not marked NP’s with those functions are not marked morphologically or by position. One figures out morphologically or by position. One figures out their relation to the verb by what makes sense their relation to the verb by what makes sense in the context. in the context.

Clauses Clauses in Orizaba Nawatlin Orizaba Nawatl

There are no infinitives or There are no infinitives or participles. participles.

(Though there are some participle-like (Though there are some participle-like nominalized forms, they are not used like nominalized forms, they are not used like verbs or to form verbs.)verbs or to form verbs.)

Full finite verbs are used where in Full finite verbs are used where in Indo-European languages we might Indo-European languages we might expect infinitives or participles.expect infinitives or participles.

This naturally increases the number of This naturally increases the number of clausal combinations one is dealing clausal combinations one is dealing with in comparable stretches of text.with in comparable stretches of text.

Clauses Clauses in Orizaba Nawatlin Orizaba Nawatl

A number of clausal types have no A number of clausal types have no verb. E.g. verb. E.g. yi kaxtolliyi kaxtolli [ [already 15]already 15] means “it’s been two weeks”.means “it’s been two weeks”.

Adjectives and nouns can be used as Adjectives and nouns can be used as clausal heads, meaning “be Adj/N”.clausal heads, meaning “be Adj/N”.

When used as clausal heads, they When used as clausal heads, they take the same subject prefixes as do take the same subject prefixes as do verbs.verbs.

Verbless clauses Verbless clauses in Orizaba Nawatlin Orizaba Nawatl

Since the 3Since the 3rdrd person subject prefix is a person subject prefix is a zero, however, you cannot really tell if zero, however, you cannot really tell if the prefix is there. the prefix is there.

(Some analysts —Michel Launey, J. Richard Andrews(Some analysts —Michel Launey, J. Richard Andrews—claim it always is. This is not easy to refute, of —claim it always is. This is not easy to refute, of course! Launey uses the term “omnipredicativity”.)course! Launey uses the term “omnipredicativity”.)

So So amehw̯an an-siw̯amehamehw̯an an-siw̯ameh (you.pl you.pl-women)(you.pl you.pl-women)

can mean “you women” or “you are can mean “you women” or “you are women”.women”.

siw̯amehsiw̯ameh (women)(women) by itself can mean by itself can mean “women” or “they are women”.“women” or “they are women”.

weyiweyi can mean “big”, “(a) big one”, or can mean “big”, “(a) big one”, or “s/he/it is big”.“s/he/it is big”.

nn Orizaba Nawatl has an odd little morpheme: Orizaba Nawatl has an odd little morpheme: nn. .

It seems to behave, and is written at least by some, as a It seems to behave, and is written at least by some, as a separate word. (It does not enter into neighboring word separate word. (It does not enter into neighboring word phonotactics, for instance).phonotactics, for instance).

It is the only word consisting of a single consonant. It is the only word consisting of a single consonant. (It was (It was inin in Classical Nahuatl and still is in some dialects. in Classical Nahuatl and still is in some dialects.

It is gone in others, including some ON variants.)It is gone in others, including some ON variants.) It is never stressed, though it is marginally syllabic.It is never stressed, though it is marginally syllabic.

Its most common usage is as a (sort of) definite Its most common usage is as a (sort of) definite article, modifying a following noun or NP. article, modifying a following noun or NP. You will see many cases of this usage in the examples.You will see many cases of this usage in the examples. Unlike Unlike thethe, it is commonly used with proper names, , it is commonly used with proper names,

pronouns, and possessed nouns.pronouns, and possessed nouns.

nn It also functions as a rather versatile It also functions as a rather versatile

subordinating conjunction.subordinating conjunction. It may help to compare it with It may help to compare it with thatthat in in

English, which is definite, and also a English, which is definite, and also a versatile subordinator.versatile subordinator.

Here are some of the kinds of Here are some of the kinds of subordinations it marks.subordinations it marks. (Alternative suggested translations are (Alternative suggested translations are

given in square brackets at the end of the given in square brackets at the end of the sentences’ translations.)sentences’ translations.)

Relative Relative nn-Clauses-Clauses Like Like thatthat, , nn is sometimes used for relative is sometimes used for relative

(adjectival) clauses(adjectival) clauses(1)(1) Nēw̯itzeh n tlakah Nēw̯itzeh n tlakah n okichiw̯atoh n okichiw̯atoh

n mikkatekochtlin mikkatekochtli.. there.they.come N men there.they.come N men N they.went.to.make.it N dead.man’s.holeN they.went.to.make.it N dead.man’s.hole

“There come the men “There come the men who went and dug the gravewho went and dug the grave.” [back .” [back from digging the grave]from digging the grave]

(2) (2) Opeh kualani n konetl Opeh kualani n konetl n okinapalohtoyan okinapalohtoya began he.is.angry N child began he.is.angry N child N she.was.hugging.himN she.was.hugging.him

n Isabeln Isabel okimatetexoh asta okimaeskixtih. okimatetexoh asta okimaeskixtih.N IsabelN Isabel he.arm.bit.her until he.arm.bled.her he.arm.bit.her until he.arm.bled.her

“The kid “The kid that Isabel was holding in her armsthat Isabel was holding in her arms threw a threw a tantrum, and bit her hand/arm so hard that he made it bleed.”tantrum, and bit her hand/arm so hard that he made it bleed.”

Relative Relative nn-Clauses-Clauses Sometimes it is a “headless” relative Sometimes it is a “headless” relative

clause (in which case the clause (in which case the nn itself may itself may be analyzed as head):be analyzed as head):

(3)(3) Seamechonnotza Seamechonnotza n n ankimaw̯iw̯itlatoyah n Ignasyoankimaw̯iw̯itlatoyah n Ignasyo we.talk.to.you.pl we.talk.to.you.pl N you.pl.were.weeding N IgnacioN you.pl.were.weeding N Ignacio

inardohyoh.inardohyoh.his.lily.fieldhis.lily.field

“We are talking to you “We are talking to you who were weeding Ignacio’s who were weeding Ignacio’s Easter lily fieldEaster lily field.”.”

(One could also take the object pronoun(One could also take the object pronoun amech-amech- as head in this example) as head in this example)

Relative Relative nn-Clauses-Clauses A particularly interesting case is that in A particularly interesting case is that in

which the relativized clause (if that is which the relativized clause (if that is what it is) consists in a single adjective:what it is) consists in a single adjective:

(4)(4) Xikillikan piltontli makamo kahkokuiXikillikan piltontli makamo kahkokui tell.him boy not.subjnct he.raise.it tell.him boy not.subjnct he.raise.it

n etik n etik n kuaw̯itl, welitis n kuaw̯itl, welitis ahkolpatilawis.ahkolpatilawis.N heavy N heavy N woodN wood he.can.fut he.will.be.shoulder.twistedhe.can.fut he.will.be.shoulder.twisted

“Tell the boy not to lift “Tell the boy not to lift the heavythe heavy log/firewood; he might log/firewood; he might strain/twist/dislocate his shoulder.” [the log that is heavy]strain/twist/dislocate his shoulder.” [the log that is heavy]

Subject Subject nn-Clauses-Clauses Again like Again like thatthat, , nn is often used on is often used on

complement clauses, including subject complement clauses, including subject clauses, object clauses, or others.clauses, object clauses, or others.

(5)(5) N teh iw̯an Lidio mach amechkokoh N teh iw̯an Lidio mach amechkokoh n n antlahw̯ilitoyaantlahw̯ilitoya N you and Lydio not it.hurt.you N you and Lydio not it.hurt.you N you.went.to.irrigateN you.went.to.irrigate sewasewa; ¿nelli?; ¿nelli?it.is.coldit.is.cold true? true?

”It didn’t hurt you and Lydio ”It didn’t hurt you and Lydio that you went and irrigated the that you went and irrigated the field in the coldfield in the cold, did it?” [to go and irrigate, did it?” [to go and irrigate]]

(6)(6) Asta nikan omokak Asta nikan omokak n opitzin kamyón n opitzin kamyón iyantaiyanta.. until here it.was.heard until here it.was.heard N it.perforated truck its.tireN it.perforated truck its.tire

“When the truck’s tire popped“When the truck’s tire popped, , itit was audible clear over here.” was audible clear over here.”

Subject Subject nn-Clauses-Clauses Subject Subject nn-clauses are particularly frequent -clauses are particularly frequent

when the main clause is a non-verbal type.when the main clause is a non-verbal type.

(7)(7) Asta yisemi Asta yisemi n okikuatekihkeh n Minervan okikuatekihkeh n Minerva until a.few.days until a.few.days N they.baptized.her N MinervaN they.baptized.her N Minerva imichpokatzin.imichpokatzin. their.daughtertheir.daughter

””ItIt’s been several days ago now ’s been several days ago now that they baptized Minerva that they baptized Minerva [and her husband]’s daughter [and her husband]’s daughter.” [since they baptized.” [since they baptized]]

(8) (8) Tlen tlakualnextia sakeh mach owih Tlen tlakualnextia sakeh mach owih n n okichihchihkehokichihchihkeh.. what beautifies.stuff just.like not difficult what beautifies.stuff just.like not difficult N they.did/built.itN they.did/built.it “The way they’ve fixed the place up, you’d think “The way they’ve fixed the place up, you’d think what they did what they did was easy .”was easy .”

Object Object nn-Clauses-Clauses(9)(9) Niktlalia Niktlalia n anpixkakeh n anpixkakeh amotlallahamotlallah, ,

I.place.it I.place.it N you.harvested your.fieldN you.harvested your.field tlakah itech okse tlalli, Jaime. tlakah itech okse tlalli, Jaime. but.it.was in.it another land James but.it.was in.it another land James

“I thought “I thought that you all had harvested in your own fieldthat you all had harvested in your own field, , James, but as it turns out it was the other field.”James, but as it turns out it was the other field.”

(10)(10) Mariana mach okikak Mariana mach okikak n okillihkeh n okillihkeh makamomakamo Marian not she.heard.it Marian not she.heard.it N they.told.her may.it.not.beN they.told.her may.it.not.be

kichachalachili n kokochi n ikni.kichachalachili n kokochi n ikni.she.rattle.it.at.him N toy.car N her.siblingshe.rattle.it.at.him N toy.car N her.sibling

”Marian didn’t hear ”Marian didn’t hear that they told her not to make noise that they told her not to make noise to her brother with the toy car.”to her brother with the toy car.” [them tell her, when [them tell her, when they told herthey told her]]

Complement Complement nn-Clauses-Clauses(11)(11) ¿Kox yen poyohtenan amo kualli ¿Kox yen poyohtenan amo kualli

kahki kahki whether it’s.she hen not good she.iswhether it’s.she hen not good she.is

n ayemo tlakixtian ayemo tlakixtia??N not.yet she.hatchesN not.yet she.hatches??

”Is it the sick hen ”Is it the sick hen that hasn’t hatched her chicks that hasn’t hatched her chicks yetyet?” [Is the ?” [Is the sícksíck hen the one hen the one…]…]

(12)(12) ¿Keskintih okipalew̯ihkeh n Raúl ¿Keskintih okipalew̯ihkeh n Raúl n n opixkakopixkak?? How.many they.helped.him N Raul How.many they.helped.him N Raul N he.harvestedN he.harvested? ?

”How many helped Raul ”How many helped Raul harvestharvest??”” [when he harvested [when he harvested]]

Causal Causal nn-Clauses-Clauses A A nn-clause commonly expresses a cause.-clause commonly expresses a cause.

(13)(13) Amikah mokuapitzinia Amikah mokuapitzinia n anmotlatlamuitlahn anmotlatlamuitlah, , pipiltih.pipiltih. nobody he.bursts.his.head nobody he.bursts.his.head N you.pl.throw.yourselvesN you.pl.throw.yourselves, boys, boys

””None of you boys better bust his head open None of you boys better bust his head open because you arebecause you are shoving each other around shoving each other around.” [the way you are shoving .” [the way you are shoving …]…]

(14)(14) Motla koxamo ilw̯ichiw̯as Motla koxamo ilw̯ichiw̯as n kikitzkis n kikitzkis treintatreinta.. your.uncle whether he.will.make.fiesta your.uncle whether he.will.make.fiesta N he.will.take.it thirty.N he.will.take.it thirty.

““Your uncle will probably throw a fiesta Your uncle will probably throw a fiesta because he’s turning 30because he’s turning 30.” [for .” [for his 30his 30thth birthday birthday]]

(15)(15) Piltontli asta muitlalohtih Piltontli asta muitlalohtih n okittak ehekamalakotln okittak ehekamalakotl. . boy even he.went.running boy even he.went.running N he.saw.it whirlwindN he.saw.it whirlwind. . “The boy took off running “The boy took off running because he saw the whirlwindbecause he saw the whirlwind.” .” [when he saw, upon seeing [when he saw, upon seeing]]

Causal Causal nn-Clauses-Clauses Causes come in a number of different flavors, Causes come in a number of different flavors,

including:including: Negative causes / anticipated causes which are Negative causes / anticipated causes which are

overcome.overcome.(16)(16) Chikawak n pinyatahkomitl, mach pitzini Chikawak n pinyatahkomitl, mach pitzini n kimahn kimah..

tough N pi tough N piñata.pot, not it.bursts ñata.pot, not it.bursts N they.hit.itN they.hit.it

“The pot inside that pi“The pot inside that piñata is strong: it isn’t bursting ñata is strong: it isn’t bursting even though even though they’re they’re hitting it hitting it.” [from their hitting it, for all their hitting it.” [from their hitting it, for all their hitting it]]

Partial causes / contributing factorsPartial causes / contributing factors(17) (17) Kihtow̯a n Alfonso kimasotlawa n imoruna Kihtow̯a n Alfonso kimasotlawa n imoruna

he.says.it N Alphonse it.tires.his.hand N his.machete he.says.it N Alphonse it.tires.his.hand N his.machete n kitehteki n kuaw̯itln kitehteki n kuaw̯itl.. San nimanSan niman tenmiki.tenmiki. N he.cuts.it N woodN he.cuts.it N wood. just right.away it.edge.dies . just right.away it.edge.dies

“Alphonse says his machete tires his arm out “Alphonse says his machete tires his arm out (especially) when / (especially) when / because because he cuts firewoodhe cuts firewood (with it). It goes dull very quickly.” (with it). It goes dull very quickly.”

Causal Causal nn-Clauses-Clauses Causes come in a number of different flavors, Causes come in a number of different flavors,

including:including: Evidence (a result which causes you to Evidence (a result which causes you to

conclude/comment)conclude/comment)(18)(18) ¿Tleka yotimapatziw̯ik, Mikaela, ¿Tleka yotimapatziw̯ik, Mikaela, n n

yititlapakayititlapaka?? why your.hand.deflated Michaela why your.hand.deflated Michaela N already.you’re.washingN already.you’re.washing

“So, has the swelling gone down in your hand, “So, has the swelling gone down in your hand, that you’rethat you’re washing clothes washing clothes, Michelle?” [enough that you can wash, Michelle?” [enough that you can wash]]

Result (which may be grounds for conclusion)Result (which may be grounds for conclusion)(19) (19) Mach kualli ankitlalihkeh n libreta Mach kualli ankitlalihkeh n libreta n opostek n opostek

ipastaipasta.. not good you.pl.placed.it N notebook not good you.pl.placed.it N notebook N it.broke it’s.cover N it.broke it’s.cover

“You put that notebook in crooked, “You put that notebook in crooked, so its cover got bentso its cover got bent .” .”

Setting Setting nn-Clauses-Clauses Partial causes or contributing factors grade Partial causes or contributing factors grade

into setting descriptions. into setting descriptions. These also come in several flavors, including:These also come in several flavors, including:

General situationGeneral situation(20)(20) N mawiltiah n pipiltihN mawiltiah n pipiltih, owehwetzki se, , owehwetzki se,

nes nes N they.are.playing N kids he.fell one, appears N they.are.playing N kids he.fell one, appears

ome imahpilw̯an opatilawikeh.ome imahpilw̯an opatilawikeh. two his.fingers they.twistedtwo his.fingers they.twisted

““The kids were playingThe kids were playing, and one fell and twisted a couple of , and one fell and twisted a couple of fingers.” fingers.” [as they were playing] [as they were playing]

(21)(21) Yekin otipahtik n Isaak, Yekin otipahtik n Isaak, n timawiltia futboln timawiltia futbol, , just.now you.healed N Isaac just.now you.healed N Isaac N you.play footballN you.play football

amo oksappa tikxipatilawis. amo oksappa tikxipatilawis. not again you.will.foot.twist not again you.will.foot.twist

“You just got better, Isaac, “You just got better, Isaac, and now you’re out playing soccerand now you’re out playing soccer: : (let’s hope you) don’t sprain your foot/ankle again.” (let’s hope you) don’t sprain your foot/ankle again.”

Setting Setting nn-Clauses-Clauses More specifically, timeMore specifically, time(22)(22) Elvia mach okinekia kamachalos Elvia mach okinekia kamachalos n n

okipahmakakehokipahmakakeh.. Elvia not she.wanted.it she’ll.open.her.mouth Elvia not she.wanted.it she’ll.open.her.mouth N they.gave.her.medicineN they.gave.her.medicine “Elvia wouldn’t open her mouth “Elvia wouldn’t open her mouth when they gave her her when they gave her her medicine.medicine.””[even though they were trying to give, so they could give][even though they were trying to give, so they could give]

(23)(23) Xikw̯ikakan moruna, antlixwitektiaskeh Xikw̯ikakan moruna, antlixwitektiaskeh you.pl.take.it machete you’ll.go.chopping.weeds you.pl.take.it machete you’ll.go.chopping.weeds

n antlakuilpachoskehn antlakuilpachoskeh.. N you’ll.bend.corn.over N you’ll.bend.corn.over “Take your machetes; you should go along clearing the weeds “Take your machetes; you should go along clearing the weeds away away as you bend the cornstalks overas you bend the cornstalks over.” (so the ears hang.” (so the ears hang downwards and dry properly). downwards and dry properly).

Setting Setting nn-Clauses-Clauses LocationLocation(24)(24) Ika se ma w̯ia, machkeh wehka Ika se ma w̯ia, machkeh wehka n n

tlakow̯atin Luistlakow̯atin Luis; ; with one may he.go, not.like far with one may he.go, not.like far N he.goes.to.buy LouisN he.goes.to.buy Louis

¿para tlen mow̯ikaskeh?¿para tlen mow̯ikaskeh? for what they.will.take.each.other for what they.will.take.each.other “It’s enough if one person goes; it’s not far to “It’s enough if one person goes; it’s not far to where Louis where Louis is going shoppingis going shopping; why should several go together?”; why should several go together?” [It’s not as if Louis is going a long way away to shop] [It’s not as if Louis is going a long way away to shop]

Mixed-type Mixed-type nn-Clauses-Clauses Very often several types may be Very often several types may be

discerned in the same instance.discerned in the same instance. (Remember all the alternative translations (Remember all the alternative translations

of previous sentences.)of previous sentences.)

(25)(25) Ipah otitlaksaya n pipilolli, Samuel, Ipah otitlaksaya n pipilolli, Samuel, on.it you.were.stepping N dangler Samuel on.it you.were.stepping N dangler Samuel

mach otikittak mach otikittak n pepetlakatokn pepetlakatok.. not you.saw.it not you.saw.it N it.is.sparklingN it.is.sparkling “You were standing/about to step on the earring, Sam; you “You were standing/about to step on the earring, Sam; you didn’t see itdidn’t see it sparkling (there) sparkling (there)””

Mixed-type Mixed-type nn-Clauses-Clauses(25)(25) Ipah otitlaksaya n pipilolli, Samuel, Ipah otitlaksaya n pipilolli, Samuel,

on.it you.were.stepping N dangler Samuel on.it you.were.stepping N dangler Samuel

mach otikittak mach otikittak n pepetlakatokn pepetlakatok.. not you.saw.it not you.saw.it N it.is.sparklingN it.is.sparkling “You were standing/about to step on the earring, Sam; you “You were standing/about to step on the earring, Sam; you didn’t see itdidn’t see it sparkling (there) sparkling (there)””

The clause The clause n pepetlakatokn pepetlakatok could be taken as could be taken as a relative (“which was sparkling”), a relative (“which was sparkling”), a negated cause (“even though it was sparkling”), a negated cause (“even though it was sparkling”), an object (“you didn’t see that it was sparkling”), an object (“you didn’t see that it was sparkling”), and perhaps others (“you didn’t see it sparkling there” … ).and perhaps others (“you didn’t see it sparkling there” … ).

This sort of indeterminacy is more common than This sort of indeterminacy is more common than not.not.

Mixed-type Mixed-type nn-Clauses-Clauses Similarly:Similarly:

(26)(26) Weyi Weyi n okikxioperarohkah n n okikxioperarohkah n MartínMartín, , big big N they.leg.operated.him N MartinN they.leg.operated.him N Martin

sanken neskayohtok.sanken neskayohtok. still it.is.marked still it.is.marked

“(Since) they’d done (such) a big operation on “(Since) they’d done (such) a big operation on Martin’s legMartin’s leg, it’s still scarred.” [it is big where they’d , it’s still scarred.” [it is big where they’d operated]operated]

The The n-n-clause can be thought of as subject of clause can be thought of as subject of weyiweyi “it is big”. “it is big”.

It can also be thought of as the location of It can also be thought of as the location of something (the incision) being big.something (the incision) being big.

Mixed-type Mixed-type nn-Clauses-Clauses There is nothing to be surprised at in this.There is nothing to be surprised at in this. Although the translations of these notions differ, Although the translations of these notions differ,

and they doubtless differ somewhat in Nawatl and they doubtless differ somewhat in Nawatl speakers’ minds, they are in fact all marked speakers’ minds, they are in fact all marked simply by simply by nn..

There is something right about saying that There is something right about saying that n n simply means “fit this clause into the other one”.simply means “fit this clause into the other one”.

But there are some constraints about how the But there are some constraints about how the nn--clause is fitted in.clause is fitted in.

Many kinds of adverbial clause meanings are not Many kinds of adverbial clause meanings are not marked with marked with nn, for instance., for instance.

Nominal-like Nominal-like nn-Clauses-Clauses Many of the functions of Many of the functions of nn-clauses -clauses

which we’ve described are typically which we’ve described are typically fulfilled by nouns or NP’s. Particularlyfulfilled by nouns or NP’s. Particularly Subjects, objects and other complementsSubjects, objects and other complements TimeTime LocationLocationare often expressed by nouns.are often expressed by nouns.

In fact, they are often expressed by In fact, they are often expressed by nn--N NP’s.N NP’s.

Nominal-like Nominal-like nn-Clauses-Clauses So there’s something right about So there’s something right about

seeing seeing n n in these usages as a in these usages as a nominalizing subordinator.nominalizing subordinator.

You might say it means “treat this You might say it means “treat this clause as an NP, and fit it into the clause as an NP, and fit it into the other clause as you would any other other clause as you would any other NP.” NP.”

This recognizes important parallels This recognizes important parallels between between n n as an article and as an article and n n as a as a conjunction.conjunction.

Less clearly nominal-likeLess clearly nominal-like

nn-Clauses: Relative -Clauses: Relative clausesclauses

Relative clauses can be viewed as Relative clauses can be viewed as extensions from nominal usages extensions from nominal usages (adjectives and nouns overlap), (adjectives and nouns overlap), and/orand/or

as extensions from cases where as extensions from cases where n n introduces a single adjective (e.g. introduces a single adjective (e.g. Sentence #4).Sentence #4).

Less clearly nominal-likeLess clearly nominal-like

nn-Clauses: Causal -Clauses: Causal nn--ClausesClauses

Non-relational causes are typically Non-relational causes are typically accorded subject status.accorded subject status.

Thus Causal Thus Causal nn-clauses can be seen as a -clauses can be seen as a kind of extension from Subject kind of extension from Subject nn--clauses.clauses.

They can also be seen as extensions They can also be seen as extensions from the setting clause pattern, which from the setting clause pattern, which also has clear nominal parallels.also has clear nominal parallels. As previously noted, settings grade into As previously noted, settings grade into

contributory factors or partial causes.contributory factors or partial causes.

Causal Causal nn-Clauses-Clauses In any case, they fit with (and overlap In any case, they fit with (and overlap

with) the cases where an NP is used with) the cases where an NP is used to code a cause. For instance,to code a cause. For instance,(27)(27) N kualli tiempoN kualli tiempo kualtzin kualtzin

xoxowitih n milloh.xoxowitih n milloh. N good weatherN good weather pretty it.gets.green N cornfield pretty it.gets.green N cornfield ““Since the weather’s been so goodSince the weather’s been so good, the , the cornfield’s greening up nicely.”cornfield’s greening up nicely.” [with the [with the weather so good…, the good weather’s made weather so good…, the good weather’s made the cornfield green up nicely, the weather’s the cornfield green up nicely, the weather’s been so good that …]been so good that …]

Subordination in Subordination in nn--ClausesClauses

Clearly the normal pattern is for clauses Clearly the normal pattern is for clauses marked by marked by n n to be subordinate.to be subordinate.

But sometimes that is less than clear. E.g. But sometimes that is less than clear. E.g. (27), (20) and (21).(27), (20) and (21).

(20)(20) N mawiltiah n pipiltihN mawiltiah n pipiltih, owehwetzki se, , owehwetzki se, nes nes N they.are.playing N kids he.fell one, appears N they.are.playing N kids he.fell one, appears

ome imahpilw̯an opatilawikeh.ome imahpilw̯an opatilawikeh. two his.fingers they.twistedtwo his.fingers they.twisted

““The kids were playingThe kids were playing, and one fell and twisted a couple of , and one fell and twisted a couple of fingers.” fingers.” [as they were playing] [as they were playing]

(21)(21) Yekin otipahtik n Isaak, Yekin otipahtik n Isaak, n timawiltia futboln timawiltia futbol, , just.now you.healed N Isaac just.now you.healed N Isaac N you.play footballN you.play football

amo oksappa tikxipatilawisamo oksappa tikxipatilawis.. not again you.will.foot.twist not again you.will.foot.twist

“You just got better, Isaac, “You just got better, Isaac, and now you’re out playing soccerand now you’re out playing soccer: : (let’s hope you) don’t sprain your foot/ankle again.” (let’s hope you) don’t sprain your foot/ankle again.”

The meaning of The meaning of nn What can we say of the meaning of What can we say of the meaning of nn??

It is, of course, a lexical item, though of the It is, of course, a lexical item, though of the “grammatical” or “syntactic” subclass whose “grammatical” or “syntactic” subclass whose meaning consists largely in specifying the meaning consists largely in specifying the relationships of its syntagmatic neighbors.relationships of its syntagmatic neighbors.

Describing it necessitates/amounts to describing the Describing it necessitates/amounts to describing the construction(s) with which it is so closely associated.construction(s) with which it is so closely associated.

The various meanings we have been discussing The various meanings we have been discussing fit together in a schematic hierarchy of similarity fit together in a schematic hierarchy of similarity relations, much like what we posited for relations, much like what we posited for afterafter..

The following diagram attempts to show a few of The following diagram attempts to show a few of those relationships.those relationships.

The meaning of The meaning of nn

The phonological pole of the morpheme (/construction) The phonological pole of the morpheme (/construction) is complex, in that it allows for the different orderings is complex, in that it allows for the different orderings of of n n with the “main” structure it relates to.with the “main” structure it relates to.

semantic structure

phonological structure

… … ……

…

…

The meaning of The meaning of nn

The semantic pole’s complexity allows for the different The semantic pole’s complexity allows for the different profiles of the subordinate structure marked by profiles of the subordinate structure marked by n n and and its different relations to different “main” structures.its different relations to different “main” structures.

…

semantic structure

phonological structure

……

…

… …

Fit known A into more-

prominent B

Thing

nominal article

Fit A into more-pro-minent B

subordinate clause nominalizer

ProcessProcess

Fit A into more-pro-minent B

general subordinator

Fit A into more-pro-minent B

Thing

adjectival marker

Fit A into more-pro-minent B

Process

clausal subordinator

Fit A into more-pro-minent B

subordinate clause marker

ProcessProcess Fit A into more-pro-minent B

Thing

relativizer

Process

The meaning of The meaning of nn

(Fitting in a few more of the (Fitting in a few more of the meanings we have talked about …)meanings we have talked about …)

Fit A into B

general subordinator

Fit A into B

article

Fit A into B

cl. subordinator Fit A into B

adj. marker

Fit A into B

relativizer

Fit A into B

subord. cl. markerFit A into B

subord. nmlzr

Fit A into B

subject. cl. marker

Fit A into B

causal cl. marker

cause

Fit A into B

setting cl. marker

Let A follow B

“and then” relator

Fit A & B

together

cl. relator

semantic structure

phonological structure

… … ……

……

Zero-marked clausesZero-marked clauses Even more common than Even more common than n n for joining for joining

clauses in ON is parataxisclauses in ON is parataxis simply juxtaposing them, with no marker simply juxtaposing them, with no marker

on either clause.on either clause. The functions of these paratactic The functions of these paratactic

constructions overlap greatly with constructions overlap greatly with those of those of nn-clause constructions. -clause constructions.

Zero-marked clausesZero-marked clauses Specifically, zero-marked clauses may Specifically, zero-marked clauses may

function as function as relative clauses (28-30 on your handouts)relative clauses (28-30 on your handouts) argument clauses (31-33)argument clauses (31-33) conditional (“if”) clauses (34)conditional (“if”) clauses (34) grounds clauses (35-36)grounds clauses (35-36) cause/reason/contributing factor clauses cause/reason/contributing factor clauses

(36-38)(36-38) setting/time/location (39-40)setting/time/location (39-40) etc.etc.

Zero-marked clausesZero-marked clauses As with As with nn, multiple possibilities for the , multiple possibilities for the

same example are normal.same example are normal. Often one of the clauses will be Often one of the clauses will be

subordinate to the other, but subordinate to the other, but you can’t predict which it will be. You you can’t predict which it will be. You

figure it out from the particular figure it out from the particular meanings. meanings.

(37-38) is a particularly nice pair from (37-38) is a particularly nice pair from that standpoint. that standpoint. (Victor’s translation had the reason (Victor’s translation had the reason

clause as subordinate in both cases).clause as subordinate in both cases).

Zero-marked clausesZero-marked clauses Zero-marked clauses are more commonly Zero-marked clauses are more commonly

used than used than nn-clauses for cases where no -clauses for cases where no subordination is to be understood. subordination is to be understood.

Where neither (and perhaps where either) Where neither (and perhaps where either) clause can be taken as subordinate, it clause can be taken as subordinate, it makes sense to talk of coordinate clauses.makes sense to talk of coordinate clauses.

They are, however, not marked differently They are, however, not marked differently from the cases where we might want to from the cases where we might want to talk about subordinationtalk about subordination ——neither case is marked at all (except perhaps neither case is marked at all (except perhaps

by intonational clues.)by intonational clues.)

Zero-marked clausesZero-marked clauses Zero-marked clauses are of course a Zero-marked clauses are of course a

subset of zero-marked, juxtaposed entities.subset of zero-marked, juxtaposed entities. Many other relations in ON are zero-Many other relations in ON are zero-

marked, including:marked, including: Verb-argument and other verb-complement Verb-argument and other verb-complement Object-postpositionObject-postposition Noun-adjectiveNoun-adjective Verb-adverbVerb-adverb Noun- or verb-postpositional phraseNoun- or verb-postpositional phrase

Obviously, the relations of the zero-marked Obviously, the relations of the zero-marked clauses have important similarity clauses have important similarity (schematicity) relationships to these (schematicity) relationships to these structures as well as to each other.structures as well as to each other.

Zero-marked clausesZero-marked clauses

Fit A into B

setting cl. marker

semantic structure

phonological structure

…… …

……

…

Fit A into B

cl. subordinator

relativizer

Fit A into BFit A

into B

subord. cl. marker

complmnt. cl. marker

Fit A & B

together

Fit A & B

together

cl. relator

Fit A & B

together

general relator

Let A follow B

“and then” relator

Various N/V/Adj/P/Adv pairings

(etc.)

subject. cl. marker

Fit A & B

together

Fit A & B together

caus/result cl. marker

cause

object. cl. marker

Fit A & B

together

Clausal relations in ONClausal relations in ON Note how very similar the two diagrams are.Note how very similar the two diagrams are. You are looking at the seamless interface You are looking at the seamless interface

between lexicon and (“pure”) syntax, even between lexicon and (“pure”) syntax, even discourse-level syntax.discourse-level syntax.

The differences both in meaning and in The differences both in meaning and in phonology between the phonology between the n n constructions and constructions and parataxis are minimal.parataxis are minimal.

At the semantic pole, they are mostly At the semantic pole, they are mostly differences of prominence, emphasis, or differences of prominence, emphasis, or strength of expectationstrength of expectation e.g. of the expectation that one clause will be e.g. of the expectation that one clause will be

subordinate, or that neither will be. subordinate, or that neither will be.

Clausal relations in ONClausal relations in ON In sum, two of the most common In sum, two of the most common

mechanisms for integrating clauses with mechanisms for integrating clauses with each other in ON areeach other in ON are Mark one of them with Mark one of them with nn, usually meaning “fit , usually meaning “fit

this clause into the other (more prominent) this clause into the other (more prominent) one”one”

Juxtapose them, meaning “fit these two clauses Juxtapose them, meaning “fit these two clauses together as seems best”.together as seems best”.

These schematic “summary” meanings These schematic “summary” meanings include more specific meanings such as “fit include more specific meanings such as “fit this clause in as modifier to a noun” or “fit this clause in as modifier to a noun” or “fit it in as an evidential result of the other it in as an evidential result of the other clause”.clause”.

Clausal relations in ONClausal relations in ON It is interesting to contrast how ON It is interesting to contrast how ON

works with how other languages deal works with how other languages deal with similar concepts.with similar concepts.

It seems fair to say that ON is It seems fair to say that ON is considerably less “directive” about considerably less “directive” about how to fit clauses together than how to fit clauses together than English or other Indo-European English or other Indo-European languages.languages.

Clausal relations in ONClausal relations in ON NN this is interesting, it is of some this is interesting, it is of some

practical importance as well.practical importance as well. NN it gives me heartburn is it gives me heartburn is NN I am I am

translating some document translating some document N N is is written in another language. written in another language.

I do it in I do it in NN natural Nawatl style, I will natural Nawatl style, I will perhaps omit perhaps reduce to perhaps omit perhaps reduce to nn most conjunctions they specify most conjunctions they specify exactly how things will link up.exactly how things will link up.

Clausal relations in ONClausal relations in ON But But NN I am losing it meaning was in I am losing it meaning was in NN

original document. How can I original document. How can I guarantee it guarantee it N N Nawatl-speakers will Nawatl-speakers will inevitably come up with them the inevitably come up with them the “right” linkages? I can’t.“right” linkages? I can’t.

All I can expect it is All I can expect it is NN they will try to they will try to figure it out a good way they will link figure it out a good way they will link things.things.

But that’s pretty good I can expect it.But that’s pretty good I can expect it.